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35 mm film is a film gauge used in filmmaking, and the film standard. In motion pictures that record on film, 35 mm is the most commonly used gauge. The name of the gauge is not a direct measurement, and refers to the nominal width of the 35 mm format photographic film, which consists of strips 1.377 ± 0.001 inches (34.976 ± 0.025 mm) wide. The standard image exposure length on 35 mm for movies ("single-frame" format) is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film.

A variety of largely proprietary gauges were devised for the numerous camera and projection systems being developed independently in the late 19th century and early 20th century, as well as a variety of film feeding systems. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge. The 35 mm width, originally specified as inches, was introduced around 1890 by William Kennedy Dickson and Thomas Edison, using 120 film stock supplied by George Eastman. Film 35 mm wide with four perforations per frame became accepted as the international standard gauge in 1909, and remained by far the dominant film gauge for image origination and projection until the advent of digital photography and cinematography.

The gauge has been versatile in application. It has been modified to include sound, redesigned to create a safer film base, formulated to capture color, has accommodated a bevy of widescreen formats, and has incorporated digital sound data into nearly all of its non-frame areas. Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies that offered 35 mm films. As of 2015, Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film.

The ubiquity of 35 mm movie projectors in commercial movie theaters made 35 mm the only motion picture format that could be played in almost any cinema in the world, until digital projection largely superseded it in the 21st century.

In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry photographic plates in Rochester, New York. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer-coated paper. Hannibal Goodwin then invented a nitrocellulose film base in 1887, the first transparent, flexible film. Eastman also produced these components, and his was the first major company to mass-produce such film when, in 1889, Eastman realized that the dry-gelatino-bromide emulsion could be coated onto this clear base, eliminating the paper.

With the advent of flexible film, Thomas Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope, which was first shown at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences on May 9, 1893. The Kinetoscope was a film loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant William Kennedy Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, which combined the Kinetoscope with Edison's cylinder phonograph. Beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New York's Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Dickson is credited as the inventor of 35 mm movie film in 1889, ⁶⁵² when the Edison company was using Eastman film. ⁶⁵³⁻⁶⁵⁴ The company still received film from Blair after this; at first Blair would supply only 40 mm ( in) film stock that would be trimmed and perforated at the Edison lab to create -inch (35 mm) gauge filmstrips, then at some point in 1894 or 1895, Blair began sending stock to Edison that was cut exactly to specification. Edison's aperture defined a single frame of film at four perforations high.

Around 1896, a 35mm projector known as a "photo-rotoscope" was made by W. C. Hughes in London, which advanced the film by means of a "dog" motion.

For a time, it had been generally assumed that Dickson was following cinematography formats established by Eastman in producing the film, but Eastman had produced film in sheets that were then cut to order. ⁶⁵²⁻⁶⁵³ Dickson used the film supplied for Eastman Kodak cameras in 1889, a transparent 70 mm celluloid film, in his development of a more suitable film stock, and "simply slit this film in half"; ⁶⁵³⁻⁶⁵⁴ it was initially developed for the Kinetoscope, a one-person viewer, not to be projected. ⁶⁵⁸ The image was still of high quality, even when magnified, and was more economical than 70 mm film (and more economical than any other gauge, as cutting the 70 mm to size would have created waste). ⁶⁵⁴ 35 mm was immediately accepted as standard by the Lumière brothers, and became the main film used in the UK because it was the stock sold to these filmmakers by the Blair company. ⁶⁵³

Edison claimed exclusive patent rights to the design of 35 mm motion picture film, with four sprocket holes (perforations) per frame, forcing his only major filmmaking competitor, American Mutoscope & Biograph, to use a 68 mm film that used friction feed, not sprocket holes, to move the film through the camera. A court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edison's claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison did not file patents. At the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière brothers used a single circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.

Becoming the standard

When films began to be projected, several projection devices were unsuccessful and fell into obscurity because of technical failure, lack of business acumen on the part of their promoters, or both. The Vitascope, the first projection device to use 35 mm, was technologically superior and compatible with the many motion pictures produced on 35 mm film. Edison bought the device in 1895-96; the Lumiere's 35 mm projection Cinematograph also premiered in 1895, and they established 35 mm as the standard for exhibition. ⁶⁵⁸

Standardization in recording came from monopolization of the business by Eastman and Edison, and because of Edison's typical business model involving the patent system: Eastman and Edison managed their film patents well ⁶⁵⁶ - Edison filed the 35 mm patent in 1896, the year after Dickson left his employ ⁶⁵⁷ - and so controlled the use and development of film. ⁶⁵⁶ Dickson left the Edison company in 1895, going on to help competitors produce cameras and other film gauges that would not infringe on Edison's patents. However, by 1900, filmmakers found it too expensive to develop and use other gauges, and went back to using the cheap and widely-available 35 mm. ⁶⁵⁷

Dickson said in 1933:

At the end of the year 1889, I increased the width of the picture from inch to inch, then, to 1 inch by inch high. The actual width of the film was inches to allow for the perforations now punched on both edges, 4 holes to the phase or picture, which perforations were a shade smaller than those now in use. This standardized film size of 1889 has remained, with only minor variations, unaltered to date". ⁶⁵²

Until 1953, the 35 mm film was seen as "basic technology" in the film industry, rather than optional, despite other gauges being available. ⁶⁵²

In 1908, Edison formed "a cartel of production companies", a trust called the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), pooling patents for collective use in the industry and positioning Edison's own technology as the standard to be licensed out. ⁶⁵⁶ 35 mm became the "official" standard of the newly formed MPPC, which agreed in 1909 to what would become the standard: 35 mm gauge, with Edison perforations and a 1.33:1 (4:3) aspect ratio (also developed by Dickson). ⁶⁵² Scholar Paul C. Spehr describes the importance of these developments:

The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The standard gauge made it possible for films to be shown in every country of the world... It provided a uniform, reliable and predictable format for production, distribution and exhibition of movies, facilitating the rapid spread and acceptance of the movies as a world-wide device for entertainment and communication.

When the MPPC adopted the 35 mm format, Bell & Howell produced cameras, projectors, and perforators for the medium of an "exceptionally high quality", further cementing it as the standard. ⁶⁵⁹ Edison and Eastman's form of business manipulation was ruled unlawful in 1914, but by this time the technology had become the established standard. ⁶⁵⁷ In 1917, the new Society of Motion Picture Engineers (SMPE) "acknowledged the de facto status of 35mm as the industry's dominant film gauge, adopting it as an engineering standard". ⁶⁵⁹

A photo of a 35 mm film print featuring all four audio formats (or "quad track") - from left to right: SDDS, a soundtrack as an image of a digital signal (blue area to the left of the sprocket holes); Dolby Digital sound (grey area between the sprocket holes labelled with the Dolby "Double-D" logo in the middle); analog optical sound, optically recorded as waveforms containing the audio signals for the left and right audio channels (the two white lines to the right of the sprocket holes); and the DTS time code (the dashed line to the far right).

When film editing was done by physically cutting the film, editing the picture could only have been done on the frame line. However, the sound was stored for the whole frame between each of the four sprocket holes, and so the sound editors could cut on any arbitrary set of holes, and thus get -frame edit resolution. With this technique, an audio edit could be accurate to within 10.41 ms." ¹⁻² A limitation of analog optical recording was the audio frequency would cut off, in a well-maintained theater, at around 12 kHz. ⁴ Studios would often record audio on the transparent film strips, but with magnetic tape on one edge; recording audio on full 35 mm magnetic tape was more expensive. ⁵

Three different digital soundtrack systems for 35 mm cinema release prints were introduced during the 1990s. They are: Dolby Digital, which is stored between the perforations on the sound side; SDDS, stored in two redundant strips along the outside edges (beyond the perforations); and DTS, in which sound data is stored on separate compact discs synchronized by a timecode track on the film just to the right of the analog soundtrack and left of the frame. Because these soundtrack systems appear on different parts of the film, one movie can contain all of them, allowing broad distribution without regard for the sound system installed at individual theatres.

The analogue optical track technology has also changed: in the early years of the 21st century, distributors changed to using cyan dye optical soundtracks instead of applicated tracks, which use environmentally unfriendly chemicals to retain a silver (black-and-white) soundtrack. Because traditional incandescent exciter lamps produce copious amounts of infrared light, and cyan tracks do not absorb infrared light, this change has required theaters to replace the incandescent exciter lamp with a complementary colored red LED or laser. These LED or laser exciters are backwards-compatible with older tracks. The film Anything Else (2003) was the first to be released with only cyan tracks.

To facilitate this changeover, intermediate prints known as "high magenta" prints were distributed. These prints used a silver plus dye soundtrack that were printed into the magenta dye layer. The advantage gained was an optical soundtrack, with low levels of sibilant (cross-modulation) distortion, on both types of sound heads.

The success of digitally projected 3D movies in the first two decades of the 21st century led to a demand from some theater owners to be able to show these movies in 3D without incurring the high capital cost of installing digital projection equipment. To satisfy that demand, a number of systems had been proposed for 3D systems based on 35 mm film by Technicolor, Panavision and others. These systems are improved versions of the "over-under" stereo 3D prints first introduced in the 1960s.

To be attractive to exhibitors, these schemes offered 3D films that can be projected by a standard 35 mm cinema projector with minimal modification, and so they are based on the use of "over-under" film prints. In these prints a left-right pair of 2.39:1 non-anamorphic images are substituted for the one 2.39:1 anamorphic image of a 2D "scope" print. The frame dimensions are based on those of the Techniscope 2-perf camera format used in the 1960s and 1970s. However, when used for 3D the left and right frames are pulled down together, thus the standard 4-perf pulldown is retained, minimising the need for modifications to the projector or to long-play systems. The linear speed of film through the projector and sound playback both remain exactly the same as in normal 2D operation.

The Technicolor system uses the polarisation of light to separate the left and right eye images and for this they rent to exhibitors a combination splitter-polarizer-lens assembly which can be fitted to a lens turret in the same manner as an anamorphic lens. In contrast, the Panavision system uses a spectral comb filter system, but their combination splitter-filter-lens is physically similar to the Technicolor assembly and can be used in the same way. No other modifications are required to the projector for either system, though for the Technicolor system a silver screen is necessary, as it would be with polarised-light digital 3D. Thus a programme can readily include both 2D and 3D segments with only the lens needing to be changed between them.

In June 2012, Panavision 3D systems for both 35 mm film and digital projection were withdrawn from the market by DVPO theatrical (who marketed these system on behalf of Panavision) citing "challenging global economic and 3D market conditions".

In the transition period centered around 2010-2015, the rapid conversion of the cinema exhibition industry to digital projection has seen 35 mm film projectors removed from most of the projection rooms as they were replaced by digital projectors. By the mid-2010s, most of the theaters across the world have been converted to digital projection, while others are still running 35 mm projectors. In spite of the uptake in digital projectors installed in global cinemas, 35 mm film remains in a niche market of enthusiasts and format lovers.

Originally, film was a strip of cellulose nitrate coated with black-and-white photographic emulsion. Early film pioneers, like D. W. Griffith, color tinted or toned portions of their movies for dramatic impact, and by 1920, 80 to 90 percent of all films were tinted. The first successful natural color process was Britain's Kinemacolor (1909-1915), a two-color additive process that used a rotating disk with red and green filters in front of the camera lens and the projector lens. But any process that photographed and projected the colors sequentially was subject to color "fringing" around moving objects, and a general color flickering.

In 1916, William Van Doren Kelley began developing Prizma, the first commercially viable American color process using 35 mm film. Initially, like Kinemacolor, it photographed the color elements one after the other and projected the results by additive synthesis. Ultimately, Prizma was refined to bipack photography, with two strips of film, one treated to be sensitive to red and the other not, running through the camera face to face. Each negative was printed on one surface of the same duplitized print stock and each resulting series of black-and-white images was chemically toned to transform the silver into a monochrome color, either orange-red or blue-green, resulting in a two-sided, two-colored print that could be shown with any ordinary projector. This system of two-color bipack photography and two-sided prints was the basis for many later color processes, such as Multicolor, Brewster Color and Cinecolor.

Although it had been available previously, color in Hollywood feature films first became truly practical from the studios' commercial perspective with the advent of Technicolor, whose main advantage was quality prints in less time than its competitors. In its earliest incarnations, Technicolor was another two-color system that could reproduce a range of reds, muted bluish greens, pinks, browns, tans and grays, but not real blues or yellows. The Toll of the Sea, released in 1922, was the first film printed in their subtractive color system. Technicolor's camera photographed each pair of color-filtered frames simultaneously on one strip of black-and-white film by means of a beam splitter prism behind the camera lens. Two prints on half-thickness stock were made from the negative, one from only the red-filtered frames, the other from the green-filtered frames. After development, the silver images on the prints were chemically toned to convert them into images of the approximately complementary colors. The two strips were then cemented together back to back, forming a single strip similar to duplitized film.

In 1928, Technicolor started making their prints by the imbibition process, which was mechanical rather than photographic and allowed the color components to be combined on the same side of the film. Using two matrix films bearing hardened gelatin relief images, thicker where the image was darker, aniline color dyes were transferred into the gelatin coating on a third, blank strip of film.

Technicolor re-emerged as a three-color process for cartoons in 1932 and live action in 1934. Using a different arrangement of a beam-splitter cube and color filters behind the lens, the camera simultaneously exposed three individual strips of black-and-white film, each one recording one-third of the spectrum, which allowed virtually the entire spectrum of colors to be reproduced. A printing matrix with a hardened gelatin relief image was made from each negative, and the three matrices transferred color dyes into a blank film to create the print.

Two-color processes, however, were far from extinct. In 1934, William T. Crispinel and Alan M. Gundelfinger revived the Multicolor process under the company name Cinecolor. Cinecolor saw considerable use in animation and low-budget pictures, mainly because it cost much less than three-color Technicolor. If color design was carefully managed, the lack of colors such as true green could pass unnoticed. Although Cinecolor used the same duplitized stock as Prizma and Multicolor, it had the advantage that its printing and processing methods yielded larger quantities of finished film in less time.

In 1950, Kodak announced the first Eastman color 35 mm negative film (along with a complementary positive film) that could record all three primary colors on the same strip of film. An improved version in 1952 was quickly adopted by Hollywood, making the use of three-strip Technicolor cameras and bipack cameras (used in two-color systems such as Cinecolor) obsolete in color cinematography. This "monopack" structure is made up of three separate emulsion layers, one sensitive to red light, one to green and one to blue.

Although Eastman Kodak had first introduced acetate-based film, it was far too brittle and prone to shrinkage, so the dangerously flammable nitrate-based cellulose films were generally used for motion picture camera and print films. In 1949 Kodak began replacing all nitrocellulose (nitrate-based) films with the safer, more robust cellulose triacetate-based "Safety" films. In 1950 the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded Kodak with a Scientific and Technical Academy Award ( Oscar) for the safer triacetate stock. By 1952, all camera and projector films were triacetate-based. Most if not all film prints today are made from synthetic polyester safety base (which started replacing Triacetate film for prints in the early 1990s). The downside of polyester film is that it is extremely strong, and, in case of a fault, will stretch and not break-potentially causing damage to the projector and ruining a fairly large stretch of film: 2-3 ft or approximately 2 seconds. Also, polyester film will melt if exposed to the projector lamp for too long. Original camera negative is still made on a triacetate base, and some intermediate films (certainly including internegatives or "dupe" negatives, but not necessarily including interpositives or "master" positives) are also made on a triacetate base as such films must be spliced during the "negative assembly" process, and the extant negative assembly process is solvent-based. Polyester films are not compatible with solvent-based assembly processes.

Besides black & white and color negative films, there are black & white and color reversal films, which when developed create a positive ("natural") image that is projectable. There are also films sensitive to non-visible wavelengths of light, such as infrared.[citation needed ]

In the conventional motion picture format, frames are four perforations tall, with an aspect ratio of 1.375:1, 22 by 16 mm (0.866 by 0.630 in). This is a derivation of the aspect ratio and frame size designated by Thomas Edison (24.89 by 18.67 millimetres or 0.980 by 0.735 inches) at the dawn of motion pictures, which was an aspect ratio of 1.33:1. The first sound features were released in 1926-27, and while Warner Bros. was using synchronized phonograph discs ( sound-on-disc), Fox placed the soundtrack in an optical record directly on the film ( sound-on-film) on a strip between the sprocket holes and the image frame. "Sound-on-film" was soon adopted by the other Hollywood studios, resulting in an almost square image ratio of 0.860 in by 0.820 in.

