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Short-Term Stress
-  immediate dange, neurons need epeiherine which end up int he adrenal meddulla stimulate, cardiovascular effects, respiratory, and metabolic effects

Long-Term Stress
- cortex, chronically build up
Glucocorticiods: affect energy of most body cells and help resist stress (cortisol)
Mineral corticoids:regulate NA+ and K+ concentration in extracellular fluid indirecting controlling water balance (aldosterone)

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adrenal cortex-above the kidneys (glandular tissue)
adrenal medulla- Neural tissue

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Butterfly shaped

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GROWTH HORMONE (GH)
--> produced by the somatropin cells
--> has direct actions on metabolism and indirect growth-promoting actions
--> metabolism
- triggers break down of glycogen into glucose
- increases blood levels of fatty acids for use as fuel and encourages cellular protein synthesis
- increases in blood levels, encourages cellular protein
indirect:
- GH triggers liver, skeletal muscle, and bone to produce insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
- formation of collagen and deposition of bone matrix

Growth Hormone-releasing hormone (GH)
- stimualtes GH release (low blood GH or glucose of high amino acid stimulus)
Growth Hormone- inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
- inhibbits release, triggered by an increase in GH and IGF levels

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
- releases tropic hormones that is also called thyrotropin as it is ptoduced by thyrotropic cells
-stimulares normal devopment and secretory activity of thyroid
- release triggered.by thyrotropin releasing hormone from hypothalamus
- inhibited by rising blood lvels of thyroid hormones that act on both pitutiary and hypothalamus

Adrenocorticotroppic hormone (ACTH)
-also called corticotropin as it is secreted by corticotropic cells
- ACTH stimaultes the adrenal cortex to relase corticosteriods
-regulation of ACTH releases

Gonadotropins (FSH and LH)
0 FSH and LH are secrteted by gonadotropic cells of anterior pituitary
- FSH stimulates production of gametes
- LH promotoes production of gondal hormonees
-gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and agter puberty

Prolactin
- stimualtes milk production in females
- regulates prolactin-inhibiting homone (PIH) which is dopamine
-PIH prevents PRL until need with PIH leading to lactation
-increased estrogen levels

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hypothalmus - W shaped superior to the pituitary gland and inferior to the thalamus (conncected to the pirturary gland and stalk called the infundibulum)
(releases growth inhibitor and growth stimulating factor)
Hormones: GHRH,GHIH,TRH, CRH, GnRH, PIH

infundibulum- super to the pituitary gland

pituitary gland- lobe sacs(secrete eight major hormones)
- down growth of the brain
runs through the infundibulum
-secretes two neurohormones (oxytocin and ADH antidiuretic hormone) each composed of nine amino acids, almost identical

*oxytocin --> strong stimulaant of uterine controaction released at childbirth,bodning with child, neurotransmitter, indication of breast milk
* ADH soulte concentrations (STIMULUS), concentration too high pituitary triggered to secrete AD, target kidney tubles to reabsorib more water inhibit or prevent urine formation, releases also triggered by pain low blood pressure, and drugs
- inhibited by alc.
- high concentration cause vaconstriction, vasopressin
- hormones are stored in axon terminals in posterior pituatory and are released into blood when neurons fire

anterior pituitary gland - adenohypophysis consists of glandular tissue
- vasculary connected to hypothalamus via hypophyseal portal consisting of:
- primary capillary plexus
- hypophysela portal veins
- secondary capillary plexus
HORMONES:
- GH, Thyroid stimulating homrone, adrenocortitropic hormones,Follice-stimulating hotmone (FSH), Lutenizing Hormone, Prolactin
posterior pituitary gland -composed of neural tissue that secretes neurohormones (neurohypophysis)

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Hormone receptors are dynamic structures 

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Hormone receptors are dynamic structures 

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- the amount of hormone can infleunce number of receptors for that hormone

Up-regualtion: target cells form more receptors in response to low hormone levels

Down regulation: target cell lose receptors in response to high hormone levels

Half-Life, Onset, and Duration of Hormone Activity
- Hormones can be removed from your blood
- half-life--> rime required for level of hormone in blood level to decrease by half
- Half life, onset,duration of hormones activity are dependent on whether the hormone is water or lipid souble

