# data[].attributes.body
-studies show effectiveness for ages 6-11
-SPG can address concerns with: social, communication, behavior, school readiness, play, and academic outcomes.
-used to increase a targeted behavior with adult support and neurotypical peers

# data[].attributes.body
1. select targeted skill focused on communication/social skills and can be practiced in a group
2. select the setting so it is consistent (2x/wk for 30-60 min) min of 3 mo.
3. select members- 1 students w/ASD to 2 neurotypical students
4. select materials and themes for the group focused on high interest for ASD student
5. task analysis- identify all the steps required to complete the target skill or behavior and assign each student a role as either a beginner or expert, making sure each student has opportunity to be successful
6. establish routines and rules with the entire group including transitions
7.determine the specific supports needed from the adult supporting the group
8. define the purpose and expectation as well as benefits of the group
9. guide the play by using: Guiding participation, Nurturing play interactions, Scaffolding play, Guiding social communication as well as prompting, visual supports, and reinforcement
10. gradually fade adults support by: developing a least to most prompting hierarchy, moving the adult (physically) further away from the play routine and reentering only as necessary; developing individualized visual supports to assist the learner to independently play, using an intermittent reinforcement schedule
11. collect data by using event sampling or duration data
12. when student is successful fade adult support and then add new skills/target behaviors to work on

# data[].attributes.body
Definition: Scripts are generally considered a support to help learners initiate or sustain communication with others, usually through visual or auditory cues. This is particularly useful with students with ASD whose behaviors may require intervention in the area of communication.

*Meets the evidence-based practice criteria set by the NPDC (National Professional Development Center)

Ages: 3-22 years

Targeted Skills/Goals:

·      Engaging in a socio-dramatic play scenario with a peer

·      Initiating interactions

·      Describing a problem and requesting assistance

·      Making a bid for joint attention

·      Use of play dialogue

·      Making comments and asking questions relevant to the setting/activity

·      Conversational speech

Materials Needed:

·      Pencil and paper

·      Or some sort of communication symbol software for pictures or saying messages aloud to the learner (can be accomplished relatively easily with basic computer capabilities)

·      Often low- to no-cost, so preferable for interventions

Steps:

Getting Started:

1.     Identify behavior

2.     Collect baseline data through direct observation

3.     Establish a goal or outcome that clearly states: when the behavior will occur, what the target skill is, and how the team will know when the skill is mastered

Develop Intervention:

1.     Determine type and length of script by identifying student’s expressive and receptive language skill (e.g., nonverbal, short phrases, gestures, able to repeat short phrases)

2.     Develop the script (consider things student cares about, for example, if appropriate)

3.     Consider additional Evidence-based practices

a.     Reinforcement, prompting, visual supports, peer-mediated instruction and intervention

4.     Gather and organize supporting materials

a.     Script-specific materials:

i.     Paper handouts, cue cards, picture cues, electronic devices, labels

b.     Related materials:

i.     Toys, objects relevant to scenario, cues, visual schedule

5.     Teach the learner prerequisite skills

a.     E.g., vocabulary, steps such as approaching a communication partner, orienting the body and facing toward the partner, etc.

6.     Identify and train communication partners

a.     E.g., paraprofessionals, other staff, peer helpers

Use the Intervention:

1.     Teach script to the learner (most-to-least hierarchy: e.g., full physical assistance  to modeling to independent of prompting)

2.     Use script with identified communication partners

3.     Fade prompts to read the script (include reinforcements while fading)

4.     Test for generalization and revisit script

5.     Gradually fade the script

Monitor Progress

1.     Data collection, determine next steps, etc.

# data[].attributes.headline
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) 

# data[].attributes.subject
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) 

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Description: PECS is for learners with limited functional communication skills. The goal is to increase communicative exchanges and interactions within a social context. PECS is an evidence-based practice that has 6 learning phases. The learner needs to achieve the phase learning goal before they can progress to the next.

Targeted Skills: Social, Communication, Joint Attention

Ages: 3-14 years

Materials Needed:

Communication book (ex. 3 ring binder) w/ velcro strips on cover and inside

Picture cards with velcro backs

Sentence strips

Reinforcing items

Learning Phases:

Phase 1: Physically Assisted Exchange

Goal: Learner looks at, reaches for, picks up, and hands the picture/symbol to the communicative partner.

This phase requires hand over hand and open hand prompts that fade. No verbal prompts allowed.

Phase 2: Expanding Spontaneity

Goal: Learner expands spontaneity and generalization of picture exchange.

Practice with variety of picture cards/reinforcers (one at time) and more complex situations. Examples of more complex situations include having to get attention of communicative partner, different communicative partners, new environments, and traveling to communication book. Still no verbal prompts used.

Phase 3: Discrimination of Pictures

Goal: Learner attends to and discriminates between picture cards.

Practice learner receiving reinforcing items by discriminating between picture cards. Start with 2 picture cards and increase number of cards after continued success. Use 4 step error correction procedure when learner uses incorrect picture card. Still no verbal prompts used

Phase 4: Building Sentence Structure

Goal: Learner spontaneously makes requests using simple sentence structure.

