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In Tang China there was a strict social class based on who you were born to, and how much money your family had. On the top of the class was royalty and wealthy land owners, followed by scholars and warriors, then came merchants and working people who farmed and crafted for the rich. As shown in the graph, the class system was very structured with most people in the working and lower class having very little power and money compaired to those of higher classes.

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The Tang Dynasty is widly known as a golden age of culture, art and music in China. Musicians and artists became much more important then ever before. The most popular instruments were bells, drums and flutes. Statues of the Buddha became common, and poetry and painting were becoming widespread across China. New styles of art were created like the sancai pottery style, that sculpters used to make figurines found in tombs.

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The Tang Dynasty was very popular and powerful, particularly in culture, politics, economic status and military strength. The Tang Dynasty between 618 and 907 AD was the golden era of China. The Tang Dynasty is famous for being a great period in China.

The Tang Dynasty's culture and art forms made great advancements during this time. Musicians were given importance. The most popular music instruments of the time were bells, zithers, stone chimes (lithophone), flutes, and drums. This was the time when western art forms, music and dance, influenced China from Central Asia. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous era. Beautiful girls performed Western dances for western songs. This shows the people were open to foreign cultures.

China experienced economic growth under Tang Dynasty. Law and order was maintained in the state and corruption was no concern. The Tang Dynasty followed an open policy and this attracted many foreign people to this land of art and culture.

Next is sculpture. Sculptures of Lord Buddha were prolific at this time. Poetry and painting found an esteemed place in Tang Dynasty. Painters were given high respect in the court. Yan Liben and Wu Daozi were known as the greatest painters of the era. Yan Liben was better known as a painter than a statesman. Wu Daozi has painted on variety of subjects. His paintings were famous for their imaginative touch.

Another great glory of the period was poetry. Poetry adds more color to the Tang Dynasty culture. The Tang Dynasty had its own style of ceramics. Potters developed and introduced new techniques in Tang pottery. These techniques include the use of "Sancai". Sancai is a type of ceramics using three-colored glaze with lead and silicate as bases. Tomb figurines can also be found during this period. White porcelain and decorated mirrors made of bronze were also famous at that time.

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The Chinese Tang Dynasty Culture & Civilization

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The Tang Dynasty was very popular and powerful, particularly in culture, politics, economic status and military strength. The Tang Dynasty between 618 and 907 AD was the golden era of China. The Tang Dynasty is famous for being a great period in China.

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In Tang China women were treated with more respect then in other places such as India, they could also become powerful figure such as priestesses and other religious figures. Some could even join the government. Most women worked in the household and took care of childern and housework, while the higher class wealthy women could become religious or political workers.

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During the Tang Dynasty there were basically eight social classes. The emperor and his family were usually the most powerful in the Tang Dynasty's social hierarchy. If, however the emperor had worked his way up to power rather than coming from an eminent family it was possible for the aristocracy to become more powerful in certain instances. The aristocracy was the next in the social hierarchy, followed by the bureaucracy. The bureaucracy was divided into two separate levels of honor the scholars and the functionaries.

The eunuchs came next in the social hierarchy as they functioned as servants in the emperor's palace. The clergy were above the peasants who in turn were higher in the hierarchy than the artisans and traders. Slaves were the lowest in the Tang Dynasty's social structure.

Laws were enacted to ensure that each of these social classes behaved in a manner befitting their station. These laws encompassed what each group was allowed to wear and own.

The Tang Dynasty's attitude towards women was more liberal than was previously found. Women were accorded with more respect and power. Women were even allowed to take religious orders and become priestesses. This social standing, however, was mostly afforded to women in and close to the large cities with the majority of rural women continuing as before. High-class courtesans were also provided with a great deal of respect and were often allowed to join in discussions and debates with men of high social rank.

The social structure during the Tang Dynasty was a little more fluid than in many of the other times in China's history. This is due to the institution of the imperial examinations which allowed men of low social standing to improve their lot through hard work, perseverance and ability. It was this fluidity that prevented the stagnation that had become apparent in many of the previous dynasties.

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The Chinese Tang Dynasty Society: Social Class & Structure

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During the Tang Dynasty there were basically eight social classes. The emperor and his family were usually the most powerful in the Tang Dynasty's social hierarchy.