By 1929, most movie studios had revamped this format using their own house aperture plate size to try to recreate the older screen ratio of 1.33:1. Furthermore, every theater chain had their own house aperture plate size in which the picture was projected. These sizes often did not match up even between theaters and studios owned by the same company, and therefore, uneven projection practices occurred.

In November 1929, the Society of Motion Picture Engineers set a standard aperture ratio of 0.800 in by 0.600 in. Known as the "1930 standard", studios which followed the suggested practice of marking their camera viewfinders for this ratio were: Paramount-Famous-Lasky, Metro-Goldwyn Mayer, United Artists, Pathe, Universal, RKO, Tiffany-Stahl, Mack Sennett, Darmour, and Educational. The Fox Studio markings were the same width but allowed .04 in more height.

In 1932, in refining this ratio, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences expanded upon this 1930 standard. The camera aperture became 22 by 16 mm (0.87 by 0.63 in), and the projected image would use an aperture plate size of 0.825 by 0.600 in (21.0 by 15.2 mm), yielding an aspect ratio of 1.375:1. This became known as the " Academy" ratio. Since the 1950s the aspect ratio of some theatrically released motion picture films has been 1.85:1 (1.66:1 in Europe) or 2.35:1 (2.40:1 after 1970). The image area for "TV transmission" is slightly smaller than the full "Academy" ratio at 21 by 16 mm (0.83 by 0.63 in), an aspect ratio of 1.33:1. Hence when the "Academy" ratio is referred to as having an aspect ratio of 1.33:1, it is done so mistakenly.

The commonly used anamorphic format uses a similar four-perf frame, but an anamorphic lens is used on the camera and projector to produce a wider image, today with an aspect ratio of about 2.39:1 (more commonly referred to as 2.40:1). The ratio was formerly 2.35:1-and is still often mistakenly referred to as such-until an SMPTE revision of projection standards in 1970. The image, as recorded on the negative and print, is horizontally compressed (squeezed) by a factor of 2.

The unexpected success of the Cinerama widescreen process in 1952 led to a boom in film format innovations to compete with the growing audiences of television and the dwindling audiences in movie theaters. These processes could give theatergoers an experience that television could not at that time-color, stereophonic sound and panoramic vision. Before the end of the year, 20th Century Fox had narrowly "won" a race to obtain an anamorphic optical system invented by Henri Chrétien, and soon began promoting the Cinemascope technology as early as the production phase.

Looking for a similar alternative, other major studios hit upon a simpler, less expensive solution by April 1953: the camera and projector used conventional spherical lenses (rather than much more expensive anamorphic lenses), but by using a removable aperture plate in the film projector gate, the top and bottom of the frame could be cropped to create a wider aspect ratio. Paramount Pictures began this trend with their aspect ratio of 1.66:1, first used in , which was originally shot for Academy ratio. It was Universal Studios, however, with their May release of Thunder Bay that introduced the now standard 1.85:1 format to American audiences and brought attention to the industry the capability and low cost of equipping theaters for this transition.

Other studios followed suit with aspect ratios of 1.75:1 up to 2:1. For a time, these various ratios were used by different studios in different productions, but by 1956, the aspect ratio of 1.85:1 became the "standard" US format. These flat films are photographed with the full Academy frame, but are matted (most often with a mask in the theater projector, not in the camera) to obtain the "wide" aspect ratio. The standard, in some European countries, became 1.66:1 instead of 1.85:1, although some productions with pre-determined American distributors composed for the latter to appeal to US markets.

In September 1953, 20th Century Fox debuted CinemaScope with their production of to great success. CinemaScope became the first marketable usage of an anamorphic widescreen process and became the basis for a host of "formats", usually suffixed with -scope, that were otherwise identical in specification, although sometimes inferior in optical quality. (Some developments, such as SuperScope and Techniscope, however, were truly entirely different formats.) By the early 1960s, however, Panavision would eventually solve many of the CinemaScope lenses' technical limitations with their own lenses, and by 1967, CinemaScope was replaced by Panavision and other third-party manufacturers.

The 1950s and 1960s saw many other novel processes using 35 mm, such as VistaVision, SuperScope, and Technirama, most of which ultimately became obsolete. VistaVision, however, would be revived decades later by Lucasfilm and other studios for special effects work, while a SuperScope variant became the predecessor to the modern Super 35 format that is popular today.

The concept behind Super 35 originated with the Tushinsky Brothers' SuperScope format, particularly the SuperScope 235 specification from 1956. In 1982, Joe Dunton revived the format for Dance Craze, and Technicolor soon marketed it under the name "Super Techniscope" before the industry settled on the name Super 35. The central driving idea behind the process is to return to shooting in the original silent "Edison" 1.33:1 full 4-perf negative area (24.89 by 18.67 millimetres or 0.980 by 0.735 inches), and then crop the frame either from the bottom or the center (like 1.85:1) to create a 2.40:1 aspect ratio (matching that of anamorphic lenses) with an area of 24 by 10 mm (0.94 by 0.39 in). Although this cropping may seem extreme, by expanding the negative area out perf-to-perf, Super 35 creates a 2.40:1 aspect ratio with an overall negative area of 240 square millimetres (0.37 sq in), only 9 square millimetres (0.014 sq in) less than the 1.85:1 crop of the Academy frame (248.81 square millimetres or 0.38566 square inches). The cropped frame is then converted at the intermediate stage to a 4-perf anamorphically squeezed print compatible with the anamorphic projection standard. This allows an "anamorphic" frame to be captured with non-anamorphic lenses, which are much more common.[citation needed ] Up to 2000, once the film was photographed in Super 35, an optical printer was used to anamorphose (squeeze) the image. This optical step reduced the overall quality of the image and made Super 35 a controversial subject among cinematographers, many who preferred the higher image quality and frame negative area of anamorphic photography (especially with regard to granularity). With the advent of digital intermediates (DI) at the beginning of the 21st century, however, Super 35 photography has become even more popular, since everything could be done digitally, scanning the original 4-perf 1.33:1 (or 3-perf 1.78:1) picture and cropping it to the 2.39:1 frame already in-computer, without anamorphosing stages, and also without creating an additional optical generation with increased grain. This process of creating the aspect ratio in the computer allows the studios to perform all post-production and editing of the movie in its original aspect (1.33:1 or 1.78:1) and to then release the cropped version, while still having the original when necessary (for Pan & Scan, HDTV transmission, etc.).

The non-anamorphic widescreen ratios (most commonly 1.85:1) used in modern feature films makes inefficient use of the available image area on 35 mm film using the standard 4-perf pulldown; the height of a 1.85:1 frame occupying only 65% of the distance between the frames. It is clear, therefore, that a change to a 3-perf pulldown would allow for a 25% reduction in film consumption whilst still accommodating the full 1.85:1 frame. Ever since the introduction of these widescreen formats in the 1950s various film directors and cinematographers have argued in favour of the industry making such a change. The Canadian cinematographer Miklos Lente invented and patented a three-perforation pull down system which he called "Trilent 35" in 1975 though he was unable to persuade the industry to adopt it.

The idea was later taken up by the Swedish film-maker Rune Ericson who was a strong advocate for the 3-perf system. Ericson shot his 51st feature Pirates of the Lake in 1986 using two Panaflex cameras modified to 3-perf pulldown and suggested that the industry could change over completely over the course of ten-years. However, the movie industry did not make the change mainly because it would have required the modification of the thousands of existing 35 mm projectors in movie theaters all over the world. Whilst it would have been possible to shoot in 3-perf and then convert to standard 4-perf for release prints the extra complications this would cause and the additional optical printing stage required made this an unattractive option at the time for most film makers.

However, in television production, where compatibility with an installed base of 35 mm film projectors is unnecessary, the 3-perf format is sometimes used, giving-if used with Super 35-the 16:9 ratio used by HDTV and reducing film usage by 25 percent. Because of 3-perf's incompatibility with standard 4-perf equipment, it can utilize the whole negative area between the perforations ( Super 35 mm film) without worrying about compatibility with existing equipment; the Super 35 image area includes what would be the soundtrack area in a standard print. All 3-perf negatives require optical or digital conversion to standard 4-perf if a film print is desired, though 3-perf can easily be transferred to video with little to no difficulty by modern telecine or film scanners. With digital intermediate now a standard process for feature film post-production, 3-perf is becoming increasingly popular for feature film productions which would otherwise be averse to an optical conversion stage.[citation needed ]

A diagram of the VistaVision format, affectionately dubbed "Lazy 8" because it is eight perforations long and runs horizontally (lying down)

The VistaVision motion picture format was created in 1954 by Paramount Pictures to create a finer-grained negative and print for flat widescreen films. Similar to still photography, the format uses a camera running 35 mm film horizontally instead of vertically through the camera, with frames that are eight perforations long, resulting in a wider aspect ratio of 1.5:1 and greater detail, as more of the negative area is used per frame. This format is unprojectable in standard theaters and requires an optical step to reduce the image into the standard 4-perf vertical 35 mm frame.

While the format was dormant by the early 1960s, the camera system was revived for visual effects by John Dykstra at Industrial Light and Magic, starting with , as a way of reducing granularity in the optical printer by having increased original camera negative area at the point of image origination. Its usage has again declined since the dominance of computer-based visual effects, although it still sees limited utilization.

Film perforations were originally round holes cut into the side of the film, but as these perforations were subject to wear and deformation, the shape was changed to what is now called the Bell & Howell (BH) perforation, which has straight top and bottom edges and outward curving sides. The BH perforation's dimensions are 0.110 inches (2.8 mm) from the middle of the side curve to opposite top corner by 0.073 inches (1.9 mm) in height. The BH1866 perforation, or BH perforation with a pitch of 0.1866 inches (4.74 mm), is the modern standard for negative and internegative films.

Because BH has sharp corners, the repeated use of the film through intermittent movement projectors creates strain that can easily tear the perforations. Furthermore, they tended to shrink as the print slowly decayed. Therefore, larger perforations with a rectangular base and rounded corners were introduced by Kodak in 1924 to improve steadiness, registration, durability, and longevity. Known as "Kodak Standard" (KS), they are 0.0780 inches (1.98 mm) high by 0.1100 inches (2.79 mm) wide. Their durability makes KS perfs the ideal choice for some (but not all) intermediate and all release prints, and original camera negatives which require special use, such as high-speed filming, but not for bluescreen, front projection, rear projection, or matte work as these specific applications demand the more accurate registration which is only possible with BH or DH perforations. The increased height also means that the image registration was considerably less accurate than BH perfs, which remains the standard for negatives. The KS1870 perforation, or KS perforation with a pitch of 0.1870 inches (4.75 mm), is the modern standard for release prints.

These two perforations have remained by far the most commonly used ones. BH perforations are also known as N (negative) and KS as P (positive). The Bell & Howell perf remains the standard for camera negative films because of its perforation dimensions in comparison to most printers, thus it can keep a steady image compared to other perforations.

The Dubray-Howell (DH) perforation was first proposed in 1932 to replace the two perfs with a single hybrid. The proposed standard was, like KS, rectangular with rounded corners and a width of 0.1100 inches (2.79 mm), and, like BH, was 0.073 inches (1.9 mm) tall. This gave it longer projection life but also improved registration. One of its primary applications was usage in Technicolor's dye imbibition printing (dye transfer). The DH perf never had broad uptake, and Kodak's introduction of monopack Eastmancolor film in the 1950s reduced the demand for dye transfer, although the DH perforation persists in special application intermediate films.

In 1953, the introduction of CinemaScope by Fox Studios required the creation of a different shape of perforation which was nearly square and smaller to provide space for four magnetic sound stripes for stereophonic and surround sound. These perforations are commonly referred to as CinemaScope (CS) or "Fox hole" perfs. Their dimensions are 0.0780 inches (1.98 mm) in width by 0.0730 inches (1.85 mm) in height. Due to the size difference, CS perfed film cannot be run through a projector with standard KS sprocket teeth, but KS prints can be run on sprockets with CS teeth. Shrunken film with KS prints that would normally be damaged in a projector with KS sprockets may sometimes be run far more gently through a projector with CS sprockets because of the smaller size of the teeth. Magnetic striped 35 mm film became obsolete in the 1980s after the advent of Dolby Stereo, as a result film with CS perfs is no longer manufactured.

During continuous contact printing, the raw stock and the negative are placed next to one another around the sprocket wheel of the printer. The negative, which is the closer of the two to the sprocket wheel (thus creating a slightly shorter path), must have a marginally shorter pitch between perforations (0.1866 in pitch); the raw stock has a long pitch (0.1870 in). While cellulose nitrate and cellulose diacetate stocks used to shrink during processing slightly enough to have this difference naturally occur, modern safety stocks do not shrink at the same rate, and therefore negative (and some intermediate) stocks are perforated at a pitch of 0.2% shorter than print stock.

Areas on an Academy-width 35 mm spherical film print:

1. Camera aperture

2. Academy ratio, 1.375:1

3. 1.85:1 Ratio

4. 1.66:1 Ratio

5. Television scanned area

6. Television "action safe" area

7. Television "title safe" area

Technical specifications for 35 mm film are standardized by SMPTE.

16 frames per foot (0.748 inches (19.0 mm) per frame (long pitch))

24 frames per second (fps); 90 feet (27 m) per minute. 1,000 feet (300 m) is about 11 minutes at 24 fps.

vertical pulldown

4 perforations per frame (all projection and most origination except 3-perf). 1 perforation = in or 0.1875 in. 1 frame = in or 0.75 in.

Aspect ratio: 1.375:1 on camera aperture; 1.85:1 and 1.66:1 are hard- or soft-matted over this

Camera aperture: 0.866 by 0.630 in (22.0 by 16.0 mm)

Projector aperture (full 1.375:1): 0.825 by 0.602 in (21.0 by 15.3 mm)

Projector aperture (1.66:1): 0.825 by 0.497 in (21.0 by 12.6 mm)

Projector aperture (1.85:1): 0.825 by 0.446 in (21.0 by 11.3 mm)

TV station aperture: 0.816 by 0.612 in (20.7 by 15.5 mm)

TV transmission: 0.792 by 0.594 in (20.1 by 15.1 mm)

TV safe action: 0.713 by 0.535 in (18.1 by 13.6 mm); corner radii: 0.143 inches (3.6 mm)

TV safe titles: 0.630 by 0.475 in (16.0 by 12.1 mm); corner radii: 0.125 inches (3.2 mm)

Aspect ratio: 1.33:1 on 4-perf camera aperture

Camera aperture (4-perf): 0.980 by 0.735 in (24.9 by 18.7 mm)

Picture used (35 mm anamorphic): 0.945 by 0.394 inches (24.0 by 10.0 mm)

Picture used (70 mm blowup): 0.945 by 0.430 inches (24.0 by 10.9 mm)

Picture used (35 mm flat 1.85): 0.945 by 0.511 inches (24.0 by 13.0 mm)

Aspect ratio: 2.39:1, in a 1.19:1 frame with a 2x horizontal anamorphosis

Camera aperture: 0.866 by 0.732 inches (22.0 by 18.6 mm)

Projector aperture: 0.825 by 0.690 inches (21.0 by 17.5 mm)

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35 mm film is a film gauge used in filmmaking, and the film standard. In motion pictures that record on film, 35 mm is the most commonly used gauge. The name of the gauge is not a direct measurement, and refers to the nominal width of the 35 mm format photographic film, which consists of strips 1.377 ± 0.001 inches (34.976 ± 0.025 mm) wide.

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This article contains a list of cinematic techniques that are divided into categories and briefly described.

180-degree rule

A continuity editorial technique in which sequential shots of two or more actors within a scene are all shot with the camera on one side of the two actors so that a coherent spatial relationship and eyeline match are maintained.

Airborne shot

A shot taken from an aerial device, generally while moving. This technique has gained popularity in recent years due to the popularity and growing availability of drones.

Arc

A dolly shot where the camera moves in an arc along a circular or elliptical radius in relation to the subject ("arc left" or "arc right")

Backlighting (lighting design)

The main source of light is behind the subject, silhouetting it, and directed toward the camera.