Sentence strips are utilized with the “I want” picture card and the desired item picture card in the right sequence. The error correction procedure is used if incorrect sequence or item.

Phase 5: Responding to “What do you want?”

Goal: Learner increases initiations and answers the question, “What do you want?”

Verbal prompt “what do you want?” is introduced and should be followed with the appropriate sentence built on the sentence strip. Error correction procedure used if incorrect.

Phase 6: Responding to Questions

Goal: Learner uses labeling and naming.

Learner is introduced to the “I see” picture card and the verbal prompt “What do you see?” Learner is taught to use sentence strip and build “I see” followed by the item presented. Learner is reinforced with other reinforcements, not the presented item. Process is made more difficult with increased picture cards for discrimination and new environments for generalization. Differentiated responses can be taught with more questions such as “What do you hear?” (“I hear”), “What do you have?” (“I have”) and so on.

# data[].attributes.body
Definition: refers to any adult-directed instruction in which social skills are targeted for improvement.  SST typically occurs in either a group or individual format and may also include facilitated practice in classroom settings. SST sometimes may co-occur with peer-mediated instruction and intervention (PMII) or some related use of peer models or tutors to support practice of targeted skills.

Some techniques used: direct instruction, modeling, video-modeling, role-play, prompting, reinforcement, visual cues, stories/social narratives, facilitated practice/practice with feedback, practice with trained peer, and concept mastery routine.

Based on instructional strategies picked you may need: video cameras, videos, TVs/monitors, props, snacks, toys, or games.

Set appropriate social goals such as initiation play with a peer or not interrupting peers. Can also set goals that reduce inappropriate behaviors.

If running a social skills group consider:

Grade level of participants

Will all have ASD? Or will students with a variety of needs be included?

Will peer models be included in the group?

Functioning level of students

Schedule constraints

Space availability

Social skills assessment may be a good tool to decide on need of student. Observations, talking with learner, talking with teacher, talking with caregiver, or use of formal assessment tool may be used for a wholistic view of student.

Select content for lessons: what does individual or group need to work on? What is feasible? Broad content can be used for overarching class and focus in on smaller subject each meeting.

Each lesson should have a: check in, introduction, and teaching of a new skill, practice of a new skill, feedback, and opportunities to practice new skill outside of lesson format.

Reinforce new acceptable social skills when observed.

Important to support student in generalizing their target skills. (other settings, other people, other activities).

If using a peer model: ensure to keep IEP and other information confidential. Also ensure to meet with peer model regularly to answer questions and review goals and upcoming topics.

Gathering data: if attempting to increase a target skill or behavior, frequency data should be collected. (can record if the behavior was prompted or unprompted as well.)

What to do if student not making progress with SST? Think of following questions:

Is the target skill or behavior well defined?

Is the target skill or behavior measurable and observable?

Has enough time been devoted to using SST?

Was SST used with fidelity?

Is a consistent format used for each session?

Are instructional strategies being used consistently?

Are reinforcers used that are motivating to learner?

Age Group Most Appropriate For: shown to be effective for ages 3-22 (no research for ages 0-2).
Targeted Skills:

Social skills

Imitation

Initiation of interactions

Maintaining interactions

Play skills

Language and communication skills

Understanding and regulating emotions

Perspective-taking and theory of minds

Step by Step Guide: https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/sites/afirm.fpg.unc.edu/files/imce/resources/SST%20Step-by-Step.pdf

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Pivotal Response Training (PRT)

Brief Description: Pivotal response training (PRT) is an intervention that includes principles of child development and applied behavior analysis. PRT involves consideration of the learner’s developmental levels and progression with the intentional progression through the antecedent-behavior-consequence pattern of behavior. The goal of PRT is to address the pivotal behaviors that affect the behavior of a learner with ASD by keeping the learner motivated to learn. Social initiations and social skills can be addressed by PRT. Increased play skills, including functional play skills, and symbolic skills can also be addressed by PRT.

Age Group: shown to be effective for 0–14-year-old learners

Targeted Skills: Social initiations, social skills, play skills, functional play skills, and symbolic skills.

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Social narratives (SN) describe social situations for learners with ASD through the use of cues, explanations of feelings/thoughts (especially as they relate to others), and behavioral expectations relevant to the social situation. There are several different types of SN, however, the evidence-base most strongly supports the use of Power Cards and Social Stories.

*Best when implemented directly before the addressed social situation

Social Stories: Describe a social situation and relevant, appropriate behavioral actions by using sentences that both describe and/or direct the learner.

Power Cards: Incorporate a learner’s special interest (i.e., reinforcer) to help facilitate understanding of certain social scenarios by depicting a brief social situation and ‘rules’ on a card.

*FBA is often conducted beforehand to better understand the antecedent, behavior, and consequence.

Materials Needed: Power Cards, Social Story, Reinforcer (if applicable)

General Steps:

-Identify the social situation for the intervention

-Select the type of social narrative (social stories or power cards)

-Write social narrative following criteria for selected type

-Design the appropriate display for the social narrative

-Identify times or activities to use social narrative

-Introduce the social narrative to the learner

-Learner or adult reads social narrative

-Review key concepts with learner

-Learner participates in identified social situation

-Provide prompts and reinforcements as needed

-Collect data on target behaviors

-Determine next steps on learner progress

Age Group Most Appropriate For

SN have shown to be effective with preschool learners (3-5 years) through high school learners (15-22 years).