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Wealthy Tang dynasty royalty and nobles wore very ornate and beautiful garments made from silk, linen and wool. Clothing was a sign of social status, the rich had bejeweled silk clothes while the poor had rough clothes made from animal skin.

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The Mongol's mostly lived in tribes led by a male cheif, who was usually the millitary leader of the clan.  They were at the top of the socal class, followed by Muslim and Central Asian allies, then the Northern Chinese people and on the bottom were the Han Chinese and the people south. The graph explains that people higher up on the social structure enjoy benifits like paying less taxes, or not having to do as much labor.

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During the early stages of Mongol supremacy, the empire established by Genghis absorbed civilizations in which a strong, unified, and well-organized state power had developed. The social organization of the Mongols was, however, characterized by pastoralism and a decentralized patrilineal system of clans. Antagonism existed between a society of this nature and the subjugated advanced civilizations, between a relatively small number of foreign conquerors and a numerically strong conquered population. In the early phases of conquest, the Mongols usually attempted to impose the social structure of the steppes upon their new subjects. It was customary for the Mongols to enslave a conquered tribe and to present whole communities to distinguished military leaders as a sort of personal appanage. These slaves became sooner or later an integral part of the conquering tribe. In the conquered areas a similar procedure was adopted. Groups of the settled population, usually those living in a certain territory, became the personal property of Mongol military leaders who exploited the local economic forces as they liked. No use was made of the existing state machinery or bureaucracy, and the former political divisions were entirely disregarded. Nor was there any attempt to organize the numerous local Mongol leaders who enjoyed a high degree of independence from the court of the khans. Ruthless exploitation under strong military pressure was therefore characteristic of the early phase of Mongol domination, which may be said to have lasted until about 1234, some seven years after Genghis Khan's death.

The central power rested with the khan, who was assisted by military and political councilors. No departmental administration was, however, established during the early stages of Genghis Khan's empire. The highly hierarchized military organization of the Mongols had no political or administrative counterpart. The influence of the councilors, who were appointed by the khan regardless of their nationality, was nevertheless great. It was a former Jin subject, the Khitan Yelü Chucai (1190-1244), a man of high talents with an excellent Chinese education, who dissuaded Genghis from converting the whole of north China into pastureland. Other councilors were Uighurs, and for some time the Uighur language was as much used in the court chancery as Mongol. The Uighur script was also adopted for writing Mongol. The oldest known document in the Mongol language is a stone inscription carved in approximately 1224.

The economy of the conquered areas was not properly organized during the period of conquest. The abolition of highly organized governments gave an opportunity for the exploitation of local production by the Mongol appanage-holders who relied to a great extent on non-Mongol tax-farmers. There was no single financial system for the whole empire or even for large parts of it. The absence of civil organization at the top, the great independence of the various appanages, and the high priority accorded to military affairs had a strongly disintegrating effect and were, at least in the early phases of Mongol rule, detrimental to economic progress and prosperity. The Mongol empire was, under Genghis and his successors, not yet a state in the normal sense of the word but a vast agglomeration of widely different territories held together by military domination.

As the empire grew through new conquests after Genghis's death, the same pattern repeated itself: a period of military, and at the same time decentralized, rule marked the first stage of Mongol domination. The result was a noticeable variation of practice within the empire. Newly conquered areas were still subject to direct exploitation bearing the imprint of a nomadic and military mentality, but, in those areas which had been subjugated earlier, attempts were made to build up a state machinery and bureaucracy in order to consolidate Mongol rule. This was done mostly in accordance with the traditional administrative system of the individual territory.

This general tendency, together with the absence of an original Mongol concept for ruling a settled population, accounts for the entirely different development that occurred in various countries. This resulted in an empire that may not have been "Mongol" but was a Chinese, Persian, or central Asian empire with a Mongol dynasty. This trend was expressed more in some locations than others because the absorptive power of the various civilizations differed in intensity. In China, for instance, the Mongols could maintain their rule better than elsewhere because the strong Chinese tradition of centralized state power supplied a stable framework of governmental organization.