Bridging shot

A shot used to cover a jump in time or place or other discontinuity. Examples are a clock face showing advancing time, falling calendar pages, railroad wheels, newspaper headlines and seasonal changes. Bridge shots are also used to avoid jump cuts when inserting a pick-up.

Camera angle

The point of view or viewing position adopted by the camera with respect to its subject. Most common types are

A frame depicting the human head or an object of similar size.

Cut

An editorial transition signified by the immediate replacement of one shot with another.

Cross-cutting

Cutting between different events occurring simultaneously in different locations. Especially in narrative filmmaking, cross-cutting is traditionally used to build suspense or to suggest a thematic relationship between two sets of actions.

Continuity editing

An editorial style that preserves the illusion of undisrupted time and space across editorial transitions (especially cuts).

A technique in which objects in the extreme foreground and objects in the extreme background are kept equally in focus.

An editorial transition overlapping a fade in and a fade out in such a way that one image gradually disappears while another simultaneously emerges. This transition generally suggest a longer period of narrative elapses than is suggested by cuts.

Camera Dolly

A wheeled cart or similar device upon which a movie camera is mounted to give it smooth, horizontal mobility.

Dollying or Dolly shot

A shot in which the camera moves horizontally either toward or away from its subject, or right or left in relation to the subject. Traditionally dolly shots are filmed from a camera dolly but the same motion may also be performed with a Steadicam, gimbal, etc. A dolly shot is generally described in terms of "dollying in" or "dollying out". Also known as trucking in and out, or right and left.

A powerful and dramatic effect produced by simultaneously trucking in or out while synchronously zooming out or in.

The selection and organization of shots into a series, usually in the interest of creating larger cinematic units. Adding music is also a great way to make it more cinematic

Ellipsis (linguistics)

A term referring to "chunks" of time left out of a narrative, signaled in filmmaking by editorial transitions

Establishing shot

A shot, often a long shot, usually placed at the beginning of a scene to establish the general location of the specific action to follow. This shot is also known as an Extreme Long Shot.

Eyeline match

A type of continuity editorial match involving two or more, sequential shots in which the preceding shot contains an agent (a person, animal, etc.) gazing in the direction of some unseen, off-screen vision, and following shot(s) contains an image presumed by the spectator to be the object of the agent's gaze. This technique is an important consideration in dialogues where actors are talking to each other. (Contrast with Over the shoulder shot; See also 180 degree rule)

Extreme close-up

A shot framed so closely as to show only a portion of the face or of some object.

Extreme long shot

A shot in which the human figure would be extremely insignificant compared to its surroundings.

A panoramic view photographed from a considerable distance and made up essentially of landscape or distant background.

Fade in/out

An editorial transition in which the image either gradually appears out of ("fade in") or gradually fades into ("fade out") a black screen.

An auxiliary light placed to the side of the subject that softens shadows and illuminates areas not lit by the key light (see "key light").

A scene or sequence inserted into a scene set in the narrative present that images some event set in the past.

Flash forward

A scene or sequence inserted into a scene set in the narrative present that images some event set in the future.

Focus

The optical clarity or precision of an image relative to normal human vision. Focus in photographic images is usually expressed in terms of depth.

Framing

The placement of subjects and other visual content with respect to the boundaries of the image.

Hand-held shot

A shot where the camera is hand-carried, either with or without a Steadicam. If done without a steadicam, the effect is a shaky image which conveys an amateurish or urgent affect.

Inter-title

A piece of filmed, printed text edited into the midst of (i.e. inter-) the photographed action at various points. Most commonly used in silent movies to convey elements of dialogue and other commentary.

Iris in/out

An editorial transition popular during the silent period utilizing a diaphragm placed in front of the lens and which, when opened (iris in) or closed (iris out), functions like a fade in or fade out. A partially opened iris can also be used to focus attention on a detail of the scene in the manner of vignetting.

An editorial transition between two shots in which the illusion of temporal continuity is radically disrupted.

Key light

The main light on a subject, usually placed at a 45 degree angle to the camera-subject axis. In high-key lighting, the key light provides all or most of the light in the scene. In low-key lighting, the key light provides much less of the total illumination.

A shot in which the human figure would be relatively insignificant compared to its surroundings.

Master shot

A shot, often a medium shot or longer, which shows all the important action in a scene. In editing, the master can be used to a greater or lesser extent as the 'skeleton' of the edit, which is fleshed out by replacing parts of the master with tighter coverage such as closeups and cutaways.

Match cut

One of various editorial devices used to preserve a sense of spatio-temporal integrity or continuity between cuts.

Medium close-up

A shot depicting the human figure from approximately the chest up.

Medium shot

A shot depicting the human figure from approximately the waist up.

Mise en scène

Everything that has been placed in front of or is revealed by the camera while shooting.

Over the shoulder shot

A shot where the camera is placed above the back of the shoulder and head of a subject. This shot is most commonly used to present conversational back and forth between two subjects. With the camera placed behind one character, the shot then frames the sequence from the perspective of that character

Pan

A shot in which the camera is made to pivot horizontally left or right (about its vertical axis) while filming. Pans are always described in terms of "panning left" or "panning right". It is incorrect to discuss pans in terms of vertical, "up"/"down" movement, which is properly called tilting.

Point of view shot

(Often abbreviated as 'POV'). A shot which shows an image from the specific point of view of a character in the film.

Racking focus

A shot employing shallow focus in which the focal distance changes so that the background is gradually brought into focus while the foreground is gradually taken out of focus or visa versa.

Reverse angle

In a dialogue scene, a shot of the second participant understood as the opposing or "reverse" view of the shot showing the first participant.

Scene

A unit of narration generally composed of a series of shots that takes place in a single location and concerns a central action.

Shot

1.) The image produced by a motion picture camera from the time it begins shooting until the time it stops shooting.

2.) (in an edited film) the uninterrupted record of time and space depicted between editorial transitions.

Static Frame

The camera focus and angle stay completely still, usually with a locked off tripod, and the scene continues motion. Not to be confused with a still frame where the scene is also static or frozen.

A lightweight, highly-mobile camera transportation and stabilization device developed by inventor / cinematographer Garrett Brown which permits hand-held filming with an image steadiness comparable to tracking or dolly shots. The device involves 1.) a vest redistributing the weight of the camera to the hips of the cameraman and, 2.) a spring-loaded arm working to minimize the effects of camera movement. A video tap simultaneously frees the camera operator from the eyepiece, who is then free to travel through any walkable terrain while filming.

Story board

A series of drawings and captions (sometimes resembling a comic strip) that shows the planned shot divisions and camera movements of the film.

Tilt

A shot in which the camera is made to pivot vertically up or down (about its horizontal transverse axis) while filming.

Tracking shot/traveling shot

A shot in which the camera moves alongside or parallel to its subject. Traditionally tracking shots are filmed while the camera is mounted on a track dolly and rolled on dedicated tracks comparable to railroad tracks, In recent years, however, parallel camera moves performed with a Steadicam, gimbal, etc. may also be called a tracking shot. Tracking shots often "follow" a subject while it is in motion: for instance, a person walking on a sidewalk seen from the perspective of somebody walking on a parallel path several feet away. Shots taken from moving vehicles that run parallel to another moving object are also referred to as tracking or traveling shots. A tracking shot may also be curved, moving around its subject in a semi-circular rotation, known specifically as an arc or arc shot.

Truck

Truck-right, truck-left, truck-in, truck-out (see Dolly shot)

A shot in which the frame encompasses two people, typically but not exclusively a medium shot.

A type of pan shot in which the camera pans so quickly that the resulting image is badly blurred. It is sometimes used as an editorial transition and is also known as a swish pan or "flash pan."

An unusually quick but continuous zoom in or out.

An optical editorial transition in which an image appears to be pushed or "wiped" to one aside of the screen to make way for the next.

A shot taken from a stationary position using a special zoom lens that magnifies or de-magnifies the center of the image. This creates an illusion that the camera is moving toward or away from its subject by making the subject more or less prominent in the frame. Not to be confused with dollying in which the camera itself actually physically moves closer to or further away from its subject.

Movement and expression

Movement can be used extensively by film makers to make meaning. It is how a scene is put together to produce an image. A famous example of this, which uses "dance" extensively to communicate meaning and emotion, is the film, West Side Story.

Provided in this alphabetised list of film techniques used in motion picture filmmaking. There are a variety of expressions:

To achieve the results mentioned above, a Lighting Director may use a number or combination of Video Lights. These may include the Redhead or Open-face unit, The Fresnel Light, which gives you a little more control over the spill, or The Dedolight, which provides a more efficient light output and a beam which is easier to control.

Special effects (FX)

Sound is used extensively in filmmaking to enhance presentation, and is distinguished into diegetic and non-diegetic sound:

Diegetic sound is heard by both the characters and audience. Also called "literal sound" or "actual sound". Examples include

Voices of characters;

Sounds made by objects in the story, e.g. heart beats of a person

Source music, represented as coming from instruments in the story space.

Basic sound effects, e.g. dog barking, car passing; as it is in the scene

Music coming from reproduction devices such as record players, radios, tape players etc.

Non-diegetic sound is represented as coming from a source outside the story space, i.e. its source is neither visible on the screen, nor has been implied to be present in the action. Also called "non-literal sound" or "commentary sound". Examples include:

Narrator's commentary;

Sound effects added for dramatic effect;

Mood music

Sound effects

In motion picture and television production, a sound effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point, without the use of dialogue or music. The term often refers to a process, applied to a recording, without necessarily referring to the recording itself. In professional motion picture and television production, the segregations between recordings of dialogue, music, and sound effects can be quite distinct, and it is important to understand that in such contexts, dialogue, and music recordings are never referred to as sound effects, though the processes applied to them, such as reverberation or flanging, often are. Necessary incidental units of sound, footsteps, keys, a polishing sound, are created in the foley studio.

New techniques currently being developed in interactive movies, introduce an extra dimension into the experience of viewing movies, by allowing the viewer to change the course of the movie.

In traditional linear movies, the author can carefully construct the plot, roles, and characters to achieve a specific effect on the audience. Interactivity, however, introduces non-linearity into the movie, such that the author no longer has complete control over the story, but must now share control with the viewer. There is an inevitable trade-off between the desire of the viewer for freedom to experience the movie in different ways, and the desire of the author to employ specialized techniques to control the presentation of the story. Computer technology is required to create the illusion of freedom for the viewer, while providing familiar, as well as, new cinematic techniques to the author.

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This article contains a list of cinematic techniques that are divided into categories and briefly described. 180-degree rule A continuity editorial technique in which sequential shots of two or more actors within a scene are all shot with the camera on one side of the two actors so that a coherent spatial relationship and eyeline match are maintained.

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Slow cinema is a genre of art cinema film-making that emphasizes long takes, and is typically characterised by a style that is minimalist, observational, and with little or no narrative. It is sometimes called "contemplative cinema". Examples include Ben Rivers' Two Years at Sea, Michelangelo Frammartino's Le Quattro Volte, Nili Portugali's And the alley she whitewashed in light blue and Shaun Wilson's film 51 Paintings.

Progenitors of the genre include Andrei Tarkovsky, Ingmar Bergman, Michelangelo Antonioni, Robert Bresson, Aleksandr Sokurov, Béla Tarr, Chantal Akerman and Theo Angelopoulos. Tarkovsky argued that "I think that what a person normally goes to cinema for is time".

Greek director Theo Angelopoulos has been described as an "icon of the so-called Slow Cinema movement".

Recent underground film movements such as Remodernist film share the sensibility of slow or contemplative cinema. Examples include The Turin Horse by Béla Tarr, the works of Fred Kelemen, Sleep Has Her House by Scott Barley and The Earth Still Moves by Pablo Chavarría Gutiérrez.

The AV Festival held a Slow Cinema Weekend at the Star and Shadow Cinema in Newcastle, UK in March 2012, including the films of Rivers, Lav Diaz, Lisandro Alonso and Fred Kelemen.

Recent examples also include films by Kelly Reichardt, Tsai Ming-Liang, and the late Abbas Kiarostami.

Notable slow films

Sight & Sound noted of the definition of slow cinema that "The length of a shot, on which much of the debate revolves, is a quite abstract measure if divorced from what takes place within it". The Guardian contrasted the long takes of the genre with the two-second average shot length in Hollywood action movies, and noted that "they opt for ambient noises or field recordings rather than bombastic sound design, embrace subdued visual schemes that require the viewer's eye to do more work, and evoke a sense of mystery that springs from the landscapes and local customs they depict more than it does from generic convention." The genre has been described as an "act of organized resistance" similar to the Slow food movement.

It has been criticized as being indifferent or even hostile to audiences. A backlash by Sight & Sound's Nick James, and picked up by online writers, argued that early uses of long takes were "adventurous provocations created by extremists" whereas recent films are "operating within a recognized, default artistic idiom." The Guardian' s film blog concluded that "being less overweeningly precious about films that are likely to be impenetrable to even the most well-informed audiences would seem an idea." Dan Fox of criticized both the dichotomy of the argument into 'philistine' vs 'pretentious' and the reductiveness of the term "slow cinema".

Recently, film scholars Katherine Fusco and Nicole Seymour have written that the slow cinema movement has been mischaracterized by both supporters and detractors. As they argue, much "commentary posits slow cinema as a kind of pastoral for the present moment, a respite from our technologically saturated ... Hollywood-blockbuster-centered era." Such commentary therefore associates the movement with pleasure and relaxation. But in reality, slow cinema films often focus on down-and-out laborers; as Fusco and Seymour argue, "for those on the fringes of society, modernity is actually experienced as slowness, and usually to their great detriment."

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Slow cinema is a genre of art cinema film-making that emphasizes long takes, and is typically characterised by a style that is minimalist, observational, and with little or no narrative. It is sometimes called "contemplative cinema".

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Orbis Pictus, or Orbis Sensualium Pictus ( Visible World in Pictures), is a textbook for children written by Czech educator John Amos Comenius and published in 1658. It was the first widely used children's textbook with pictures, published first in Latin and German and later republished in many European languages. The revolutionary book quickly spread around Europe and became the defining children's textbook for centuries.

The book is divided into chapters illustrated by copperplate prints, which are described in the accompanying text. In most editions, the text is given in both Latin and the child's native language. The book has 150 chapters and covers a wide range of subjects:[citation needed ]

Originally published in Latin and German in 1658 in Nuremberg, the book soon spread to schools in Germany and other countries. The first English edition was published in 1659. The first quadrilingual edition (in Latin, German, Italian and French) was published in 1666. The first Czech translation was published in the 1685 quadrilingual edition (together with Latin, German and Hungarian), by the Breuer publishing house in Levoča. In the years 1670 to 1780, new editions were published in various languages, with upgraded both pictures and text content.[citation needed ]

Orbis Pictus had a long-lasting influence on children's education. It was a precursor of both audio-visual techniques and the lexical approach in language learning.

In 1930 Otto Neurath claimed that images in Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft constituted a new Orbis Pictus.

Online selections from Orbis Pictus in Latin

Comenius, Johann Amos (1887). Bardeen, Charles William (ed.). Orbis Pictus (The Visible World in Pictures). Syracuse, New York: School Bulletin Publications. OCLC 166163. gutenberg.org/ebooks/28299

Orbis sensualium pictus at Internet Archive

Comenius, Johann Amos; Charles Hoole (1777). Joh. Amos Comenii Orbis Sensualium Pictus: Hoc Est Omnium Principalium in Mundo Rerum, & in Vita Actionum, Pictura & Nomenclatura. London: S. Leacroft. OCLC 166163. User Review - I was interested in this book after reading about Comenius on Wikipedia and being referred to Google Book Search as a source of this as an early children's textbook. A discouraging flaw in this book is that pages 8-15 are scanned out of order, and there are two copies of page 12 and no copy of page 8 in the resulting images. It would be good to have a direct way to report such trouble without having to go searching around the help pages. - translation by Charles Hoole, at Google Book Search

Orbis sensualium pictus trilinguis. Latin, German and Hungarian, 1708

Orbis sensualium pictus trilinguis. Leutschoviae : Typis Samuelis Brewer, Anno Salutis 1685. 484 s. - - available at ULB's Digital Library

Orbis Pictus, in hungaricum et germanicum translatus. Po'sonban: Weber, 19. stor. 172 s. - available at ULB's Digital Library

Orbis pictus von Amos Comenius. [Nürnberg]: [s.n.], 1770. 263 s. - available at ULB's Digital Library

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Orbis Pictus , or Orbis Sensualium Pictus ( Visible World in Pictures), is a textbook for children written by Czech educator John Amos Comenius and published in 1658. It was the first widely used children's textbook with pictures, published first in Latin and German and later republished in many European languages.