Targeted Skills

Social (e.g., understand other’s thoughts/feelings), communication (e.g., conversation skills), joint attention, behavior (e.g., decrease interfering behavior), school readiness, play, adaptive, and academic outcomes.

# data[].attributes.body
Description: The teaching and use of self-management strategies such as self-monitoring and self-reflection to learn what behaviors are appropriate in different contexts and be aware of their own behaviors and whether or not they are appropriate in the given situation.
Steps:
1. Conduct an FBA if appropriate
2.  Identify Reinforcers (reward)
3.  Develop a data collection system
4.  Select self-monitoring recording and cueing devices
5. Teach appropriate behavior
6. Teach student to use self-recording system
7.  Provide learner with cue to begin using self-management system
8. Teach learner how to self-record behavior in the target setting
9.  Teach learner to gain access to reinforcement when criterion is reached
10.  Teach learner to gain access to reinforcement when criterion is reached
11.   Increase criterion, session length, and interval length
12.  Determine next steps based on learner progress.
Materials: Recording forms for students
Age: Is evidence based for ages 3-22
Targeted Skills:
1. Discriminate between appropriate and inappropriate behavior,
2. Accurately monitor and record their own behaviors
3. Self-reward for appropriate behavior or use of skill.

# data[].attributes.body
Brief Description: Visual Supports (VS) are concrete cues that are paired with, or used in place of, a verbal cue to provide the learner with information about a routine, activity, behavioral expectation, or skill demonstration. Supports might include: pictures, written words, objects, environment arrangement, visual boundaries, schedules, maps, labels, timelines, and scripts.
Getting Started: -must identify behavior.
-collect baseline data through direct observation
-establish a goal or outcome.
Goals:  -Increase frequency of smooth transitions;
-Decrease amount of time to transition;
-Increase predictability;
-Reduce inappropriate behaviors
-etc..
Age Group: This practice has shown to be effective for preschoolers (3-5 years) to high school-age learners (15-22).
Categories of Visual Supports:
visual boundaries, visual cues, and visual schedules.
Targeted Skills: Visual supports have been used with young children to increase on-task behavior, social interactions, and play skill development. For older children and youth, visual supports can help with such behaviors as reducing transition time and increasing engagement.

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TASK ANALYSIS: By JM
In advance please excuse my absolutely jacked up formatting in PADLET. I tried for two hours, however, cannot keep the rows straight.                                         Brief Description:  Task analysis is a cost-effective, minimal resources, multiple setting; evidence based practice which helps the learner to understand how to independently perform and master the discrete behaviors (i.e., behaviors requiring only one response) or components of a larger task (i.e., target skills), which may involve increasing adaptive skills, language skills, motor skills, and academic skills. Often times learners diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder, ASD, benefit from the EBP, task analysis.                                          Side note: However, it is easy to see how task analysis also benefits and endless list of many others, and is commonly used in medicine (i.e., surgical procedures and other tasks such as cleaning medical instruments), air travel (i.e., how to land in case of emergency, example emergency landing in Hudson Bay, business (procedures), Restaurants (i.e., all tasks around food service.), and any establishment where there are learners and tasks which are procedural requiring discrete behaviors).                                     This side note is an example and only for expanding on the application and understanding of task analysis. However, for the purpose of our assignment, it should be noted that AFIRM only covers ASD and specific age groups (see below)                  Steps:                                                    1.Identify the target behavior                                                                         2. Collect baseline data through direct observation                                   3. Establish a goal or measurable outcome which clearly defines:            a. When the behavior will occur example, upon entering the classroom                                           b. What the target skill is (example, greet 3 friends)                                        c. Mastery criteria (what does mastery look like?)                                                                       4. Identify components of the target skill/behavior:                                          a. Method: have someone who has mastered the task preform the        task, then succinctly note each step it takes to successfully complete the task.) More than one person may complete the tasks to be sure that a step is not missed and the performance of the task can be recorded as well to be sure to cover each step.                                                 b. Each step must be a discrete step.                                     c. Steps must be manageable for the learner.                                               d.The steps are accurately described for the learners’ specific needs                                                   5. Determine if the learner has prerequisite skills needed to learn the overall task (i.e., example, before the learner can rinse hands must they learn how the faucet functions?)                                         6. Identify the smaller components of target behavior.                                                                      7. Select appropriate task analysis procedures and how to teach components                                             a. Forward chaining: Learning how to perform the task from beginning to end. Teach initial steps, once there is mastery of new steps are added.                                b. Backward chaining: Understanding how to perform the task can be beneficial. Teach final step first, once mastered, previous step added.                                                       c. Whole task chaining: Learning the entire task, mostly used to teach functional skills to learners with disabilities. All steps are taught simultaneously and supports are provided for each step that is needed.                                    8. Determine individual steps and any other EBPs needed to support the teaching                                                    a. Prompting: Physical (example, placing hands over hand and turning on a faucet), Model (showing how to turn on faucet by doing it), verbal (saying, “turn on faucet”), gestural (nodding head when faucet is turned on properly), Visual (a visual board of the steps to turn on faucet and wash hands in an expected manner.)                    b. Time delay.                                       c. Have more than one preferred reinforcement.                                         d. May use more than one prompt and/or EBP above at a time.                 e. Fade prompts as quickly as able                                                      9. Respond to learners’ approximations toward the task behaviors                                                     a. Reinforce according to set analysis procedures                             10. Develop materials to teach task.  a. Non-reader? Pictures or visual board of tasks.                                        b. Reader? Text steps written out                                         11. Monitor task analysis.                    a. Graph progress of approximations                                  b. Determine the data trend and whether progress is being made.       12. Note: If progress is not being made, why?                                              a. Target skill not defined?                 b. Is target skill measurable and observable?                                              c. Does the learner have prerequisite skills necessary?               d.Was task completely analyzed?      e. Was the method used to teach appropriate for the developmental level and specific skill?                        f.Was task analysis procedure used with fidelity?                                g.Was the learner appropriately prompted                                               h. Did the learner receive reinforcement accordingly, and was it a preferred reinforcement?              13.Continue to mastery and then generalize and maintain                      Materials needed:                                   a. Time, monitoring tools,  graphs, visual boards (i.e., pictures and lamination), educational supplies like pencils and individualized preferred reinforcers. Age Group: Research supports that task analysis is an effective EBP for Elementary (6-11 years), for social skills, communication skills, motor skills, and adaptive skills. Middle school (12-14 years) communication, joint attention and academic skills.                   *NOTE: There needs to be more research before Task analysis can be considered an EBP for High School (15-22 years) and  Early intervention: (0-2), Preschool: (3-5), All of which require empirical studies to support the effect, likewise, to be considered an EBP for such age groups.                          Targeted Skills:                        There are so many to choose from, and in fact is based on the needs of the individual learners and their abilities to preform tasks which require adaptive skills (i.e., life skills), such as grooming, dressing, food handling, working at a job, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and learning personal responsibility which is age appropriate. Likewise, target skills may include language skills, motor skills, and academic skills, many of which share skill sets of adaptive skills.     References                                      Autism Focused Intervention Resources & Modules. (2021, January 1). Task Analysis. AFIRM. https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/node/594