The original absence of a state concept on the part of the Mongols is reflected in the ruling clan's attitude to the empire. The empire was considered to be not the khan's personal property but the heirloom of the imperial clan as a whole. Already in Genghis's lifetime the empire was divided among his four favourite sons into ulus, a Mongol word which denotes the supremacy over a certain number of tribes rather than a clearly defined territory. Tolui, the youngest, received the eastern part-the original homeland of the Mongols together with the adjacent parts of north China. Ögödei became ruler of the western part of the steppes (modern northern Xinjiang and western Mongolia). Chagatai received the lands of Khara-Khitai (modern northern Iran and southern Xinjiang). The eldest son, Jöchi, followed by his son Batu, ruled over southwest Siberia and west Turkistan (an area later known as the territory of the Golden Horde). To these four Mongol empires a fifth was added when Hülegü, a son of Tolui, completed the conquest of Iran, Iraq, and Syria and became the founder of the Il-Khanid dynasty in Iran. The unity of the Mongol empire was therefore from the beginning undermined by disintegrating factors, and the history of the empire after Genghis's death may consequently be subdivided into two periods, the first being characterized by relative unity in the empire ruled by a great khan who was recognized by all branches of the royal clan, the second showing a more or less complete independence of the separate empires, which thereafter had no common history.

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Mongol empire - Organization of Genghis Khan's empire

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Mongol empire - Mongol empire - Organization of Genghis Khan's empire: During the early stages of Mongol supremacy, the empire established by Genghis absorbed civilizations in which a strong, unified, and well-organized state power had developed. The social organization of the Mongols was, however, characterized by pastoralism and a decentralized patrilineal system of clans.

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Women and men both had their own roles in daily life, women were mostly responsible for looking after children, animals, cooking and also setting up camps. Women also had more rights then on other cultures they could own and inherit property, could participate in religious ceremonies and become religious leaders and wives of tribal leaders could speak at meetings. Women were also important in warfare they would follow the main forces in slow wagons that carried vital supplies like food.

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Women in the Mongol Empire (1206-1368 CE) shared the daily chores and hardships of steppe life with men and were largely responsible for tending animals, setting up camps, childrearing, producing food and cooking it. Having rather more rights than in contemporary cultures to the east and west of Mongolia, women could own and inherit property, were involved in religious ceremonies and could be shamans, and the wives of senior tribal leaders could voice their opinions at tribal meetings. Several Mongol women, the widows or mothers of Great Khans, even reigned as regents in the period before a new khan was elected as ruler of the Mongol Empire, often a span of several years.

Setting up Camp

As the Mongols were a nomadic people, everyone - men, women, and young children - had to be able to ride well and use a bow for hunting. In the same vein, men and women were usually capable of doing each other's tasks since if one died, the survivor in the partnership had to carry on and look after the family and its herds. Women were responsible for both setting up and packing up camps, putting the yurt tents and the family's belongings onto the carts, which they usually drove, and packing any pack animals like horses and camels.

As experienced camp masters, women were an important element of the logistics so vital to Mongol warfare.

There was a dedicated space within the yurt for men and women, the former having the west side and the latter the east side where the cooking was done (easily defined since the doorway was traditionally made to face the south). The positioning of the yurts themselves in a camp ( ordu) was important in imperial and larger camps with the senior wife having the tent nearest to the west, the most junior wife to the east, and the concubines, children, and servants someway behind.

As experienced camp masters, women were an important element of the logistics so vital to Mongol warfare with its fast, light cavalry units. They followed behind the main forces with the much slower wagon trains of supplies and horses, when often a single woman drove a train of several connected wagons.

Daily Chores

Mongol women tended animals, collected food, cooked and processed it while men hunted. Women made cheese, butter, and dried the milk curds, and also had to look after the herds while the men were away hunting which could be several weeks at a time. Women milked the sheep, goats, and cows while only men milked mares and produced the alcoholic beverages that were so popular. Women were involved in the laborious churning of milk in large leather bags using a wooden paddle, a process that took several hours and eventually made the mildly alcoholic kumis drink still drunk today. At least women could also enjoy the fruit of their labours as drinking to excess by both men and women seems to have been a social norm without any stigma attached to it (even having a certain honour). Neither were women excluded from the rare feasts when nomads got together in one place such as a meeting of tribal chiefs to elect a new leader or to celebrate important birthdays, weddings and so on.

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A WiFe received a small portion of her husband's property, which she managed but then handed on to the youngest son after his father's death.