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Non-narrative film is an aesthetic of cinematic film that does not narrate, or relate "an event, whether real or imaginary". It is usually a form of art film or experimental film, not made for mass entertainment.

Narrative film is the dominant aesthetic, though non-narrative film is not fully distinct from that aesthetic. While the non-narrative film avoids "certain traits" of the narrative film, it "still retains a number of narrative characteristics". Narrative film also occasionally uses "visual materials that are not representational". Although many abstract films are clearly devoid of narrative elements, distinction between a narrative film and a non-narrative film can be rather vague and is often open for interpretation. Unconventional imagery, concepts and structuring can obscure the narrativity of a film.

Terms such as absolute film, cinéma pur, true cinema and integral cinema have been used for non-narrative films that aimed to create a purer experience of the distinctive qualities of film, like movement, rhythm and changing visual compositions. More narrowly, "absolute film" was used for the works of a group of filmmakers in Germany in the 1920s, that consisted, at least initially, of animated films that were totally abstract. The French term cinéma pur was coined to describe the style of several filmmakers in France in the 1920s, whose work was non-narrative, but hardly ever non-figurative.

Much of surrealist cinema can be regarded as non-narrative films and partly overlaps with the dadaist cinéma pur movement.

Music was an extremely influential aspect of absolute film, and one of the biggest elements, other than art, used by abstract film directors. Absolute film directors are known to use musical elements such as rhythm/tempo, dynamics, and fluidity. These directors sought to use this to add a sense of motion and harmony to the images in their films that was new to cinema, and was intended to leave audiences in awe. In her article "Visual Music" Maura McDonnell compared these films to musical compositions due to their careful articulation of timing and dynamics.

The history of abstract film often overlaps with the concerns and history of visual music. Some films are very similar to electronic music visualization, especially when electronic devices (for instance oscilloscopes) were used to generate a type of motion graphics in relation to music, except that the images in these films are not generated in real-time.

Abstract film or absolute film is a subgenre of experimental film and a form of abstract art. Abstract films are non-narrative, contain no acting and do not attempt to reference reality or concrete subjects. They rely on the unique qualities of motion, rhythm, light and composition inherent in the technical medium of cinema to create emotional experiences.

Many abstract films have been made with animation techniques. The distinction between animation and other techniques can be rather unclear in some films, for instance when moving objects could either be animated with stop motion techniques, recorded during their actual movement, or appear to move due to being filmed against a neutral background with a moving camera.

A number of devices can be regarded as early media for abstract animation or visual music, including color organs, chinese fireworks, the kaleidoscope, musical fountains and special animated slides for the magic lantern (like the chromatrope).

Some of the earliest animation designs for stroboscopic devices (like the phénakisticope and the zoetrope) were abstract, including one Fantascope disc by inventor Joseph Plateau and many of Simon Stampfer's Stroboscopische Scheiben (1833).

Abstract film concepts were shaped by early 20th century art movements such as Cubism, Expressionism, Dadaism, Suprematism, Futurism, Precisionism and possible others. These art movements were beginning to gain momentum in the 1910s.

Italian Futurists Arnaldo Ginna and his brother Bruno Corra made hand-painted films between 1910 and 1912 that are now lost. In 1916 they published The Futurist Cinema manifesto together with Giacomo Balla, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Remo Chiti and Emilio Settimelli. They proposed a cinema that "being essentially visual, must above all fulfill the evolution of painting, detach itself from reality, from photography, from the graceful and solemn. It must become antigraceful, deforming, impressionistic, synthetic, dynamic, free-wording." "The most varied elements will enter into the Futurist film as expressive means: from the slice of life to the streak of color, from the conventional line to words-in-freedom, from chromatic and plastic music to the music of objects. In other words it will be painting, architecture, sculpture, words-in-freedom, music of colors, lines, and forms, a jumble of objects and reality thrown together at random." Among the proposed methods were: "Cinematic musical researches", "Daily exercises in freeing ourselves from mere photographed logic" and "Linear, plastic, chromatic equivalences, etc., of men, women, events, thoughts, music, feelings, weights, smells, noises (with white lines on black we shall show the inner, physical rhythm of a husband who discovers his wife in adultery and chases the lover - rhythm of soul and rhythm of legs)." About a month later the short film Vitta Futurista was released, directed by Ginna in collaboration with Corra, Balla and Marinetti. Only a few frames of the film remain and little else of any Futurist Cinema work seems to have been made or preserved.

Around 1911 Hans Lorenz Stoltenberg also experimented with direct animation, rhythmically piecing together tinted film in different colors. He published a leaflet about it and claimed that many people growing up with the hand-colored films of Georges Méliès and Ferdinand Zecca would try their hand on painting on film at that time.

In 1913 Léopold Survage created his Rythmes colorés: over 100 abstract ink wash / watercolor drawings that he wanted to turn into a film. Unable to raise the funds, the film was not realized and Survage only exhibited the pictures separately.

Mary Hallock-Greenewalt used templates and aerosol sprays to create repeating geometrical patterns on hand-painted films. These extant films were probably made around 1916 for her Sarabet color organ, for which she filed 11 patents between 1919 and 1926. The films were not projected, but one viewer at a time could look down into the machine at the film itself. The Sarabet was first publicly demonstrated at John Wanamaker's New York department store in 1922.

Some of the earliest abstract motion pictures known to survive are those produced by a group of artists working in Germany in the early 1920s: Walter Ruttmann, Hans Richter, Viking Eggeling and Oskar Fischinger.

Absolute film pioneers sought to create short length and breathtaking films with different approaches to abstraction-in-motion: as an analogue to music, or as the creation of an absolute language of form, a desire common to early abstract art. Ruttmann wrote of his film work as "painting in time". Absolute filmmakers used rudimentary handicraft, techniques, and language in their short motion pictures that refuted the reproduction of the natural world, instead, focusing on light and form in the dimension of time, impossible to represent in static visual arts.

Viking Eggeling came from a family of musicians and analysed the elements of painting by reducing it into his "Generalbass der Malerei", a catalogue of typological elements, from which he would create new "orchestrations". In 1918 Viking Eggeling had been engaging in Dada activities in Zürich and befriended Hans Richter. According to Richter, absolute film originated in the scroll sketches that Viking Eggeling made in 1917-1918. On paper rolls up to 15 meters long, Eggeling would draw sketches of variations of small graphic designs, in such a way that a viewer could follow the changes in the designs when looking at the scroll from beginning to end. For a few years Eggeling and Richter worked together, each on their own projects based on these ides, and created thousands of rhythmic series of simple shapes. In 1920 they started working on film versions of their work.

Walter Ruttmann, trained as a musician and painter, gave up painting to devote himself to film. He made his earliest films by painting frames on glass in combination with cutouts and elaborate tinting and hand-coloring. His Lichtspiel: Opus I was first screened in March 1921 in Frankfurt.

Hans Richter finished his first film Rhythmus 21 (a.k.a. Film ist Rhythmus) in 1921, but kept changing elements until he first presented the work on 7 July 1923 in Paris at the dadaist Soirée du coeur à barbe program in Théâtre Michel. It was an abstract animation of rectangular shapes, partly inspired by his connections with De Stijl. Founder Theo van Doesberg had visited Richter and Eggeling in December 1920 and reported on their film works in his magazine De Stijl in May and July 1921. Rhytmus 23 and the colourful Rhythmus 25 followed similar principles, with noticeable suprematist influence of Kasimir Malevich's work. Rhythmus 25 is considered lost.

Eggeling debuted his Horizontal-vertikalorchester in 1923. The film is now considered lost. In November 1924 Eggeling was able to present his new finished film Symphonie diagonale in a private screening.

On 3 May 1925 the Sunday matinee program Der absolute Film took place in the UFA-Palast theater at the Kurfurstendamm in Berlin. Its 900 seats soon sold out and the program was repeated a week later. Eggeling's Symphonie diagonale, Richter's Rhythmus 21 and Rhythmus 23, Walter Ruttmann's Opus II, Opus III and Opus IV were all shown publicly for the first time in Germany, along with the two French dadaist cinéma pur films Ballet Mécanique and René Clair's , and Ludwig Hirschfeld-Mack's performance with a type of color organ. Eggeling happened to die a few days later.

Oskar Fischinger met Walter Ruttmann at rehearsals for screenings of Opus I with live music in Frankfurt. In 1921 he started experimenting with abstract animation in wax and clay and with colored liquids. He used such early material in 1926 in multiple-projection performances for Alexander Laszlo's Colorlightmusic concerts. That same year he released his first abstract animations and would continue with a few dozens of short films over the years.

The Nazis censorship against so-called " degenerate art" prevented the German abstract animation movement from developing after 1933.

Other artists in the 1920s

Mieczysław Szczuka also attempted to create abstract films, but seems never to have realized his plans. Some designs were published in 1924 in the avant-garde magazine block as 5 Moments of an Abstract Film.

In 1926 dadaist Marcel Duchamp released Anémic Cinéma, filmed in collaboration with Man Ray and Marc Allégret. It showed early versions of his rotoreliefs, discs that seemed to show an abstract 3-D moving image when rotating on a phonograph.

In 1927 Kasimir Malevich had created a 3-page scenario in manuscript with explanatory color drawings for an "Artistic-Scientific film" entitled Art and the Problems of Architecture: The Emergence of a New Plastic System of Architecture, an instructional film about the theory, origin and evolution of suprematism. Initially there were plans to have the film animated in a Soviet studio, but Malevich took it along on a trip to Berlin and ended up leaving it for Hans Richter after the two had met. The style and colorfulness of Rhythmus 25 had convinced Malevich that Richter should direct the film. Due to circumstances the scenario did not get into the hands of Richter before the end of the 1950s. Richter created storyboards, two rough cuts and at least 120 takes for the film in collaboration with Arnold Eagle since 1971, but it remained incomplete. Richter had wanted to create the film totally in Malevich's spirit, but concluded that in the end he could not discern how much of his own creativity withheld him from executing the scenario properly.

Mary Ellen Bute started making experimental films in 1933, mostly with abstract images visualizing music. Occasionally she applied animation techniques in her films.

Len Lye made the first publicly released direct animation entitled A Colour Box in 1935. The colorful production was commissioned to promote the General Post Office.

Oskar Fischinger moved to Hollywood in 1936 when he had a lucrative agreement to work for Paramount Pictures. A first film, eventually entitled Allegretto, was planned for inclusion in the musical comedy The Big Broadcast of 1937. Paramount had failed to communicate that it would be in black and white, so Fischinger left when the studio refused to even consider a color test of the animated section. He then created An Optical Poem (1937) for MGM, but received no profits because of the way the studio's bookkeeping system worked.

Walt Disney had seen Lye's A Colour Box and became interested in producing abstract animation. A first result was the Toccata and Fugue in D Minor section in the "concert film" Fantasia (1940). He hired Oskar Fischinger to collaborate with effects animator Cy Young, but rejected and altered much of their designs, causing Fischinger to leave without credit before the piece was completed.

Fishinger's two commissions from The Museum of Non-Objective Painting did not really allow him the creative freedom that he desired. Frustrated with all the trouble with filmmaking he experienced in America, Fischinger did not make many films afterwards. Apart from some commercials, the only exception was Motion Painting No. 1 (1947), which won the Grand Prix at the Brussels International Experimental Film Competition in 1949.

Norman McLaren, having carefully studied Lye's A Colour Box, founded the National Film Board of Canada's animation unit in 1941. Direct animation was seen as a way to deviate from cel animation and thus a way to stand out from the many American productions. McLaren's direct animations for NFB include Boogie-Doodle (1941), (1942), Begone Dull Care (1949) and Blinkity Blank (1955).

Harry Everett Smith created several direct films, initially by hand-painting abstract animations on celluloid. His Early Abstractions was compiled around 1964 and contains early works that may have been created since 1939, 1941 or 1946 until 1952, 1956 or 1957. Smith was not very concerned about keeping documentation about his oeuvre and frequently re-edited his works.

Cinéma pur ( French for "pure cinema") was an avant-garde film movement of French filmmakers, who "wanted to return the medium to its elemental origins" of "vision and movement." It declares cinema to be its own independent art form that should not borrow from literature or stage. As such, "pure cinema" is made up of nonstory, noncharacter films that convey abstract emotional experiences through unique cinematic devices such as camera movement and camera angles, close-ups, dolly shots, lens distortions, sound-visual relationships, split-screen imagery, super-impositions, time-lapse photography, slow motion, trick shots, stop-action, montage (the Kuleshov Effect, flexible montage of time and space), rhythm through exact repetition or dynamic cutting and visual composition.

Cinéma pur started around the same period with the same goals as the absolute film movement and both mainly concerned dadaists. Although the terms have been used interchangeably, or to differentiate between the German and the French filmmakers, a very noticeable difference is that very few of the French cinéma pur films were totally non-figurative or contained traditional (drawn) animation, instead mainly using radical types of cinematography, special effects, editing, visual effects and occasionally some stop motion.

The term was coined by filmmaker Henri Chomette, brother of filmmaker René Clair.

The cinéma pur film movement included Dada artists, such as Man Ray, René Clair and Marcel Duchamp. The Dadaists saw in cinema an opportunity to transcend "story", to ridicule "character," "setting," and "plot" as bourgeois conventions, to slaughter causality by using the innate dynamism of the motion picture film medium to overturn conventional Aristotelian notions of time and space.

Man Ray's Le Retour à la Raison (2 mins) premiered in July 1923 at the 'Soirée du coeur à barbe" program in Paris. The film consisted mainly of abstract textures, with moving photograms that were created directly on the film strip, abstract forms filmed in motion, and light and shadow on the nude torso of Kiki of Montparnasse ( Alice Prin). Man Ray later made (16 mins, 1926); L'Étoile de Mer (15 mins, 1928); and Les Mystères du Château de Dé (27 mins, 1929).

Dudley Murphy had seen Man Ray's Le Retour à la Raison and proposed to collaborate on a longer film. They shot all kinds of material in the street and in a studio, used Murphy's special beveled lenses and crudely animated showroom dummy legs. They chose the title Ballet Mécanique from an image by Francis Picabia that had been published in his New York 391 magazine, which had also featured a poem and art by Man Ray. They ran out of money before they could complete the film. Fernand Léger helped financing the completion and contributed a cubist Charlie Chaplin image that was jerkily animated for the film. It is unclear if Léger contributed anything else, but he got to distribute the film in Europe and took sole credit for the film. Ray had backed out of the project before completion and did not want his name to be used. Murphy had gone back tot the U.S.A. shortly after editing the final version, with the deal that he could distribute the film there.

Avant-garde artist Francis Picabia and composer Erik Satie asked René Clair to make a short film to be shown as the entr'acte of their Dadaist ballet for Ballets suédois. The result became known as (1924) and featured cameo appearances by Francis Picabia, Erik Satie, Man Ray, Marcel Duchamp, composer Georges Auric, Jean Borlin (director of the Ballets Suédois) and Clair himself. The film showed absurd scenes and used slow motion and reverse playback, superimpositions, radical camera angles, stop motion and other effects. Erik Satie composed a score that was to be performed in sync with certain scenes.

Henri Chomette adjusted the film speed and shot from different angles to capture abstract patterns in his 1925 film Jeux des reflets de la vitesse ( The Play of Reflections and Speed). His 1926 film Cinq minutes du cinéma pur ( Five minutes of Pure Cinema) reflected a more minimal, formal style.

The movement also encompasses the work of the feminist critic/cinematic filmmaker Germaine Dulac, particularly Thème et variations (1928), Disque 957 (1928), and Cinegraphic Study of an Arabesque. In these, as well as in her theoretical writing, Dulac's goal was "pure" cinema, free from any influence from literature, the stage, or even the other visual arts.

The style of the French cinéma pur artists probably had a strong influence on newer works by Ruttmann and Richter, which would no longer be totally abstract. Richter's Vormittagsspuk (Ghosts before Breakfast) (1928) features some stop motion, but mostly shows live action material with cinematographic effects and visual tricks. It is usually regarded as a dadaist film.

The clearest examples of pure cinema are said by essayist and filmmaker Hubert Revol to be documentaries.