# data[].attributes.body
1. Video modeling is an evidence based practice based on observational learning that uses video recordings to model a desirable behavior or skill. VM uses prompting and reinforcement to build positive behaviors and skills, and can be used in combination with other evidence based practices.

2. There are four types of video modeling: basic video modeling, video self-modeling, point-of-view video modeling, and video prompting.

1. Basic video modeling is the most common, and shows a peer/adult performing a target behavior. The student is then prompted to perform the behavior themselves.

2. Video self-modeling has the individual with ASD be the model in the video in order to show them how well they perform a behavior or skill. The individual then demonstrates how the behavior/skill should be done, and can compare it to previous behavior.

3. Point-of-view video modeling shows how a behavior or action would look from the individual's point of view, as if they were performing the behavior themselves.

4. Video prompting teaches a sequence of skills. Smaller steps of the targeted skill/behavior are recorded, and the individual has the opportunity to practice each step until they can perform the entire skill.

3. Materials needed: Recording equipment and a device to view video.

4. Video modeling has been shown to be effective in early intervention practices (ages 0-2) and in high school students (ages 15-22).

5. Targeted skills: communication, joint attention, behavior, adaptive, social responding, play, requesting, performing, motor, and cognitive skills.

# data[].attributes.body
Definition: Scripts are generally considered a support to help learners initiate or sustain communication with others, usually through visual or auditory cues. This is particularly useful with students with ASD whose behaviors may require intervention in the area of communication.

*Meets the evidence-based practice criteria set by the NPDC (National Professional Development Center)

Ages: 3-22 years

Targeted Skills/Goals:

·      Engaging in a socio-dramatic play scenario with a peer

·      Initiating interactions

·      Describing a problem and requesting assistance

·      Making a bid for joint attention

·      Use of play dialogue

·      Making comments and asking questions relevant to the setting/activity

·      Conversational speech

Materials Needed:

·      Pencil and paper

·      Or some sort of communication symbol software for pictures or saying messages aloud to the learner (can be accomplished relatively easily with basic computer capabilities)

·      Often low- to no-cost, so preferable for interventions

Steps:

Getting Started:

1.     Identify behavior

2.     Collect baseline data through direct observation

3.     Establish a goal or outcome that clearly states: when the behavior will occur, what the target skill is, and how the team will know when the skill is mastered

Develop Intervention:

1.     Determine type and length of script by identifying student’s expressive and receptive language skill (e.g., nonverbal, short phrases, gestures, able to repeat short phrases)

2.     Develop the script (consider things student cares about, for example, if appropriate)

3.     Consider additional Evidence-based practices

a.     Reinforcement, prompting, visual supports, peer-mediated instruction and intervention

4.     Gather and organize supporting materials

a.     Script-specific materials:

i.     Paper handouts, cue cards, picture cues, electronic devices, labels

b.     Related materials:

i.     Toys, objects relevant to scenario, cues, visual schedule

5.     Teach the learner prerequisite skills

a.     E.g., vocabulary, steps such as approaching a communication partner, orienting the body and facing toward the partner, etc.