Marriage & Family

Traditionally, Mongol marriages had the aim of cementing clan relationships and strengthening alliances. Indeed, it was the custom to marry outside one's clan group (exogamy) and there was a custom of abducting women from rival tribes as a means to strengthen one clan group and weaken the other. Most marriages, though, would have been designed to reinforce existing bonds between family groups.

Men paid a bride price to their future father-in- law or offered labour as an alternative. As many nomadic men were relatively poor, it was a common custom merely to steal a wife during a raid, never mind any political benefits. In more genteel pre-arranged marriages, the future bride typically brought with her a dowry consisting of such valuables as livestock, jewellery, cloth, servants, and possibly slaves. The dowry might be 'paid' over several years and was usually lower in value than the bride price paid by the groom and his family. The dowry remained the property of the wife and was divided, on her death, amongst her children. In the ever-practical life of the nomads, sometimes a double marriage might be arranged between two family groups, each one providing a groom and bride and so the necessity of a bride price from each was avoided. Wives received a small portion of their husband's property, which they managed but then handed on to the youngest son after his father's death.

Women looked after the children and seem to have played an active role in family-decision making, with such sources as the 13th-century CE The Secret History of the Mongols mentioning the wives of rulers making speeches to enthuse warriors and promote loyalty to their husbands. One way to promote loyalty was hospitality - entertaining the husband's family, allies, and any visitors - and this was the responsibility of the wife. If a husband predeceased his wife, she might be 'adopted' by a junior male relative of his. According to Mongol laws, women could divorce and own their own property but just how often this was the case in practice is not known. In cases of adultery, both the man and woman were executed.

Mongol society was patrilineal, and polygamy was common amongst those men who could afford multiple wives and concubines. However, one wife was always selected as senior, and it was her children who would inherit their father's property and/or position within the tribe. As the youngest son usually inherited the family property, he and his wife would typically live with his parents. Senior wives of tribal leaders who became widows often still represented their late husband at tribal gatherings such as the kurultai which decided future rulers.

Clothing

Mongol women made felt by pounding sheep's wool. They also made material from animal skins and prepared leather. Cloth and clothing were one of the important assets of a family and were often given as gifts and as part of a bride's dowry. Men's and women's clothing was very similar, with both sexes wearing silk or cotton undergarments, trousers, thick felt or leather boots, and a conical hat made from felt and fur with flaps for the ears and an upturned brim at the front.

The most recognisable piece of outer clothing, still widely worn today, was the short robe or deel. This one-piece long jacket was folded over and closed on the left side of the chest (left breast doubled over the right) with a button or tie positioned just below the right armpit. Some deel had pockets and the sleeves typically went only down to the elbow. The outer lining of the robe was of cotton or silk and heavier versions had an additional fur or felt lining or a quilt padding. The inner lining was typically turned over a little to the outside of the garment at the sleeves and hem. For those who could afford it, the robe might have some exotic fur trim at the collar and edges. A wide leather belt decorated with metal additions was worn, with women's versions being the more decorative. In winter a heavy coat of fur or felt was worn over the deel robe.

Elite men and women distinguished themselves by sporting a few peacock feathers in their hats. One of the few areas where women differentiated themselves from men, and then only elite women, was the elaborate boqta headdress which had pearls and feathers decoration. One can still see these headdresses today when, for example, Kazakh women attend traditional festivities. While both men and women wore earrings, women also added metal, pearl, and feather decorations to their hair.

The religion practised by the Mongols included elements of shamanism and shamans could be both men ( bo'e) or women ( iduqan). Robes worn by shamans often carried symbols such as a drum and hobby horse, representing the guardian and protector spirit of the Mongol people. Shamans were believed capable of reading signs such as the cracks in sheep's shoulder bones, allowing them to divine future events. An ability to alter the weather was another shaman skill, particularly as a bringer of rain to the often arid steppe. Shamans could help with medical problems and return a troubled spirit back to its rightful body. Women participated in other religions practised within the empire such as Taoism, Tibetan Buddhism, and Islam, sometimes even presiding over services. Imperial women could also be generous patrons of certain religions and their institutions.