Documentary must be made by poets. Few of those within French cinema have understood that in our country, we possess innumerable elements and subjects to make, not just insignificant ribbons (of film), but splendid films lively and expressive... The purest demonstration of pure cinema, that is to say of poetry which is truly cinematographic, has been provided us by some remarkable films, vulgarly called documentaries, particularly and .

-  Herbert Revol, filmmaker and essayist

According to Timothy Corrigan in The Film Experience, non-narrative film is distinct from nonfiction film, though both forms may overlap in documentary films. In the book Corrigan writes, "A non-narrative film may be entirely or partly fictional; conversely, a nonfiction film can be constructed as a narrative."

Ruttmann's 1927 Berlin: Symphony of a Great City, Dziga Vertov's Man with a Movie Camera (1929) and other cinéma vérité works can be considered as documentaries in the cinéma pur style.

Director George Lucas, as a teenager in San Francisco during the early 1960s, saw many exhilarating and inspiring abstract 16mm movies and nonstory noncharacter 16mm visual tone poems screened at cinematic artist Bruce Baillie's independent, underground Canyon Cinema shows; along with some of Baillie's own early visual motion pictures, Lucas became inspired by the work of Jordan Belson, Bruce Conner, Will Hindle, and others. Lucas then went on to enroll as a film student at USC School of Cinematic Arts, where he saw many more inspiring cinematic works in class, particularly the visual movies coming out of the National Film Board of Canada like Arthur Lipsett's , the French-Canadian cameraman Jean-Claude Labrecque's cinéma vérité 60 Cycles, the work of Norman McLaren, and the visualist cinéma vérité documentaries of Claude Jutra. Lipsett's 21-87, a 1963 Canadian short abstract collage film of discarded footage and city street scenes, had a profound influence on Lucas and sound designer/editor Walter Murch. Lucas greatly admired pure cinema and at film school became prolific at making 16 mm nonstory noncharacter visual tone poems and cinéma vérité, with such titles as Look at Life, , , The Emperor, Anyone Lived in a Pretty (how) Town, , and . Lucas's aesthetic and style was also strongly influenced for the films. Lucas tributes to 21-87 appear in several places in Star Wars, with the phrase, " the Force", said to have been inspired by 21-87. Lucas was passionate and interested in camerawork and editing, defining himself as a filmmaker as opposed to being a director, and he loved making abstract visual movies that create emotions purely through cinema.

References

James, David. The Most Typical Avant-Garde [UC Press]

Malcolm Le Grice, Abstract Film and Beyond. [MIT Press, 1981]

William Moritz, Optical Poetry. [Indiana University Press, 2004]

Holly Rogers and Jeremy Barham: The Music and Sound of Experimental Film, [New York: Oxford University Press, 2017]

Sitney, P. Adams, Visionary Film [Oxford University Press, 2002]

William Wees, Light Moving in Time. [University of California Press, 1992]

Andreas Weiland, Hamburg Memories [review of 3 films by Malcolm Le Grice, and by other experimental filmmakers], in: ART IN SOCIETY, No. 3

Bassan, Raphaël, Cinema and abstraction: from Bruno Corra to Hugo Verlinde [Senses of Cinema, No. 61, December 2011]

Bibliography

James, David, The Most Typical Avant-Garde [UC Press]

Malcolm Le Grice, Abstract Film and Beyond. [MIT Press, 1981]

William Moritz, Optical Poetry. [Indiana University Press, 2004]

Sitney, P. Adams, Visionary Film [Oxford University Press, 2002]

William Wees, Light Moving in Time. [University of California Press, 1992]

Bassan, Raphaël, Cinema and abstraction : from Bruno Corra to Hugo Verlinde Senses of Cinema, No. 61, December 2011

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Non-narrative film is an aesthetic of cinematic film that does not narrate, or relate "an event, whether real or imaginary". It is usually a form of art film or experimental film, not made for mass entertainment. Narrative film is the dominant aesthetic, though non-narrative film is not fully distinct from that aesthetic.

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Modern Marvels: The Evolution of the Telephone (S4, E2) | Full Episode | History

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Drunk Tank Pink by Adam Alter | Summary | Free Audiobook

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The Photo That Changed Modern Portraiture

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Inspired by Salvador Dalí's painting, the photograph has changed portrait photography

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Leda Atomica is a painting by Salvador Dalí, made in 1949. The picture depicts Leda, the mythological queen of Sparta, with the swan. Leda is a frontal portrait of Dalí's wife, Gala, who is seated on a pedestal with a swan suspended behind and to her left. Different objects such as a book, a set square, two stepping stools and an egg float around the main figure. In the background on both sides, the rocks of Cap Norfeu (on the Costa Brava in Catalonia, between Roses and Cadaqués) define the location of the image.

The painting is exhibited in the Dalí Theatre and Museum in Figueres.

Leda was admired by Zeus, who seduced her in the guise of a swan on her wedding night when she slept with her husband Tyndareus. This double consummation of her marriage resulted in two eggs, each of them hatching twins: from the first egg Castor and Pollux, and from the second Clytemnestra and Helen.

Leda Atomica is organized according to a rigid mathematical framework, following the " divine proportion". Leda and the swan are set in a pentagon inside which has been inserted a five-point star of which Dalí made several sketches. The five points of the star symbolize the seeds of perfection: love, order, light (truth) willpower and word (action).

The harmony of the framework was calculated by the artist following the recommendations of Romanian mathematician Matila Ghyka. Unlike his contemporaries who took the view that mathematics distracted from or interrupted artistic inspiration, Dalí considered that any work of art, to be such, had to be based on composition and calculation. Ghyka's influence is clear in the mathematical formula of the golden ratio in the lower right of the image

which Ghyka specifically cites to calculate the side of a regular pentagon.

After the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Dalí took his work in a new direction based on the principle that the modern age had to be assimilated into art if art was to be truly contemporary. Dalí acknowledged the discontinuity of matter, incorporating a mysterious sense of levitation into his Leda Atomica. Just as one finds that at the atomic level particles do not physically touch, so here Dalí suspends even the water above the shore-an element that would figure into many other later works. Every object in the painting is carefully painted to be motionless in space, even though nothing in the painting is connected. Leda looks as if she is trying to touch the back of the swan's head, but doesn't do it.

Dalí himself described the painting in the following way:

" Dalí shows us the hierarchized libidinous emotion, suspended and as though hanging in midair, in accordance with the modern 'nothing touches' theory of intra-atomic physics. Leda does not touch the swan; Leda does not touch the pedestal; the pedestal does not touch the base; the base does not touch the sea; the sea does not touch the shore. . . ."

In reference to the classical myth Dalí identified himself with the immortal Pollux while his deceased older brother (also called Salvador) would represent Castor, the mortal of the twins. Another equivalence could be made regarding the other twins of the myth, Dalí's sister Ana María being the mortal Clytemnestra, while Gala would represent divine Helen. Salvador Dalí himself wrote: "I started to paint Leda Atómica which exalts Gala, the metaphysical goddess and succeeded to create the 'suspended space'".

Dalí's Catholicism enables also other interpretations of the painting. The painting can be conceived as Dalí's way of interpreting the Annunciation. The swan seems to whisper her future in her ear, possibly a reference to the legend that the conception of Jesus was achieved by the introduction of the breath of the Holy Ghost into the Virgin Mary's ear. Leda looks straight into the bird's eyes with an understanding expression of what is happening to her and what will happen in the future to her and to her unsure reality. Dalí's transformation of Mary is the result of love as if he created his love to Gala, like God to Mary.

Jean-Louis Ferrier - Dalí, Leda atomica : anatomie d'un chef-d'oeuvre - Gonthier, Paris, 1980 - ISBN 978-2-282-30166-2

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Leda Atomica is a painting by Salvador Dalí, made in 1949. The picture depicts Leda, the mythological queen of Sparta, with the swan. Leda is a frontal portrait of Dalí's wife, Gala, who is seated on a pedestal with a swan suspended behind and to her left.

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Austrian-born architect Victor Gruen spent his early years in Vienna, where people interacted in lively pedestrian environments filled with shops, cafes, and street artists.

Watch the Segment

Later, working in the U.S. after World War II, he was troubled by suburban sprawl and the social isolation it created. In his own words, he wanted to liberate American cities from "the terror of the automobile." He envisioned "livable" and "lovable" spaces that got people out of their cars and interacting with each other.

With the commission from the owners of Dayton Department Stores for the Southdale Center in Edina, Minnesota, he got his chance. He turned the standard street-facing strip center inside-out and, in the process, introduced the formula for the first regional indoor shopping mall.

Beyond its collection of shops, Southdale Center provided a light-filled interior that he called the "Garden Court of Perpetual Spring" - a large open space with a goldfish pond and bird aviary, sculptures, and a sidewalk café. More than 75,000 people attended the grand opening.

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While Southdale Center was designed to bring vitality and social interaction to the suburbs, its influence ultimately contributed to suburban sprawl and urban decline as shopping malls displaced urban retail stores. But in Minneapolis, the urban core has been revived in recent years. Join Geoffrey Baer on a bicycle tour of the Riverfront District. Watch the story.

Gruen envisioned shopping centers such as Southdale as the core of more vibrant suburban communities, with houses, apartments, schools, and offices surrounding the mall. But it was not to be.

What Gruen didn't anticipate was that far from bringing the cosmopolitan energy of the urban plaza to the suburbs, his innovation - and the many copycats it inspired - encouraged the very kind of sprawl he sought to mitigate. Even Frank Lloyd Wright later weighed in: he said Gruen "should have left downtown, downtown."
Gruen returned to Austria and spent his last years in Vienna. But his Southdale Center continued to influence decades of suburban shopping malls, building momentum for suburban sprawl.

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Austrian-born architect Victor Gruen spent his early years in Vienna, where people interacted in lively pedestrian environments filled with shops, cafes, and street artists. Watch the Segment Later, working in the U.S. after World War II, he was troubled by suburban sprawl and the social isolation it created.

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Narrative art is art that tells a story, either as a moment in an ongoing story or as a sequence of events unfolding over time. Some of the earliest evidence of human art suggests that people told stories with pictures. Although there are some common features to all narrative art, different cultures have developed idiosyncratic ways to discern narrative action from pictures.

Prior to the advent of literacy most narrative art was done in a simultaneous narrative style with very little overarching organization. Once literacy developed in different parts of the world pictures began to be organized along register lines, like lines on a page, that helped define the direction of the narrative. This method of linking scenes together led to other ways of telling stories in the 20th century, namely the newspaper, comic strips and comic books.

In painting in traditional Western art since the Renaissance, the concept of history painting covers most narrative scenes.

Though it requires sophisticated conventions to make the narrative clear, narrative art occurs very early in the history of art. A number of reliefs in the European Bronze Age Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin show monoscenic narratives of hunting or battle, the former sometimes indicating the movements of hunter or prey with indications of their tracks in a way similar to modern diagrammatic illustrations. One of the earliest works of Ancient Egyptian art is the Narmer Palette relief in the Louvre Museum, which shows a victory of King Narmer (c. 31st century BC) in several scenes.

Narrative art was employed extensively in the Neo-Assyrian Period. Most significantly, the walls of the major Assyrian royal palaces (the Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal II at Nimrud, the Central Palace of Tiglath-Pileser III at Nimrud, the Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad, the Southwest Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh, and the North Palace of Assurbanipal at Nineveh) were lined orthostats sculpted in low relief with scenes depicting the activities of the king (hunting, battle, and ritual). Sometimes, scenes were also depicted on glazed bricks or wall paintings (e.g. at Til Barsip). Bronze bands decorating the doors of Assyrian temples and palaces were also sometimes decorated with scenes of the king's activities in narrative style. The most famous of these are the " Balawat Gates" commissioned by Shalmaneser III for his palace at Balawat (ancient Imgur-Enlil); additional fragmentary bronze gate bands dating to Assurnasirpal II have been found at Balawat, and very poorly preserved fragments from other sites, such as Khorsabad, Nimrud, Assur, and Tell Hadad.

The lives of Jesus and Buddha, the founders of new religions, their followers, and in the case of Buddha also the former lives, were to provide new subject-matter for narrative art, as did elements of older religions such as the Labours of Hercules. Trajan's Column is an exceptional example of Imperial Roman narrative art. In Christian art the Life of Christ in art and Life of the Virgin supplied the most common subjects, based around the incidents celebrated in the major feasts of the church calendar, but the lives of saints gave many others.

Book illustrations are found from ancient times in several cultures, and are very often narrative in nature. There appear to have been some lavishly illustrated books in Western Late Antiquity, no doubt belonging to wealthy collectors, including both classic literary texts ( Vergilius Vaticanus and Vergilius Romanus) and biblical texts; the Quedlinburg Itala fragment seems to have had between two and four images facing every text page, and to have been more densely illustrated than any subsequent biblical text in an illuminated manuscript.

Narratives occur in a space and unfold in time. In narrative art, the artist chooses how to portray the story, represent the space, and how to shape time within the artwork. Narrative art can be categorized into various types, also known as modes or styles. A piece of artwork is not limited to only one type of narrative. An artwork may have a narrative type as a whole, as well as portions of the artwork itself that depict separate types of narratives. Several of these types are covered below. A depicted action in itself can suggest a scene or setting:

You can imagine the Trojan War taking place at Troy without having to depict the actual city of Troy. You can show Achilles dragging Hector's body around the city of Troy without having to depict the walls of the city. Nonetheless, the idea that each action is limited to a specific place can still pertain, because the Trojan War did take place at Troy and Achilles did drag Hector's body around the city.

A simultaneous narrative is a type of narrative that has very little visually discernible organization to those who are not acquainted with its purpose. It can focus on geometric or abstract designs as well as the placement or arrangement of items within the artwork. Simultaneous narratives concentrate on repeatable patterns and redundant systems with a focus on dualities.

A monoscenic narrative is a type of narrative that represents a single scene. There is no repetition of characters and there is only one action taking place. The scene is one that is easily identifiable in context of the narrative and is of significant importance.

Under this definition, most art that is usually not considered a narrative would fit under the monoscenic narrative type. Narrative art is art that tells a story, either as a moment in an ongoing story or as a sequence of events unfolding over time. This in retrospect makes a good portion of art narrative art. Landscapes and portraits however do not meet the criteria of the definition provided, though they might be, depending on the artist's intention.

Achilles kills Penthesilea (amphora) by Exekias

Exekias was an ancient Greek vase-painter and potter. A good portion of his vase work included scenes from Greek mythology. He was known for his ability to capture the most critical points of a story and illustrate them into one simple scene. The amphora portraying Achilles killing Penthesilea is such an example.

This monoscenic narrative illustrated on this amphora exemplifies a vital part of the Trojan saga. It is the moment in which Achilles and Penthesilea fall in love. In the heat of battle, Achilles battles Penthesilea and with a fatal blow, causes her helmet to be pushed back. When their eyes meet, it is said that they fall in love. This is ruined by Achilles' inability to control his bloodlust. Due to this tragedy, Achilles refuses to fight and from this many consequences arise that eventually could be linked to his demise.

A line of development of narrative art begins with William Hogarth, the English painter. His monoscenic depictions of crucial moments in a narrative were taken up in the 19th century by other British painters. The Victorian terms applied to this style were "subject painting" or "anecdotic" painting.

A continuous narrative is a type of narrative that illustrates multiple scenes of a narrative within a single frame. Multiple actions and scenes are portrayed in a single visual field without any dividers. The sequence of events within the narrative is defined through the reuse of the main character or characters. It emphasizes the change in movement and state of the repeating characters as indicators of scene or phase changes in the narrative.

The Column of Trajan depicts one event: the Dacian Wars. This continuous narrative can be broken down into a series of events. These events flow from one scene to another without any physical indicators such as vertical lines. Because of how the narrative is read, from standing in front of the column, it seems to ebb right to left and then left to right which is common in continuous narratives.

The narrative becomes rather hard to read as the column gets higher. Research suggests that the column was originally planned to be read while walking a circular staircase around the column itself . The story then would not ebb and continue on in a sequential manner.

The ' Bayeux Tapestry' (a misnomer as it is really an embroidery not a tapestry) tells the story of the Norman invasion of England in 1066. The theme of the Bayeux Tapestry is treason and deception. The narrative reflects a partisan Norman view of the events of the conquest of England. Though the tapestry seems to be framed because it is separated by registers, horizontal lines, it is still a continuous narrative. Registers are needed in order to separate a story to fit within a certain area. If cut up and placed next to each other, a continuous narrative would exist. A continuous narrative does not have any separation between scenes and actions.