6.     Identify and train communication partners

a.     E.g., paraprofessionals, other staff, peer helpers

Use the Intervention:

1.     Teach script to the learner (most-to-least hierarchy: e.g., full physical assistance  to modeling to independent of prompting)

2.     Use script with identified communication partners

3.     Fade prompts to read the script (include reinforcements while fading)

4.     Test for generalization and revisit script

5.     Gradually fade the script

Monitor Progress

1.     Data collection, determine next steps, etc.

# data[].attributes.body
Description: PECS is for learners with limited functional communication skills. The goal is to increase communicative exchanges and interactions within a social context. PECS is an evidence-based practice that has 6 learning phases. The learner needs to achieve the phase learning goal before they can progress to the next.

Targeted Skills: Social, Communication, Joint Attention

Ages: 3-14 years

Materials Needed:

Communication book (ex. 3 ring binder) w/ velcro strips on cover and inside

Picture cards with velcro backs

Sentence strips

Reinforcing items

Learning Phases:

Phase 1: Physically Assisted Exchange

Goal: Learner looks at, reaches for, picks up, and hands the picture/symbol to the communicative partner.

This phase requires hand over hand and open hand prompts that fade. No verbal prompts allowed.

Phase 2: Expanding Spontaneity

Goal: Learner expands spontaneity and generalization of picture exchange.

Practice with variety of picture cards/reinforcers (one at time) and more complex situations. Examples of more complex situations include having to get attention of communicative partner, different communicative partners, new environments, and traveling to communication book. Still no verbal prompts used.

Phase 3: Discrimination of Pictures

Goal: Learner attends to and discriminates between picture cards.

Practice learner receiving reinforcing items by discriminating between picture cards. Start with 2 picture cards and increase number of cards after continued success. Use 4 step error correction procedure when learner uses incorrect picture card. Still no verbal prompts used

Phase 4: Building Sentence Structure

Goal: Learner spontaneously makes requests using simple sentence structure.

Sentence strips are utilized with the “I want” picture card and the desired item picture card in the right sequence. The error correction procedure is used if incorrect sequence or item.

Phase 5: Responding to “What do you want?”

Goal: Learner increases initiations and answers the question, “What do you want?”

Verbal prompt “what do you want?” is introduced and should be followed with the appropriate sentence built on the sentence strip. Error correction procedure used if incorrect.

Phase 6: Responding to Questions

Goal: Learner uses labeling and naming.

Learner is introduced to the “I see” picture card and the verbal prompt “What do you see?” Learner is taught to use sentence strip and build “I see” followed by the item presented. Learner is reinforced with other reinforcements, not the presented item. Process is made more difficult with increased picture cards for discrimination and new environments for generalization. Differentiated responses can be taught with more questions such as “What do you hear?” (“I hear”), “What do you have?” (“I have”) and so on.

# data[].attributes.body
Definition: refers to any adult-directed instruction in which social skills are targeted for improvement.  SST typically occurs in either a group or individual format and may also include facilitated practice in classroom settings. SST sometimes may co-occur with peer-mediated instruction and intervention (PMII) or some related use of peer models or tutors to support practice of targeted skills.

Some techniques used: direct instruction, modeling, video-modeling, role-play, prompting, reinforcement, visual cues, stories/social narratives, facilitated practice/practice with feedback, practice with trained peer, and concept mastery routine.

Based on instructional strategies picked you may need: video cameras, videos, TVs/monitors, props, snacks, toys, or games.

Set appropriate social goals such as initiation play with a peer or not interrupting peers. Can also set goals that reduce inappropriate behaviors.

If running a social skills group consider:

Grade level of participants

Will all have ASD? Or will students with a variety of needs be included?

Will peer models be included in the group?

Functioning level of students

Schedule constraints

Space availability

Social skills assessment may be a good tool to decide on need of student. Observations, talking with learner, talking with teacher, talking with caregiver, or use of formal assessment tool may be used for a wholistic view of student.

Select content for lessons: what does individual or group need to work on? What is feasible? Broad content can be used for overarching class and focus in on smaller subject each meeting.

Each lesson should have a: check in, introduction, and teaching of a new skill, practice of a new skill, feedback, and opportunities to practice new skill outside of lesson format.

Reinforce new acceptable social skills when observed.

Important to support student in generalizing their target skills. (other settings, other people, other activities).

If using a peer model: ensure to keep IEP and other information confidential. Also ensure to meet with peer model regularly to answer questions and review goals and upcoming topics.

Gathering data: if attempting to increase a target skill or behavior, frequency data should be collected. (can record if the behavior was prompted or unprompted as well.)

What to do if student not making progress with SST? Think of following questions:

Is the target skill or behavior well defined?

Is the target skill or behavior measurable and observable?

Has enough time been devoted to using SST?

Was SST used with fidelity?