Famous Mongol Women
Alan Goa
Alan Goa (aka Alan-qo'a) was the mythical mother of the Mongol peoples who was said to have taught her five sons that in order to thrive they must always stick together and support each other. To get this message across, she gave them a lesson in unity known as the Parable of the Arrows. Alan Goa gave each son an arrow and told him to break it; each son did so easily. She then presented a bundle of five arrows and not one son could break them. Sadly, the descendants of Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227 CE) would not remember this story when they broke up the Mongol Empire into various independent khanates.
Hoelun
Hoelun (aka Hoelun-Eke or Hoelun-Ujin) was the mother of Genghis Khan who fled with her son into the steppe wilderness after her husband, the tribal leader Yisugei, was poisoned by a rival. Genghis, then called Temujin, was still only nine or twelve years old at the time and so he could not maintain the loyalty of his father's followers. As a consequence, he and his mother were abandoned on the Asian steppe, left to die. However, the outcast family managed to forage and live off the land as best they could. The Secret History of the Mongols portrays Hoelun as a strong woman able to gather her children together and make a new life for themselves, her son, of course, going on to create one of the world's greatest ever empires.
Toregene
Toregene Khatun (aka Doregene-Qatun, r. 1241-1246 CE), the former wife of the Merkit prince Qudu, reigned as regent after her husband Ogedei Khan's death in 1241 CE. She held power until a great council of Mongol leaders elected Ogedei's successor and Toregene's son, Guyuk Khan, in 1246 CE. Toregene's reign is not looked on favourably by contemporary sources, but these are Chinese and so, in effect, written by the enemies or conquered subjects of the Mongols.

Although she is credited with having great intelligence, shrewdness, and formidable political skills, particular criticism is made of her heavy taxation policies which included the privatisation of tax-collecting whereby tax collectors could keep anything for themselves above and beyond a pre-agreed amount for the territory under their supervision. Revenues were increased but at the cost of corruption and an overburdening of farmers. Other criticisms included her (alleged) willingness to listen rather too much to the Muslim advisors close to her (especially a Persian slave named Fatima), and her manoeuvres to remove any obstacle to her son becoming the next khan, including the unnecessary delaying of the next khan's election. Toregene also fostered diplomatic ties with various princes and gave out lavish gifts to increase the support base for her son, a process she was able to carry out thanks to her delaying tactics and taxation policies. She must have died a happy woman, passing away in 1246 CE shortly after her son Guyuk had finally become Great Khan (r. 1246-1248 CE).
Sorghaghtani
Sorghaghtani Beki (aka Sorqoqtani, d. 1252 CE) was a Kerait princess who came to prominence as the widow of Tolui (c. 1190 - c. 1232 CE) and sister of Begtutmish Fujin, widow of Jochi, a son of Genghis Khan. Tolui was the youngest son of Genghis Khan and father of Mongke Khan (r. 1251-1259 CE) and Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1294 CE), but he died around the age of 40; his lands in northern China and tribal position were maintained by Sorghaghtani. The princess may have warned Batu Khan, leader of what would become the Golden Horde and the western khanate of the Mongol Empire, of the plans of Guyuk Khan, Great Khan at the time, to attack Batu. In the event, Guyuk died before such a campaign could get started but Batu may have shown his gratitude by endorsing Sorghaghtani's son Mongke who was elected Guyuk's successor.
Oghul Qaimish
Oghul Qaimish (aka Oqol-Qaimish, r. 1248-1251 CE), was the wife of Guyuk Khan, and when he died in 1248 CE of poisoning, she reigned as regent. Oghul infamously dismissed, in 1250 CE, an embassy from King Louis IX of France (r. 1226-1270 CE), telling his ambassador Friar Andrew of Longjumeau that a great tribute would be required if his nation was to avoid destruction by a Mongol army. Oghul's reign had little to distinguish it, and she largely stayed in the background of politics. Her one notable policy was to increase taxes for the peasantry from the traditional one in every hundred animals to the unrealistic one in ten animals.

Oghul would hold power until 1251 CE when Mongke Khan was elected ruler. Oghul was ultimately taken prisoner, her hands stitched together with leather thongs, and then put on public trial by Mongke in December 1252 CE as he purged all parts of the state he considered loyal to the previous regime, particularly the Ogedei clan. At her trial, Oghul was stripped of her clothes and accused of being rather too involved with shamanism for the good of the state and, much worse, guilty of treason. Found guilty, Oghul was thrown into the Kerulen River wrapped in a felt sack - a fate usually reserved for witches in Mongol justice as it was believed that evil cannot cross running water and may even be purified by it.