A synoptic narrative depicts a single scene in which a character or characters are portrayed multiple times within a frame to convey that multiple actions are taking place. This causes the sequence of events to be unclear within the narrative. Synoptic narratives typically provide visual cues that convey the sequence, but still might be difficult to decipher for those unfamiliar with the story.

Chaddanta Jataja, Amaravati

An instance of a synoptic narrative is one represented in a medallion from the stupa at Amaravati. It, like many synoptic narratives, can be difficult to interpret. The medallion is meant to present the reader with the story of Buddha's previous birth as the elephant Chaddanta. The center of the medallion has only decorative carving, which is a visual cue on how the medallion is meant to be interpreted; which is in a circular pattern. Other than that subtle visual cue the artist leaves very little indication of the order.

The medallion can be separated into 3 episodes:

1 - Chaddanta presents his chief queen with lotus.

2 - Junior queen in offended.

3 - She, the junior queen, leaves to be on her own.

4 - She lays dying, hoping for revenge.

5 - A hunter aims an arrow at Chaddanta.

6 - The hunter saws off Chaddanta's tusks.

7- The hunter is seen departing with the tusks. (This isn't numbered but is at the very top center)

A panoramic (or panoptic) narrative is a narrative that depicts multiple scenes and actions without the repetition of characters. Actions may be in a sequence or represent simultaneous actions during an event.

The Siphnian Treasury at Delphi has four marble friezes, one for each cardinal direction. These four friezes depict panoramic narratives through the use of carvings of the marble. The north frieze is an illustration of a battle between the Olympic gods and the giants. In the far left two giants attack Zeus in his chariot, who is no longer visible due to deterioration. Hera is seen finishing off a giant to the right of Zeus with Athena behind her (further right) fighting two giants. To the right of Athena is her brother Ares who is fighting two other giants with one already dead at his feet. There are multiple narratives taking place with each combatant in varying scenes. The dead giant at Ares' feet was downed by Athena but Ares is depicted as moving forward in the narrative by stepping over the corpse.

A progressive narrative portrays a single scene in which characters do not repeat. However, multiple actions are taking place in order to convey a passing of time in the narrative. A progressive narrative is not to be interpreted as a group of simultaneous events but rather a sequence that is dependent on its location. Actions displayed by characters in the narratives compact present and future action into a single image.

A sequential narrative is very much like a continuous narrative with one major difference. A sequential narrative focuses on enframement to develop temporal progression. Each scene and action is represented within its frame as a unit. Each frame is a particular scene during a particular moment. A sequential narrative is the type of narrative generally used in comics.

Dehejia, Vidya. " On Modes of Visual Narration in Early Buddhist Art". The Art Bulletin, Vol. 72, No. 3 (Sep., 1990), pp. 374-392

Petersen, Robert. "Early Visual Literacy". History of Graphic Novels EIU4171G Class. Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL. 2010.

Small, Jocelyn Penny. " Time in Space: Narrative in Classical Art". The Art Bulletin, Vol. 81, No. 4 (Dec., 1999), pp. 562-575.

Connelly, Joan B.. "Parthenon and Parthenoi: A Mythological Interpretation of the Parthenon Frieze". American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 100, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pp. 53-80

Petrakos, Basil. Delphi. Athens: CLIO Editions, 1977. Print.

Dodwell C. R. "The Bayeux Tapestry and the French Secular Epic." The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 108, No. 764 (Nov., 1966), pp. 549-560

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Narrative art is art that tells a story, either as a moment in an ongoing story or as a sequence of events unfolding over time. Some of the earliest evidence of human art suggests that people told stories with pictures.

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The rule of thirds is a " rule of thumb" for composing visual images such as designs, films, paintings, and photographs. The guideline proposes that an image should be imagined as divided into nine equal parts by two equally spaced horizontal lines and two equally spaced vertical lines, and that important compositional elements should be placed along these lines or their intersections. Proponents of the technique claim that aligning a subject with these points creates more tension, energy and interest in the composition than simply centering the subject.

The photograph demonstrates the application of the rule of thirds. The horizon in the photograph sits at the horizontal line dividing the lower third of the photo from the upper two-thirds. The tree sits at the intersection of two lines, sometimes called a power point or a crash point. Points of interest in the photo do not have to actually touch one of these lines to take advantage of the rule of thirds. For example, the brightest part of the sky near the horizon where the sun recently set does not fall directly on one of the lines, but does fall near the intersection of two of the lines, close enough to take advantage of the rule.

The rule of thirds is applied by aligning a subject with the guide lines and their intersection points, placing the horizon on the top or bottom line, or allowing linear features in the image to flow from section to section. The main reason for observing the rule of thirds is to discourage placement of the subject at the center, or prevent a horizon from appearing to divide the picture in half. Michael Ryan and Melissa Lenos, authors of the book An Introduction to Film Analysis: Technique and Meaning in Narrative Film state that the use of rule of thirds is "favored by cinematographers in their effort to design balanced and unified images" (page 40).

When filming or photographing people, it is common to line the body up to a vertical line and the person's eyes to a horizontal line. If filming a moving subject, the same pattern is often followed, with the majority of the extra room being in front of the person (the way they are moving). Likewise, when photographing a still subject who is not directly facing the camera, the majority of the extra room should be in front of the subject with the vertical line running through their perceived center of mass.

The rule of thirds was first written down by John Thomas Smith in 1797. In his book Remarks on Rural Scenery, Smith quotes a 1783 work by Sir Joshua Reynolds, in which Reynolds discusses, in unquantified terms, the balance of dark and light in a painting. John Thomas Smith then continues with an expansion on the idea, naming it the "Rule of thirds":

Two distinct, equal lights, should never appear in the same picture : One should be principal, and the rest subordinate, both in dimension and degree: Unequal parts and gradations lead the attention easily from part to part, while parts of equal appearance hold it awkwardly suspended, as if unable to determine which of those parts is to be considered as the subordinate. "And to give the utmost force and solidity to your work, some part of the picture should be as light, and some as dark as possible: These two extremes are then to be harmonized and reconciled to each other." (Reynolds' Annot. on Du Fresnoy.)

Analogous to this "Rule of thirds", (if I may be allowed so to call it) I have presumed to think that, in connecting or in breaking the various lines of a picture, it would likewise be a good rule to do it, in general, by a similar scheme of proportion; for example, in a design of landscape, to determine the sky at about two-thirds ; or else at about one-third, so that the material objects might occupy the other two : Again, two thirds of one element, (as of water) to one third of another element (as of land); and then both together to make but one third of the picture, of which the two other thirds should go for the sky and aerial perspectives. This rule would likewise apply in breaking a length of wall, or any other too great continuation of line that it may be found necessary to break by crossing or hiding it with some other object : In short, in applying this invention, generally speaking, or to any other case, whether of light, shade, form, or color, I have found the ratio of about two thirds to one third, or of one to two, a much better and more harmonizing proportion, than the precise formal half, the too-far-extending four-fifths-and, in short, than any other proportion whatever. I should think myself honored by the opinion of any gentleman on this point; but until I shall by better informed, shall conclude this general proportion of two and one to be the most pictoresque medium in all cases of breaking or otherwise qualifying straight lines and masses and groupes [sic], as Hogarth's line is agreed to be the most beautiful, (or, in other words, the most pictoresque) medium of curves.

Writing in 1845, in his book Chromatics, George Field notes that Sir Joshua Reynolds gives the ratio 2:1 as a rule for the proportion of warm to cold colors in a painting, and attributes to Smith the expansion of that rule to all proportions in painting:

Sir Joshua has given it as a rule, that the proportion of warm to cold colour in a picture should be as two to one, although he has frequently deviated therefrom; and Smith, in his "Remarks on Rural Scenery," would extend a like rule to all the proportions of painting, begging for it the term of the "rule of thirds," according to which, a landscape, having one third of land, should have two thirds of water, and these together, forming about one-third of the picture, the remaining two-thirds to be for air and sky; and he applies the same rule to the crossing and breaking of lines and objects, &c.

Even at this early date, there was skepticism over the universality of such a rule, at least in regards to color, for Field continues:

This rule, however, does not supply a general law, but universalises a particular, the invariable observance of which would produce a uniform and monotonous practice. But, however occasionally useful, it is neither accurate nor universal, the true mean of nature requiring compensation, which, in the case of warmth and coolness, is in about equal proportions, while, in regard to advancing and retiring colours, the true balance of effect is, approximately, three of the latter to one of the former; nevertheless, the proportions in both cases are to be governed by the predominance of light or shade, and the required effect of a picture, in which, and other species of antagonism, the scale of equivalents affords a guide.

Smith's conception of the rule is meant to apply more generally than the version commonly explained today, as he recommends it not just for dividing the frame, but also for all division of straight lines, masses, or groups. On the other hand, he does not discuss the now-common idea that intersections of the third-lines of the frame are particularly strong or interesting for composition.

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The rule of thirds is a " rule of thumb" for composing visual images such as designs, films, paintings, and photographs. The guideline proposes that an image should be imagined as divided into nine equal parts by two equally spaced horizontal lines and two equally spaced vertical lines, and that important compositional elements should be placed along these lines or their intersections.

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The term Pseudo-athlete is used to describe works of art from the Late Republican period in Rome that combine a veristic head with an idealized body that references Classical Greek sculpture. Verism is a style of Roman portraiture that portrays an individual with aging facial features, most notably sagging skin around the mouth and eyes, short-cropped or balding hair, and deep wrinkles on the forehead and around the eyes and mouth. These features were emphasized under the tradition of verism in order to stress an advanced moral and psychological consciousness that comes along with advanced age. The veristic features of the pseudo-athlete's head are juxtaposed with the figure's body, which is depicted in the guise of an athletic youth from Classical Greece. The pseudo-athlete's body is typically depicted in heroic-nudity with highly smooth muscular forms and are often shown in an active stance or standing in an S-shaped curved known as contrapposto.

Veristic style was likely developed as a reference to the images associated with Roman funerary rituals. From Polybios's writings on funerary rituals we know that wax masks were created from the faces of the deceased in order to create an exact replica of their likeness that would be worn by someone of similar stature during the funerary ritual. These public funerals intended to honor the virtuous character of the deceased, emphasizing prized Roman values such as stern moral seriousness ( gravitas), firmness and strictness of judgement ( severitas), and determination and self-possession ( constantia). It is likely that in order to associate themselves with their honorable ancestors, living patrons began to reference the style of these funerary masks in their own portraiture.

The veristic style of Late Republican Rome came in contact with the idealized style of Classical Greece largely on the Island of Delos, where Greek artists and Roman patrons lived in close proximity. During the late republic, many Roman traders and merchants came to Delos to take advantage of its central location for sea trade, bringing their own artistic style along with them. These merchants had enough disposable wealth to afford portrait commissions from the local Greek artists that were familiar with sculpting in the idealized style of Classical Greece, thus causing the two drastically different styles to merge in a way that may appear semi-awkward to the modern eye. Scholars like Tom Stevenson have also credited the origins of the pseudo-athlete to the desire of Roman patrons on the island of Delos to be depicted with both the energy and passion of youth that is valued by Greeks along with wisdom of age that Romans value. This led to the creation of portrait sculptures that combine a veristic head and youthful body.

The Pseudo-athlete of Delos is a larger than life-size nude male portrait measuring 7 feet and 5 inches tall (about 2.26 meters) that is dated to around 100 BCE. It was found in a house on the Greek island of Delos that the French excavators who discovered the sculpture have dubbed the House of the Diadoumenos, since a copy of Polykleitos's sculpture of an athlete binding his hair (The Diadoumenos) was discovered at the same site. The sculpture depicts the Roman businessman or potential slave trader that owned the house and had enough disposable wealth to commission a portrait of himself. The bust of the sculpture follows the tradition of Roman veristic portraiture, most notably in the figure's balding head, large ears, the subtle wrinkles on his forehead and at the corners of his mouth, as well the sagging skin around his neck and chin.

The Pseudo-athlete's body departs from the Roman Republican tradition and more closely resembles sculptures of athletic youth from Classical Greece. The figure's body is smoothed over with idealized musculature that does not match the figure's aged face. The sculpture also depicts the patron in contrapposto, or a stance in which the figure's weight is distributed unequally on their two feet, creating a naturalistic "s-shaped" curve of the body. The Pseudo-Athlete of Delos plants the bulk of his weight on right foot, while his left foot lifts up slightly off the ground in a subtle stride. Scholars of Roman art like Fred Kleiner note that the stance of the Pseudo-athlete is drawn directly from the stance of the Diadoumenos, since the figure's weight is distributed in a similar manner. The weight of the marble of the Pseudo-Athlete is even supported by a tree-trunk shaped strut located next to the figure's right leg that mimics the one seen on Polykleitos's Diadoumenos. Other scholars like J. J. Politt have interpreted the body of the figure as a reference to the muscular torso of Hermes, the Italian counterpart to the Roman god Mercury who was the patron God of businessmen and is often associated directly with the traders on the island of Delos, like the patron of this sculpture.

Other than its veristic head, the Pseudo-athlete of Delos references the tradition of Roman portraiture because of its inclusion of the draped fabric. A traditional Greek nude is shown completely bare, but Roman portraits were almost always clothed, since public displays of nudity were typically associated with condemned criminals that were stripped as a form of shaming, or slaves who were displayed naked during trades. While the Pseudo-Athlete is depicted nude, the drapery of the fabric serves as a nod to the Roman tradition of depicting the drapery of Roman garments, even with the distinctly un-Roman nude form. In this way the simultaneous inclusion of draped fabric and a nude form represents another merger of Roman and Greek portrait traditions within the Pseudo-athlete of Delos.

In Tivoli, at the Sanctuary of Hercules, a pseudo-athlete portrait of a general was found. The marble sculpture with a veristic Roman head and idealized Greek body dates back to 75-50 BCE. To show his rank in the army and hold up the heavy marble statue, there is a cuirass at his side. His typical Republican stern and wrinkled face is contrasted by a youthful almost nude body that exudes power and is in the tradition of a Hellenistic ruler. Through the reference back to Greek idealized body, the patron expresses cultural superiority. The general exudes modesty by using a draped cloth to cover his genitals.

Diadoumenos (Statue of an Athlete Binding His Hair), 1st Century BCE copy of an original by Polykleitos from 450-425 BCE

House of the Diadoumenos, Delos. The site of both the Pseudo-Athlete of Delos and the Diadoumenos.

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The term Pseudo-athlete is used to describe works of art from the Late Republican period in Rome that combine a veristic head with an idealized body that references Classical Greek sculpture.

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Art historians and philosophers of art have long had classificatory disputes about art regarding whether a particular cultural form or piece of work should be classified as art. Disputes about what does and does not count as art continue to occur today.

Defining art can be difficult. Aestheticians and art philosophers often engage in disputes about how to define art. By its original and broadest definition, art (from the Latin ars, meaning "skill" or " craft") is the product or process of the effective application of a body of knowledge, most often using a set of skills; this meaning is preserved in such phrases as " liberal arts" and " martial arts". However, in the modern use of the word, which rose to prominence after 1750, "art" is commonly understood to be skill used to produce an aesthetic result (Hatcher, 1999).

Britannica Online defines it as "the use of skill or imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects, environments, or experiences that can be shared with others". But how best to define the term "art" today is a subject of much contention; many books and journal articles have been published arguing over even the basics of what we mean by the term "art" (Davies, 1991 and Carroll, 2000). Theodor Adorno claimed in 1969 "It is self-evident that nothing concerning art is self-evident any more." It is not clear who has the right to define art. Artists, philosophers, anthropologists, and psychologists all use the notion of art in their respective fields, and give it operational definitions that are not very similar to each other's.

The second, more narrow, more recent sense of the word "art" is roughly as an abbreviation for creative art or " fine art." Here we mean that skill is being used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities. Often, if the skill is being used to create objects with a practical use, rather than paintings or sculpture with no practical function other than as an artwork, it will be considered it as falling under classifications such as the decorative arts, applied art and craft rather than fine art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it will be considered design instead of art. Some thinkers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference (Novitz, 1992). The modern distinction does not work well for older periods, such as medieval art, where the most highly regarded art media at the time were often metalwork, engraved gems, textiles and other "applied arts", and the perceived value of artworks often reflected the cost of the materials and sheer amount of time spent creating the work at least as much as the creative input of the artist.