Interaction of Hormones at Target Cell
- Permisssiveness: one hormone cannot exert its effects without another hormone being present
- Synergism: More than one hormone produces same effects on target cell, causing amplification
- Antagonisms: one or more hormones oppose(s) action of another hormone

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Nervous System participation in the Endocrine System: 

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Nervous System participation in the Endocrine System: 

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- Nervous system can make adjustments to hormone levels when needed (modification or inhibition of the endocrine glands)

- Nervous system can override normal endocrine controls

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1. Humoral Stimuli (blood)
- Changing blood levels of ions and nutrients directly stimulate secretion of hormones
- ca2+ in blood (stimlus)
- Response: parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increase ca2+ in the blood

2. Neural Stimuli (brain)
- Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
- sympathetic nervous system fivers stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines
-StimulusL Action potentials in pregnaglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla
- Response: Adrenal medulla cells secrete epinephrine and nonrepinephrine

3. Hormonal Stimuli (Hormones)
- Hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones
- hormones from final target orhans inhibit release of anterior pituratry homrones
- Stimulus: Hormones from the hypothalamus
- Response: Anterior Pitutiary gland secrete homrones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete homrones

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- Blood Levels of hormones
- controlled by neagtive feedback systems (increased hormone effects on target organs can inhibit further hormone release)

- A hormone released is triggered by
- endocrine gland stimuli
- nervous system modulation

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- target cell is where the receptors for a specific hormone will be located
* TARGET CELLS ARE DEPENDENT ON THE IDEA OF SPECFICITY OF RECEPTORS*
(To have cell activation it depends on three factors:

1. blood levels of hormones

2. Relative number of receptors on/in target cell

3. Affinity (strength) of the binding between the receptor and hormone)

1. dependent on the permeability of the membrane and chemical makeup of the hormone
2. stimulates synthesis of enzymes or other proteins
3. activates and deactivates the enzymes
4. induces secretory activity
5. stimulates mitosis

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Chemical Messengers of the endocrine system 

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Chemical Messengers of the endocrine system 

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1. hormones: long distance chemical signals: travel via blood or lymph

2. Autocrine: chemicals that exert effects on same cells that secrete them

3. Paracrine: locally acting chemicals that affect cells other those that secrete them

*autocrine and paracrine are local chemical messenger and not considered apart of the endocrine system

Two Main classes of hormones:
1. steriods (fats) lipid based souble, synthesized by cholesterol , gonadal and adrencortical hormones

(lipid-souble homrones--> act on the intracellular receprots that directly activates genes, can enter the cell, TH cannot diffuse the cell by itself)
* Steriods and thyroid hormones can diffuse into the target cells and binds with intracellular receptors

hormone-receptor complex binds and enters into the nucleus to bind with a spcfic region of DNA, help intiation DNA transcription to produce mRNA--> ribsomes (to create proteins)

2. Amino acid-based hormones--> amino acid peprides or proteins

(act on the plasma membrane, cannot enter the cell, act via G protein second messegner)

*NEEDS A SECOND MESSENGER w/ the help of the cyclic AMP and PIP2- calcium

cAMP--> hormone binds to the receptor, receptor activates G protien, G protein activates adenylate cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP, cAAMP activates protein kinases that phosphorylate other protiens

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Exocrine glands--> structures that secrete the secretory product (sweat/saliva) they also use ducts to carry secretion to the membrane

Endocrine glands--> secretory of hormones which are released into the blood directly, produces hormones, lacks ducts, and molecule is released into the blood

- pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,adrenal, and pineal glands
- Hypothalamus is neuroendocrine organ

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- Endocrine system acts with the nervous system to coordinate and integrate the activity of the body cells
- Reproduction
- Growth
- Maintainance of electrolyte water and nutrients balance of blood
- regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance
- mobilization of body defenses

- Influences metabolic activities via hormones transported in the blood
- Responses are slower but linger lasting than nervous system responses
- Endocrinology: study of hormones and endocrine organs