Is a consistent format used for each session?

Are instructional strategies being used consistently?

Are reinforcers used that are motivating to learner?

Age Group Most Appropriate For: shown to be effective for ages 3-22 (no research for ages 0-2).
Targeted Skills:

Social skills

Imitation

Initiation of interactions

Maintaining interactions

Play skills

Language and communication skills

Understanding and regulating emotions

Perspective-taking and theory of minds

Step by Step Guide: https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/sites/afirm.fpg.unc.edu/files/imce/resources/SST%20Step-by-Step.pdf

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Brief Description: Pivotal response training (PRT) is an intervention that includes principles of child development and applied behavior analysis. PRT involves consideration of the learner’s developmental levels and progression with the intentional progression through the antecedent-behavior-consequence pattern of behavior. The goal of PRT is to address the pivotal behaviors that affect the behavior of a learner with ASD by keeping the learner motivated to learn. Social initiations and social skills can be addressed by PRT. Increased play skills, including functional play skills, and symbolic skills can also be addressed by PRT.

Age Group: shown to be effective for 0–14-year-old learners

Targeted Skills: Social initiations, social skills, play skills, functional play skills, and symbolic skills.

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Social narratives (SN) describe social situations for learners with ASD through the use of cues, explanations of feelings/thoughts (especially as they relate to others), and behavioral expectations relevant to the social situation. There are several different types of SN, however, the evidence-base most strongly supports the use of Power Cards and Social Stories.

*Best when implemented directly before the addressed social situation

Social Stories: Describe a social situation and relevant, appropriate behavioral actions by using sentences that both describe and/or direct the learner.

Power Cards: Incorporate a learner’s special interest (i.e., reinforcer) to help facilitate understanding of certain social scenarios by depicting a brief social situation and ‘rules’ on a card.

*FBA is often conducted beforehand to better understand the antecedent, behavior, and consequence.

Materials Needed: Power Cards, Social Story, Reinforcer (if applicable)

General Steps:

-Identify the social situation for the intervention

-Select the type of social narrative (social stories or power cards)

-Write social narrative following criteria for selected type

-Design the appropriate display for the social narrative

-Identify times or activities to use social narrative

-Introduce the social narrative to the learner

-Learner or adult reads social narrative

-Review key concepts with learner

-Learner participates in identified social situation

-Provide prompts and reinforcements as needed

-Collect data on target behaviors

-Determine next steps on learner progress

Age Group Most Appropriate For

SN have shown to be effective with preschool learners (3-5 years) through high school learners (15-22 years).

Targeted Skills

Social (e.g., understand other’s thoughts/feelings), communication (e.g., conversation skills), joint attention, behavior (e.g., decrease interfering behavior), school readiness, play, adaptive, and academic outcomes.

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Description: The teaching and use of self-management strategies such as self-monitoring and self-reflection to learn what behaviors are appropriate in different contexts and be aware of their own behaviors and whether or not they are appropriate in the given situation.
Steps:
1. Conduct an FBA if appropriate
2.  Identify Reinforcers (reward)
3.  Develop a data collection system
4.  Select self-monitoring recording and cueing devices
5. Teach appropriate behavior
6. Teach student to use self-recording system
7.  Provide learner with cue to begin using self-management system
8. Teach learner how to self-record behavior in the target setting
9.  Teach learner to gain access to reinforcement when criterion is reached
10.  Teach learner to gain access to reinforcement when criterion is reached
11.   Increase criterion, session length, and interval length
12.  Determine next steps based on learner progress.
Materials: Recording forms for students
Age: Is evidence based for ages 3-22
Targeted Skills:
1. Discriminate between appropriate and inappropriate behavior,
2. Accurately monitor and record their own behaviors
3. Self-reward for appropriate behavior or use of skill.

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Brief Description: Visual Supports (VS) are concrete cues that are paired with, or used in place of, a verbal cue to provide the learner with information about a routine, activity, behavioral expectation, or skill demonstration. Supports might include: pictures, written words, objects, environment arrangement, visual boundaries, schedules, maps, labels, timelines, and scripts.
Getting Started: -must identify behavior.
-collect baseline data through direct observation
-establish a goal or outcome.
Goals:  -Increase frequency of smooth transitions;
-Decrease amount of time to transition;
-Increase predictability;
-Reduce inappropriate behaviors
-etc..
Age Group: This practice has shown to be effective for preschoolers (3-5 years) to high school-age learners (15-22).
Categories of Visual Supports:
visual boundaries, visual cues, and visual schedules.
Targeted Skills: Visual supports have been used with young children to increase on-task behavior, social interactions, and play skill development.  For older children and youth, visual supports can help with such behaviors as reducing transition time and increasing engagement.