In the Zhou dynasty of ancient China, excellence in the liù yì (六藝), or " Six Arts", was expected of the junzi (君子), or "perfect gentleman", as defined by philosophers like Confucius. Because these arts spanned both the civil and military aspects of life, excelling in all six required a scholar to be very well-rounded and polymathic. The Six Arts were as follows:

Later in the history of imperial China, the Six Arts were pared down, creating a similar system of Four Arts for the scholar-official caste to learn and follow:

Qín (琴), an instrument representing music

Qí (棋), a board game representing military strategy

Shū (書), or Chinese calligraphy, representing literacy

Huà (畫), or Chinese painting, representing the visual arts

Another attempt to systematically define art as a grouping of disciplines in antiquity is represented by the ancient Greek Muses. Each of the standard nine Muses symbolized and embodied one of nine branches of what the Greeks called , a term which roughly means "art" but has also been translated as "craft" or "craftsmanship", and the definition of the word also included more scientific disciplines. These nine traditional branches were:

In medieval Christian Europe, universities taught a standard set of seven liberal arts, defined by early medieval philosophers such as Boethius and Alcuin of York and as such centered around philosophy. The definitions of these subjects and their practice was heavily based on the educational system of Greece and Rome. These seven arts were themselves split into two categories:

At this time, and continuing after the Renaissance, the word "art" in English and its cognates in other languages had not yet attained their modern meaning. One of the first philosophers to discuss art in the framework we understand today was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who described in his Lectures on Aesthetics a ranking of the five major arts from most material to most expressive:

Hegel's listing of the arts caught on particularly in France, and with continual modifications the list has remained relevant and a subject of debate in French culture into the 21st century. This classification was popularized by Ricciotto Canudo, an early scholar of film who wrote "Manifesto of the Seventh Art" in 1923. The epithets given to each discipline by its placement of the list are often used to refer to them through paraphrase, particularly with calling film "the seventh art". The French Ministry of Culture often participates in the decision making for defining a "new" art. The ten arts are generally given as follows:

The ongoing dispute over what should constitute the next form of art has been fought for over a century. Currently, there are a variety of contenders for le onzième art, many of which are older disciplines whose practitioners feel that their medium is underappreciated as art. One particularly popular contender for the 11th is multimedia, which is intended to bring together the ten arts just as Canudo argued that cinema was the culmination of the first six arts. Performance art, as separate from the performing arts, has been called le douzième, or "twelfth", art.

The traditional Western classifications since the Renaissance have been variants of the hierarchy of genres based on the degree to which the work displays the imaginative input of the artist, using artistic theory that goes back to the ancient world. Such thinking received something of a boost with the aesthetics of Romanticism. A similar theoretical framework applied in traditional Chinese art; for example in both the Western and Far Eastern traditions of landscape painting (see literati painting), imaginary landscapes were accorded a higher status than realistic depictions of an actual landscape view - in the West relegated to " topographical views".

Many have argued that it is a mistake to even try to define art or beauty, that they have no essence, and so can have no definition. Often, it is said that art is a cluster of related concepts rather than a single concept. Examples of this approach include Morris Weitz and Berys Gaut.

Another approach is to say that "art" is basically a sociological category, that whatever art schools and museums, and artists get away with is considered art regardless of formal definitions. This institutional theory of art has been championed by George Dickie. Most people did not consider a store-bought urinal or a sculptural depiction of a Brillo Box to be art until Marcel Duchamp and Andy Warhol (respectively) placed them in the context of art (i.e., the art gallery), which then provided the association of these objects with the values that define art.

Proceduralists often suggest that it is the process by which a work of art is created or viewed that makes it, art, not any inherent feature of an object, or how well received it is by the institutions of the art world after its introduction to society at large. For John Dewey, for instance, if the writer intended a piece to be a poem, it is one whether other poets acknowledge it or not. Whereas if exactly the same set of words was written by a journalist, intending them as shorthand notes to help him write a longer article later, these would not be a poem.

Leo Tolstoy, on the other hand, claims that what makes something art or not is how it is experienced by its audience, not by the intention of its creator. Functionalists, like Monroe Beardsley argue that whether a piece counts as art depends on what function it plays in a particular context. For instance, the same Greek vase may play a non-artistic function in one context (carrying wine), and an artistic function in another context (helping us to appreciate the beauty of the human figure).

Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreements about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem, rather that "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art" (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about our values and where we are trying to go with our society than they are about theory proper.

On the other hand, Thierry de Duve argues that disputes about the definition of art are a necessary consequence of Marcel Duchamp's presentation of a readymade as a work of art. In his 1996 book Kant After Duchamp he reinterprets Kant's Critique of Judgement exchanging the phrase "this is beautiful" with "this is art", using Kantian aesthetics to address post-Duchampian art.

The work of the French artist Marcel Duchamp from the 1910s and 1920s paved the way for the conceptualists, providing them with examples of prototypically conceptual works (the readymades, for instance) that defied previous categorisations. Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s. The first wave of the "conceptual art" movement extended from approximately 1967 to 1978. Early "concept" artists like Henry Flynt, Robert Morris and Ray Johnson influenced the later, widely accepted movement of conceptual artists like Dan Graham, Hans Haacke, and Douglas Huebler.

More recently, the " Young British Artists" (YBAs), led by Damien Hirst, came to prominence in the 1990s and their work is seen as conceptual, even though it relies very heavily on the art object to make its impact. The term is used in relation to them on the basis that the object is not the artwork, or is often a found object, which has not needed artistic skill in its production. Tracey Emin is seen as a leading YBA and a conceptual artist, even though she has denied that she is and has emphasised personal emotional expression.

Recent examples of disputed conceptual art

Charles Saatchi funds Damien Hirst. The following year, the Saatchi Gallery exhibits Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, a shark in formaldehyde in a vitrine.

Vanessa Beecroft holds a performance in Milan, Italy. Here, young girls act as a second audience to the display of her diary of food.

Tracey Emin is nominated for the Turner Prize. My Bed consisted of her disheveled bed, surrounded by detritus such as condoms, blood-stained knickers, bottles and her bedroom slippers.

Martin Creed wins the Turner Prize for accurately titled The Lights Going On and Off, in which lights turned on and off in an otherwise empty room.

Miltos Manetas confronts the Whitney Biennial with his Whitneybiennial.com.

Simon Starling wins the Turner Prize for Shedboatshed. Starling presented a wooden shed which he had converted into a boat, floated down the Rhine, then remade into a shed..

Controversy in the UK

The Stuckist group of artists, founded in 1999, proclaimed themselves "pro-contemporary figurative painting with ideas and anti-conceptual art, mainly because of its lack of concepts." They also called it pretentious, "unremarkable and boring" and on July 25, 2002, in a demonstration, deposited a coffin outside the White Cube gallery, marked "The Death of Conceptual Art". In 2003, the Stuckism International Gallery exhibited a preserved shark under the title A Dead Shark Isn't Art, clearly referencing the Damien Hirst work (see disputes above).

In a BBC2 programme on 19 October 1999 hosted by Jeremy Paxman with Charles Thomson attacking that year's Turner Prize and artist Brad Lochore defending it, Thomson was displaying Stuckist paintings, while Lochore had brought along a plastic detergent bottle on a cardboard plinth. At one stage Lochore states, "if people say it's art, it's art". Paxman asks, "So you can say anything is art?" and Lochore replies, "You could say everything is art..." At this point Thomson, off-screen, can be heard to say, "Is my shoe art?" while at the same time his shoe appears in front of Lochore, who observes, "If you say it is. I have to judge it on those terms." Thomson's response is, "I've never heard anything so ludicrous in my life before."

In 2002, Ivan Massow, the Chairman of the Institute of Contemporary Arts branded conceptual art "pretentious, self-indulgent, craftless tat" and in "danger of disappearing up its own arse ... led by cultural tsars such as the Tate's Sir Nicholas Serota". Massow was consequently forced to resign. At the end of the year, the Culture Minister, Kim Howells, an art school graduate, denounced the Turner Prize as "cold, mechanical, conceptual bullshit".

In October 2004, the Saatchi Gallery told the media that "painting continues to be the most relevant and vital way that artists choose to communicate." Following this, Charles Saatchi began to sell prominent works from his YBA ( Young British Artists) collection.

Computer games date back as far as 1947, although they did not reach much of an audience until the 1970s. It would be difficult and odd to deny that computer and video games include many kinds of art (bearing in mind, of course, that the concept "art" itself is, as indicated, open to a variety of definitions). The graphics of a video game constitute digital art, graphic art, and probably video art; the original soundtrack of a video game clearly constitutes music. However it is a point of debate whether the video game as a whole should be considered a piece of art of some kind, perhaps a form of interactive art.

Film critic Roger Ebert, for example, has gone on record claiming that video games are not art, and for structural reasons will always be inferior to cinema, but then, he admits his lack of knowledge in the area when he affirmed that he "will never play a game when there is a good book to be read or a good movie to be watched.". Video game designer Hideo Kojima has argued that playing a videogame is not art, but games do have artistic style and incorporate art. Video game designer Chris Crawford argues that video games are art. Esquire columnist Chuck Klosterman also argues that video games are art. Tadhg Kelly argues that play itself is not art and that fun is a constant required for all games so the art in games is the art of location and place rather than interaction.

Noel Carroll, Theories of Art Today. 2000

Thierry de Duve, Kant After Duchamp. 1996

Evelyn Hatcher, ed. Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art. 1999

David Novitz, ''Disputes about Art'' Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 54:2, Spring 1996

Nina Felshin, ed. But is it Art? 1995

David Novitz, The Boundaries of Art. 1992

Stephen Davies, Definitions of Art. 1991

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Art historians and philosophers of art have long had classificatory disputes about art regarding whether a particular cultural form or piece of work should be classified as art. Disputes about what does and does not count as art continue to occur today. Defining art can be difficult.

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Vitruvius (; c. 80-70 BC - after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled De architectura. He originated the idea that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas ("strength", "utility", and "beauty"). These principles were later widely adopted in Roman architecture. His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci.

Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum (artillery experts) and libratores who actually operated the machines. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of and artillery war machines for sieges. It is possible that Vitruvius served with Julius Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus.

Vitruvius' De architectura was widely copied and survives in many dozens of manuscripts throughout the Middle Ages, though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though the original illustrations have been lost, the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text.

Little is known about Vitruvius' life. Most inferences about him are extracted from his only surviving work De Architectura. His full name is sometimes given as "Marcus Vitruvius Pollio", but both the first and last names are uncertain. Marcus Cetius Faventinus writes of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores"; this can be read as "Vitruvius Polio, and others" or, less likely, as "Vitruvius, Polio, and others". An inscription in Verona, which names a Lucius Vitruvius Cordo, and an inscription from Thilbilis in North Africa, which names a Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra have been suggested as evidence that Vitruvius and Mamurra (who was a military praefectus fabrum under Julius Caesar) were from the same family; or were even the same individual. Neither association, however, is borne out by De Architectura (which Vitruvius dedicated to Augustus), nor by the little that is known of Mamurra.

Vitruvius was a military engineer (praefectus fabrum), or a praefect architectus armamentarius of the status group (a branch of the Roman civil service). He is mentioned in Pliny the Elder's table of contents for Naturalis Historia (Natural History), in the heading for mosaic techniques. Frontinus refers to "Vitruvius the architect" in his late 1st-century work De aquaeductu.

Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account, Vitruvius served in the Roman army under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius, and Gnaeus Cornelius. These names vary depending on the edition of De architectura. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, speculated as the same Publius Numisius inscribed on the Roman Theatre at Heraclea.

As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of and artillery war machines for sieges. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus.

The locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various "foreign tribes". Although he describes places throughout De Architectura, he does not say he was present. His service likely included north Africa, Hispania, Gaul (including Aquitaine) and Pontus.

To place the role of Vitruvius the military engineer in context, a description of "The Prefect of the camp" or army engineer is quoted here as given by Flavius Vegetius Renatus in The Military Institutions of the Romans:

The Prefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the [Prefect], had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, balistae and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself.

At various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and sieges occurred. He is the only source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC. Of the battlegrounds of the Gallic War there are references to:

The siege and massacre of the 40,000 residents at Avaricum in 52 BC. Vercingetorix commented that "the Romans did not conquer by valour nor in the field, but by a kind of art and skill in assault, with which they [Gauls] themselves were unacquainted."

The broken siege at Gergovia in 52 BC.

The circumvallation and Battle of Alesia in 52 BC. The women and children of the encircled city were evicted to conserve food, and then starved to death between the opposing walls of the defenders and besiegers.

The siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC.

These are all sieges of large Gallic . Of the sites involved in Caesar's civil war, we find the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC, the Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC (Hellas - Greece), the Battle of Zela of 47 BC (modern Turkey), and the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's African campaign. A legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata, of which ballista would be an auxiliary unit.

Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect. In Roman times architecture was a broader subject than at present including the modern fields of architecture, construction management, construction engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, materials engineering, mechanical engineering, military engineering and urban planning; architectural engineers consider him the first of their discipline, a specialization previously known as technical architecture.

In his work describing the construction of military installations, he also commented on the miasma theory - the idea that unhealthy air from wetlands was the cause of illness, saying:

For fortified towns the following general principles are to be observed. First comes the choice of a very healthy site. Such a site will be high, neither misty nor frosty, and in a climate neither hot nor cold, but temperate; further, without marshes in the neighbourhood. For when the morning breezes blow toward the town at sunrise, if they bring with them mists from marshes and, mingled with the mist, the poisonous breath of the creatures of the marshes to be wafted into the bodies of the inhabitants, they will make the site unhealthy. Again, if the town is on the coast with southern or western exposure, it will not be healthy, because in summer the southern sky grows hot at sunrise and is fiery at noon, while a western exposure grows warm after sunrise, is hot at noon, and at evening all aglow.

Frontinus mentions Vitruvious in connection with the standard sizes of pipes: the role he is most widely respected. He is often credited as father of architectural acoustics for describing the technique of placement in theaters. The only building, however, that we know Vitruvius to have worked on is one he tells us about, a completed in 19 BC. It was built at Fanum Fortunae, now the modern town of Fano. The Basilica di Fano (to give the building its Italian name) has disappeared so completely that its very site is a matter of conjecture, although various attempts have been made to visualise it. The early Christian practice of converting Roman basilicae (public buildings) into cathedrals implies the basilica may be incorporated into the cathedral in Fano.

In later years the emperor Augustus, through his sister Octavia Minor, sponsored Vitruvius, entitling him with what may have been a pension to guarantee financial independence.

Whether De architectura was written by one author or is a compilation completed by subsequent librarians and copyists, remains an open question. The date of his death is unknown, which suggests that he had enjoyed only a little popularity during his lifetime.[citation needed ]

Gerolamo Cardano, in his 1552 book De subtilitate rerum, ranks Vitruvius as one of the 12 persons whom he supposes to have excelled all men in the force of genius and invention; and would not have scrupled[clarification needed ] to have given him the first place if it could be imagined that he had delivered nothing but his own discoveries.

Vitruvius is the author of De architectura, libri decem, known today as The Ten Books on Architecture, a treatise written in Latin on architecture, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. In the preface of Book I, Vitruvius dedicates his writings to giving personal knowledge of the quality of buildings to the emperor. Likely Vitruvius is referring to Marcus Agrippa's campaign of public repairs and improvements. This work is the only surviving major book on architecture from classical antiquity. According to Petri Liukkonen, this text "influenced deeply from the Early Renaissance onwards artists, thinkers, and architects, among them Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), and Michelangelo (1475-1564)." The next major book on architecture, Alberti's reformulation of Ten Books, was not written until 1452.

Vitruvius is famous for asserting in his book De architectura that a structure must exhibit the three qualities of firmitatis, utilitatis, venustatis - that is, stability, utility, and beauty. These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or the Vitruvian Triad. According to Vitruvius, architecture is an imitation of nature. As birds and bees built their nests, so humans constructed housing from natural materials, that gave them shelter against the elements. When perfecting this art of building, the Greeks invented the architectural orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. It gave them a sense of proportion, culminating in understanding the proportions of the greatest work of art: the human body. This led Vitruvius in defining his Vitruvian Man, as drawn later by Leonardo da Vinci: the human body inscribed in the circle and the square (the fundamental geometric patterns of the cosmic order). In this book series, Vitruvius, also wrote about climate in relation to housing architecture and how to choose locations for cities.