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Women in the Mongol Empire (1206-1368 CE) shared the daily chores and hardships of steppe life with men and were largely responsible for tending animals, setting up camps, childrearing, producing food and cooking it.

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Clothing were some of the most important assets of a family and were used as gifts and as part of bridal dowrys. Male and female cloths were similar, they were both made of animal skins, leather, wool, felt or fur. The rich even had silk. A deel is a traditional Mongol robe that was widly worn by many.

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While the Mongols weren't known for their science and literature like Tang China was, they cultivated the art's of the people they conqured. Under Genghis Khan many artists, scientists and other scholars were relocated to Mongolia to create art desired by the Mongols. They also loved music and even had their own type of singing called khoomi, which is kindof like singing two notes at the same time one higher and one lower. The main instuament used was the morin khuur, which were kind of like modern day cellos.

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Mongol Empire art was quite sophisticated. While the Mongols didn't produce much literature or fine art during the Mongol Empire, they appreciated and cultivated the arts of the sedentary peoples around them. The Mongol Khans became great patrons of the arts, supporting artists and artisans of all kinds. While not artists themselves in the traditional Mongolian culture, once peace was established in the Empire, all the Khans and sub-khans protected and patronized the arts. In fact, the Mongol Empire gave rise to a flourishing of the fine arts, benefiting the literature and decorative and fine arts of all the people they ruled.

Under Genghis Khan, textile workers, architects, stone carvers and jewelers were relocated from the Middle East and Central Asia to Mongolia to create the magnificent works of art desired by the Mongols. Under Ogedai, Genghis' son and successor, artisans were put to work building and decorating Karakhorum, the Mongols' capital city. Under Kublai, Genghis' grandson and Great Khan, the Yuan dynasty of China saw all the arts flourish, from delicate blue porcelain vases to elaborate staged theatrical plays.

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During the pax Mongolica, as artists and artisans traveled throughout the Empire, cross cultural influences in the arts took hold. One can see the blue from Afghani lapis luzuli on Chinese porcelains or Persian elements in Golden Horde artifacts. The art motif of the Chinese dragon made its way to European paintings. Thus, while the Mongols didn't create art, the arts blossomed because of Mongolian cultural protection and patronage.

Mongol Empire Art: Mongolian Music

Of all the arts, the Mongols themselves loved and cultivated music, developing a unique form of singing known as throat singing or khoomi. Khoomi is difficult to explain; it involves using the diaphragm and throat to sing one tone or note and the mouth to sing another one or two. It sounds like one voice singing two or more notes at the same time, both the fundamental base note and a harmonic tone or note on top of that. It is both beautiful and strange with a few notes coming from one voice and a single singer. The bass note emanates from the singer's throat and the higher, harmonic notes vibrate from the mouth, sometimes sounding like a waterfalls or monks chanting.

A key element of traditional Mongolian music is the Long Song form. Each syllable of each word is drawn out or extended for a long duration. One four-minute song, for example, might only have 10 words, but each syllable of each word is prolonged, with vibrato on the vowels. The long vibrating notes gives these songs a deeply meditative quality that carries over the grand distances of the steppes. Mongolian songs express the singer's deep feelings for their horses, natural beauty, love of family or the nomadic life. Mongolian herders sing to their herds just as American cowboys sang to theirs.

Long songs may be accompanied by the other key element of Mongolian traditional music, the Morin khuur or horse-head fiddle. These Chinese-derived two-string fiddles have elaborately carved horses' heads crowning the fiddle. The Morin khuur can sound the deep tones of the cello or it can emulate the neighing of a Mongolian horse. Occasionally a Mongolian flute and other Mongolian string instruments may accompany the Long song or it can be sung a cappella.
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the Mongol Empire. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Mongol Empire
Cite This Article

"Mongol Empire: Arts and Culture" History on the Net
© 2000-2023, Salem Media.
September 28, 2023 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/mongol-empire-arts-and-culture>
More Citation Information.

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Mongol Empire: Arts and Culture - History

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Mongol Empire art can be found in its textiles and architectural designs that still remain today, the best remains of the empire.