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Brief Description:  Task analysis is a cost-effective, minimal resources, multiple setting; evidence based practice which helps the learner to understand how to independently perform and master the discrete behaviors (i.e., behaviors requiring only one response) or components of a larger task (i.e., target skills), which may involve increasing adaptive skills, language skills, motor skills, and academic skills. Often times learners diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder, ASD, benefit from the EBP, task analysis.                                          Side note: However, it is easy to see how task analysis also benefits and endless list of many others, and is commonly used in medicine (i.e., surgical procedures and other tasks such as cleaning medical instruments), air travel (i.e., how to land in case of emergency, example emergency landing in Hudson Bay, business (procedures), Restaurants (i.e., all tasks around food service.), and any establishment where there are learners and tasks which are procedural requiring discrete behaviors).                                     This side note is an example and only for expanding on the application and understanding of task analysis. However, for the purpose of our assignment, it should be noted that AFIRM only covers ASD and specific age groups (see below)                  Steps:
1.Identify the target behavior                                                          2. Collect baseline data through direct observation               3. Establish a goal or measurable outcome which clearly defines:
a. When the behavior will occur example, upon entering the classroom
b. What the target skill is (example, greet 3 friends)              c. Mastery criteria (what does mastery look like?)                4. Identify components of the target skill/behavior:                                          a. Method: have someone who has mastered the task preform the task, then succinctly note each step it takes to successfully complete the task.) More than one person may complete the tasks to be sure that a step is not missed and the performance of the task can be recorded as well to be sure to cover each step.
b. Each step must be a discrete step.                                     c. Steps must be manageable for the learner.                        d.The steps are accurately described for the learners’ specific needs
5. Determine if the learner has prerequisite skills needed to learn the overall task (i.e., example, before the learner can rinse hands must they learn how the faucet functions?)   6. Identify the smaller components of target behavior.         7. Select appropriate task analysis procedures and how to teach components
a. Forward chaining: Learning how to perform the task from beginning to end. Teach initial steps, once there is mastery of new steps are added.
b. Backward chaining: Understanding how to perform the task can be beneficial. Teach final step first, once mastered, previous step added.
c. Whole task chaining: Learning the entire task, mostly used to teach functional skills to learners with disabilities. All steps are taught simultaneously and supports are provided for each step that is needed.
8. Determine individual steps and any other EBPs needed to support the teaching
a. Prompting: Physical (example, placing hands over hand and turning on a faucet), Model (showing how to turn on faucet by doing it), verbal (saying, “turn on faucet”), gestural (nodding head when faucet is turned on properly), Visual (a visual board of the steps to turn on faucet and wash hands in an expected manner.)
b. Time delay.
c. Have more than one preferred reinforcement.                  d. May use more than one prompt and/or EBP above at a time.
e. Fade prompts as quickly as able                                          9. Respond to learners’ approximations toward the task behaviors
a. Reinforce according to set analysis procedures                 10. Develop materials to teach task.
a. Non-reader? Pictures or visual board of tasks.                  b. Reader? Text steps written out                                         11. Monitor task analysis.
a. Graph progress of approximations
b. Determine the data trend and whether progress is being made.
12. Note: If progress is not being made, why?                             a. Target skill not defined?
b. Is target skill measurable and observable?                          c. Does the learner have prerequisite skills necessary?               d.Was task completely analyzed?
e. Was the method used to teach appropriate for the developmental level and specific skill?
f.Was task analysis procedure used with fidelity?                      g.Was the learner appropriately prompted                                  h. Did the learner receive reinforcement accordingly, and was it a preferred reinforcement?
13.Continue to mastery and then generalize and maintain                      Materials needed:
a. Time, monitoring tools,  graphs, visual boards (i.e., pictures and lamination), educational supplies like pencils and individualized preferred reinforcers.
Age Group: Research supports that task analysis is an effective EBP for Elementary (6-11 years), for social skills, communication skills, motor skills, and adaptive skills. Middle school (12-14 years) communication, joint attention and academic skills.
*NOTE: There needs to be more research before Task analysis can be considered an EBP for High School (15-22 years) and  Early intervention: (0-2), Preschool: (3-5), All of which require empirical studies to support the effect, likewise, to be considered an EBP for such age groups.          Targeted Skills:
There are so many to choose from, and in fact is based on the needs of the individual learners and their abilities to preform tasks which require adaptive skills (i.e., life skills), such as grooming, dressing, food handling, working at a job, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and learning personal responsibility which is age appropriate. Likewise, target skills may include language skills, motor skills, and academic skills, many of which share skill sets of adaptive skills.
References
Autism Focused Intervention Resources & Modules. (2021, January 1). Task Analysis. AFIRM. https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/node/594

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Definition: Scripts are generally considered a support to help learners initiate or sustain communication with others, usually through visual or auditory cues. This is particularly useful with students with ASD whose behaviors may require intervention in the area of communication.

*Meets the evidence-based practice criteria set by the NPDC (National Professional Development Center)

Ages: 3-22 years

Targeted Skills/Goals:

·      Engaging in a socio-dramatic play scenario with a peer

·      Initiating interactions

·      Describing a problem and requesting assistance

·      Making a bid for joint attention

·      Use of play dialogue

·      Making comments and asking questions relevant to the setting/activity

·      Conversational speech

Materials Needed:

·      Pencil and paper

·      Or some sort of communication symbol software for pictures or saying messages aloud to the learner (can be accomplished relatively easily with basic computer capabilities)

·      Often low- to no-cost, so preferable for interventions

Steps:

Getting Started:

1.     Identify behavior

2.     Collect baseline data through direct observation

3.     Establish a goal or outcome that clearly states: when the behavior will occur, what the target skill is, and how the team will know when the skill is mastered

Develop Intervention:

1.     Determine type and length of script by identifying student’s expressive and receptive language skill (e.g., nonverbal, short phrases, gestures, able to repeat short phrases)

2.     Develop the script (consider things student cares about, for example, if appropriate)

3.     Consider additional Evidence-based practices

a.     Reinforcement, prompting, visual supports, peer-mediated instruction and intervention

4.     Gather and organize supporting materials

a.     Script-specific materials:

i.     Paper handouts, cue cards, picture cues, electronic devices, labels

b.     Related materials:

i.     Toys, objects relevant to scenario, cues, visual schedule

5.     Teach the learner prerequisite skills

a.     E.g., vocabulary, steps such as approaching a communication partner, orienting the body and facing toward the partner, etc.

6.     Identify and train communication partners

a.     E.g., paraprofessionals, other staff, peer helpers

Use the Intervention:

1.     Teach script to the learner (most-to-least hierarchy: e.g., full physical assistance  to modeling to independent of prompting)

2.     Use script with identified communication partners

3.     Fade prompts to read the script (include reinforcements while fading)

4.     Test for generalization and revisit script

5.     Gradually fade the script

Monitor Progress

1.     Data collection, determine next steps, etc.

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Definition: refers to any adult-directed instruction in which social skills are targeted for improvement.  SST typically occurs in either a group or individual format and may also include facilitated practice in classroom settings. SST sometimes may co-occur with peer-mediated instruction and intervention (PMII) or some related use of peer models or tutors to support practice of targeted skills.

Some techniques used: direct instruction, modeling, video-modeling, role-play, prompting, reinforcement, visual cues, stories/social narratives, facilitated practice/practice with feedback, practice with trained peer, and concept mastery routine.

Based on instructional strategies picked you may need: video cameras, videos, TVs/monitors, props, snacks, toys, or games.

Set appropriate social goals such as initiation play with a peer or not interrupting peers. Can also set goals that reduce inappropriate behaviors.

If running a social skills group consider:

Grade level of participants

Will all have ASD? Or will students with a variety of needs be included?

Will peer models be included in the group?

Functioning level of students

Schedule constraints

Space availability

Social skills assessment may be a good tool to decide on need of student. Observations, talking with learner, talking with teacher, talking with caregiver, or use of formal assessment tool may be used for a wholistic view of student.

Select content for lessons: what does individual or group need to work on? What is feasible? Broad content can be used for overarching class and focus in on smaller subject each meeting.

Each lesson should have a: check in, introduction, and teaching of a new skill, practice of a new skill, feedback, and opportunities to practice new skill outside of lesson format.

Reinforce new acceptable social skills when observed.

Important to support student in generalizing their target skills. (other settings, other people, other activities).

If using a peer model: ensure to keep IEP and other information confidential. Also ensure to meet with peer model regularly to answer questions and review goals and upcoming topics.

Gathering data: if attempting to increase a target skill or behavior, frequency data should be collected. (can record if the behavior was prompted or unprompted as well.)

What to do if student not making progress with SST? Think of following questions:

Is the target skill or behavior well defined?

Is the target skill or behavior measurable and observable?

Has enough time been devoted to using SST?

Was SST used with fidelity?

Is a consistent format used for each session?

Are instructional strategies being used consistently?

Are reinforcers used that are motivating to learner?

Age Group Most Appropriate For: shown to be effective for ages 3-22 (no research for ages 0-2).
Targeted Skills:

Social skills

Imitation

Initiation of interactions

Maintaining interactions

Play skills

Language and communication skills

Understanding and regulating emotions

Perspective-taking and theory of minds

Step by Step Guide: https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/sites/afirm.fpg.unc.edu/files/imce/resources/SST%20Step-by-Step.pdf

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1. Video modeling is an evidence based practice based on observational learning that uses video recordings to model a desirable behavior or skill. VM uses prompting and reinforcement to build positive behaviors and skills, and can be used in combination with other evidence based practices.

2. There are four types of video modeling: basic video modeling, video self-modeling, point-of-view video modeling, and video prompting.

1. Basic video modeling is the most common, and shows a peer/adult performing a target behavior. The student is then prompted to perform the behavior themselves.

2. Video self-modeling has the individual with ASD be the model in the video in order to show them how well they perform a behavior or skill. The individual then demonstrates how the behavior/skill should be done, and can compare it to previous behavior.

3. Point-of-view video modeling shows how a behavior or action would look from the individual's point of view, as if they were performing the behavior themselves.

4. Video prompting teaches a sequence of skills. Smaller steps of the targeted skill/behavior are recorded, and the individual has the opportunity to practice each step until they can perform the entire skill.

3. Materials needed: Recording equipment and a device to view video.

4. Video modeling has been shown to be effective in early intervention practices (ages 0-2) and in high school students (ages 15-22).

5. Targeted skills: communication, joint attention, behavior, adaptive, social responding, play, requesting, performing, motor, and cognitive skills.