Vitruvius is sometimes loosely referred to as the first architect, but it is more accurate to describe him as the first Roman architect to have written surviving records of his field. He himself cites older but less complete works. He was less an original thinker or creative intellect than a codifier of existing architectural practice. Vitruvius had a much wider scope than modern architects. Roman architects practised a wide variety of disciplines; in modern terms, they could be described as being engineers, architects, landscape architects, surveyors, artists, and craftsmen combined. Etymologically the word architect derives from Greek words meaning 'master' and 'builder'. The first of the Ten Books deals with many subjects which now come within the scope of landscape architecture.

In Book I, Chapter 1, titled The Education of the Architect, Vitruvius instructs...

1. Architecture is a science arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning; by the help of which a judgment is formed of those works which are the result of other arts. Practice and theory are its parents. Practice is the frequent and continued contemplation of the mode of executing any given work, or of the mere operation of the hands, for the conversion of the material in the best and readiest way. Theory is the result of that reasoning which demonstrates and explains that the material wrought has been so converted as to answer the end proposed.

2. Wherefore the mere practical architect is not able to assign sufficient reasons for the forms he adopts; and the theoretic architect also fails, grasping the shadow instead of the substance. He who is theoretic as well as practical, is therefore doubly armed; able not only to prove the propriety of his design, but equally so to carry it into execution.

He goes on to say that the architect should be versed in drawing, geometry, optics (lighting), history, philosophy, music, theatre, medicine, and law.

In Book I, Chapter 3 ( The Departments of Architecture), Vitruvius divides architecture into three branches, namely; building; the construction of sundials and water clocks; and the design and use of machines in construction and warfare. He further divides building into public and private. Public building includes city planning, public security structures such as walls, gates and towers; the convenient placing of public facilities such as theatres, forums and markets, baths, roads and pavings; and the construction and position of shrines and temples for religious use. Later books are devoted to the understanding, design and construction of each of these.

In Book III, Chapter 1, Paragraph 3, Vitruvius writes about the proportions of man:

3. Just so the parts of Temples should correspond with each other, and with the whole. The navel is naturally placed in the centre of the human body, and, if in a man lying with his face upward, and his hands and feet extended, from his navel as the centre, a circle be described, it will touch his fingers and toes. It is not alone by a circle, that the human body is thus circumscribed, as may be seen by placing it within a square. For measuring from the feet to the crown of the head, and then across the arms fully extended, we find the latter measure equal to the former; so that lines at right angles to each other, enclosing the figure, will form a square.

It was upon these writings that Renaissance engineers, architects and artists like Mariano di Jacopo Taccola, Pellegrino Prisciani and Francesco di Giorgio Martini and finally Leonardo da Vinci based the illustration of the Vitruvian Man.

Vitruvius described the human figure as being the principal source of proportion.

The drawing itself is often used as an implied symbol of the essential symmetry of the human body, and by extension, of the universe as a whole.

In the introduction to book seven, Vitruvius goes to great lengths to present why he is qualified to write De Architectura. This is the only location in the work where Vitruvius specifically addresses his personal breadth of knowledge. Similar to a modern reference section, the author's position as one who is knowledgeable and educated is established. The topics range across many fields of expertise reflecting that in Roman times as today construction is a diverse field. Vitruvius is clearly a well-read man.[citation needed ]

In addition to providing his qualification, Vitruvius summarizes a recurring theme throughout the 10 books, a non-trivial and core contribution of his treatise beyond simply being a construction book. Vitruvius makes the point that the work of some of the most talented is unknown, while many of those of lesser talent but greater political position are famous. This theme runs through Vitruvius's ten books repeatedly - echoing an implicit prediction that he and his works will also be forgotten.

Vitruvius illustrates this point by naming what he considers the most talented individuals in history. Implicitly challenging the reader that they have never heard of some of these people, Vitruvius goes on and predicts that some of these individuals will be forgotten and their works lost, while other, less deserving political characters of history will be forever remembered with pageantry.

List of physicists: Thales, Democritus, Anaxagoras, Xenophanes

List of kings: Croesus, Alexander the Great, Darius

On plagiarism: Aristophanes, Ptolemy I Soter, a person named Attalus

On abusing dead authors: Zoilus Homeromastix, Ptolemy II Philadelphus

On divergence of the visual rays: Agatharchus, Aeschylus, Democritus, Anaxagoras

List of writers on temples: Silenus, Theodorus, Chersiphron and Metagenes, Ictinus and Carpion, Theodorus the Phocian, Hermogenes, Arcesius, Satyrus and a person named Pytheos

List of artists: Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas, Praxiteles, Timotheos

List of writers on laws of symmetry: Nexaris, Theocydes, a person named Demophilus, Pollis, a person named Leonidas, Silanion, Melampus, Sarnacus, Euphranor

List of writers on machinery: Diades of Pella, Archytas, Archimedes, Ctesibius, Nymphodorus, Philo of Byzantium, Diphilus, Democles, Charias, Polyidus of Thessaly, Pyrrus, Agesistratus

List of writers on architecture: Fuficius, Terentius Varro, Publius Septimius (writer)

List of architects: Antistates, Callaeschrus, Antimachides, Pormus, Cossutius

List of greatest temple architects: Chersiphron of Gnosus, Metagenes, Demetrius, Paeonius the Milesian, Ephesian Daphnis, Ictinus, Philo, Cossutius, Gaius Mucianus

Vitruvius' De architectura was "rediscovered" in 1414 by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) publicised it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome, 1486. Translations followed in Italian ( Cesare Cesariano, 1521), French (Jean Martin, 1547), English, German ( Walther H. Ryff, 1543) and Spanish and several other languages. The original illustrations had been lost and the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Later in the 16th-century Andrea Palladio provided illustrations for Daniele Barbaro's commentary on Vitruvius, published in Italian and Latin versions. The most famous illustration is probably Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man.

The surviving ruins of Roman antiquity, the Roman Forum, temples, theatres, triumphal arches and their reliefs and statues offered visual examples of the descriptions in the Vitruvian text. Printed and illustrated editions of De Architectura inspired Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical architecture. Filippo Brunelleschi, for example, invented a new type of hoist to lift the large stones for the dome of the cathedral in Florence and was inspired by De Architectura as well as surviving Roman monuments such as the Pantheon and the Baths of Diocletian.

Latin

Italian

French

English

Henry Wotton, 1624

Joseph Gwilt, 1826

Bill Thayer transcription of the Gwilt 1826 Edition

Morris H. Morgan, with illustrations prepared by Herbert Langford Warren, 1914, Harvard University Press

Thomas Gordon Smith, The Monacelli Press (January 5, 2004)

Books VIII, IX and X form the basis of much of what we know about Roman technology, now augmented by archaeological studies of extant remains, such as the water mills at Barbegal in France. The other major source of information is the Naturalis Historia compiled by Pliny the Elder much later in c. 75 AD.

The work is important for its descriptions of the many different machines used for engineering structures such as hoists, cranes and pulleys, as well as war machines such as catapults, and siege engines. As a practising engineer, Vitruvius must be speaking from personal experience rather than simply describing the works of others. He also describes the construction of sundials and water clocks, and the use of an aeolipile (the first steam engine) as an experiment to demonstrate the nature of atmospheric air movements (wind).

His description of aqueduct construction includes the way they are surveyed, and the careful choice of materials needed, although Frontinus (a general who was appointed in the late 1st century AD to administer the many aqueducts of Rome), writing a century later, gives much more detail of the practical problems involved in their construction and maintenance. Surely Vitruvius' book would have been of great assistance in this. Vitruvius was writing in the 1st century BC when many of the finest Roman aqueducts were built, and survive to this day, such as those at Segovia and the Pont du Gard. The use of the inverted siphon is described in detail, together with the problems of high pressures developed in the pipe at the base of the siphon, a practical problem with which he seems to be acquainted.

He describes many different construction materials used for a wide variety of different structures, as well as such details as stucco painting. Concrete and lime receive in-depth descriptions.

Vitruvius is cited as one of the earliest sources to connect lead mining and manufacture, its use in drinking water pipes, and its adverse effects on health. For this reason, he recommended the use of clay pipes and masonry channels in the provision of piped drinking-water.

Vitruvius is the source for the anecdote that credits Archimedes with the discovery of the mass-to-volume ratio while relaxing in his bath. Having been asked to investigate the suspected adulteration of the gold used to make a crown, Archimedes realised that the crown's volume could be measured exactly by its displacement of water, and ran into the street with the cry of

He describes the construction of Archimedes' screw in Chapter X (without mentioning Archimedes by name). It was a device widely used for raising water to irrigate fields and drain mines. Other lifting machines he mentions include the endless chain of buckets and the reverse overshot water-wheel. Remains of the water wheels used for lifting water were discovered when old mines were re-opened at Rio Tinto in Spain, Rosia Montana in Romania and Dolaucothi in west Wales. The Rio Tinto wheel is now shown in the British Museum, and the Dolaucothi specimen in the National Museum of Wales.

That he must have been well practised in surveying is shown by his descriptions of surveying instruments, especially the water level or chorobates, which he compares favourably with the a device using plumb lines. They were essential in all building operations, but especially in aqueduct construction, where a uniform gradient was important to the provision of a regular supply of water without damage to the walls of the channel. He also developed one of the first odometers, consisting of a wheel of known circumference that dropped a pebble into a container on every rotation.

He describes the many innovations made in building design to improve the living conditions of the inhabitants. Foremost among them is the development of the a type of central heating where hot air developed by a fire was channelled under the floor and inside the walls of public baths and villas. He gives explicit instructions how to design such buildings so that fuel efficiency is maximised, so that for example, the is next to the tepidarium followed by the frigidarium. He also advises on using a type of regulator to control the heat in the hot rooms, a bronze disc set into the roof under a circular aperture which could be raised or lowered by a pulley to adjust the ventilation. Although he does not suggest it himself, it is likely that his dewatering devices such as the reverse overshot water-wheel were used in the larger baths to lift water to header tanks at the top of the larger thermae, such as the Baths of Diocletian. The one which was used in Bath of Caracalla for grinding flour.

1. ^ The Oxford handbook of Greek and Roman art and architecture. Marconi, Clemente, 1966-. New York. 2015. ISBN 978-0-19-978330-4. OCLC 881386276.

2. ^ De Arch. Book 1, preface. section 2.

3. ^ Krinsky, Carol Herselle (1967). "Seventy-Eight Vitruvius Manuscripts". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. 30: 36-70. doi:10.2307/750736. JSTOR 750736.

4. John Oksanish, ^ Vitruvian Man: Rome under Construction, Oxford UP (2019), p. 33

5. ^ Moore, Richard E. M. (January 1968). "A Newly Observed Stratum in Roman Floor Mosaics". American Journal of Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 72 (1): 57-68. doi:10.2307/501823. JSTOR 501823.

6. Niccolò Marcello Venuti ^ Description of the First Discoveries of the Ancient City of Heraclea, Found Near Portici A Country Palace Belonging to the King of the Two Sicilies published by R. Baldwin, translated by Wickes Skurray, 1750. p62 [1]

7. Flavius Vegetius Renatus (390 BC). John Clarke (tr. 1767). ^ The Military Institutions of the Romans.

8. Mary Corbin Sies and Christopher Silver (1996). ^ Planning the twentieth-century American city. JHU Press, 1996, p. 42.

9. Vitruvius mentions Massilia several times, and the siege itself in ^ Book X.

10. ^ Liukkonen, Petri. "Vitruvius". Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on 13 January 2015.

11. ^ The "Vitruvius Project". Carnegie Mellon University, Computer Science Department. Retrieved 2008.

12. ^ Vitruvius (1914). The Ten Books on Architecture. Translated by Morgan, Morris Hicky. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-486-20645-5 - via Project Gutenberg.

13. ^ Reed Business Information (21 November 1974). "New Scientist". New Scientist Careers Guide: The Employer Contacts Book for Scientists. Reed Business Information: 552-. ISSN 0262-4079.

14. Fausto Pugnaloni and Paolo Clini. ^ "Vitruvius Basilica in Fano, Italy, journey through the virtual space of the reconstructed memory". GISdevelopment.net last accessed 3 August 2008

15. ^ Clini, P. (2002). "Vitruvius' basilica at Fano: the drawings of a lost building from De architectura libri decem" (PDF). The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. vol. XXXIV, part 5/W12, pp. 121-126. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2012.

16. ^ Charles Hutton (1795), Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine

17. ^ Vitruvius, Pollio (transl. Morris Hicky Morgan, 1960), The Ten Books on Architecture. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-20645-9.

18. Turner, A. J., ^ in Folkrets, M., and Lorch, R., (Editors), "Sic itur ad astra", Studien zur Geschichte der Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften - Festschrift für den Arabisten Paul Kunitzsch zum 70, Harrassowitz Verlag, 2000, p.563 ff.

19. Long, Pamela O., ^ in Galison, Peter, and Thompson, Emily (Editors), The Architecture of Science, The MIT Press, 1999, p. 81

20. Borys, Ann Marie, ^ Vincenzo Scamozzi and the Chorography of Early Modern Architecture, Routledge, 2014, pp. 85, 179

21. ^ http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~wulfric/vitruve/ http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~wulfric/vitruve/

22. ^ Books on architecture by Claude Perrault, Architectura website. Retrieved on 18 January 2020.

23. ^ Vitruvius, Pollio (1914). The Ten Books on Architecture. Translated by Morgan, Morris Hicky. Illustrations prepared by Herbert Langford Warren. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

24. ^ Rowland, Ingrid (2001). Vitruvius: 'Ten Books on Architecture'. Cambridge University Press. p. 352. ISBN 0521002923.

25. ^ Hodge, Trevor, A. (October 1981). "Vitruvius, Lead Pipes and Lead Poisoning". American Journal of Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 85 (4): 486-491. doi:10.2307/504874. JSTOR 504874.

Indra Kagis McEwen, Vitruvius: Writing the Body of Architecture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004. ISBN 0-262-63306-X

B. Baldwin, "The Date, Identity, and Career of Vitruvius". In Latomus 49 (1990), 425-34.

Kai Brodersen & Christiane Brodersen: Cetius Faventinus. Das römische Eigenheim / De architectura privata, Latin and German. Wiesbaden: Marix 2015, ISBN 978-3-7374-0998-8

Clarke, Georgia. 2002. "Vitruvian Paradigms". Papers of the British School at Rome 70:319-346.

De Angelis, Francesco. 2015. "Greek and Roman Specialized Writing on Art and Architecture". In The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Art and Architecture. Edited by Clemente Marconi, 41-69. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

König, Alice. 2009. "From Architect to Imperator: Vitruvius and his Addressee in the De Architectura". In Authorial Voices in Greco-Roman Technical Writing. Edited by Liba Chaia Taub and Aude Doody, 31-52. Trier, Germany: WVT Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.

Milnor, Kristina L. 2005. "Other Men's Wives". In Gender, Domesticity and the Age of Augustus: Inventing Private Life. By Kristina Milnor, 94-139. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Nichols, Marden Fitzpatrick. 2017".Author and Audience in Vitruvius' De Architectura". Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Rowland, Ingrid D. 2014. "Vitruvius and His Influence". In A Companion to Roman Architecture. Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen, 412-425. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.

Sear, Frank B. 1990. "Vitruvius and Roman Theater Design". American Journal of Archaeology 94.2: 249-258.

Smith, Thomas Gordon. 2004. Vitruvius on Architecture. New York: Monacelli Press.

Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1994. "The Articulation of the House". In Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum. By Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, 38-61. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 2008. "Vitruvius: Building Roman Identity". In Rome's Cultural Revolution. By Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, 144-210. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Vitruvius (; c. 80-70 BC - after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled De architectura . He originated the idea that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas ("strength", "utility", and "beauty").

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This picture is used as a test to demonstrate that people may not attach sounds to shapes arbitrarily. When given the names "kiki" and "bouba", many cultural and linguistic communities worldwide robustly tend to label the shape on the left "kiki" and the one on the right "bouba".

The bouba/kiki effect, or kiki/bouba effect, is a non-arbitrary mental association between certain speech sounds and certain visual shapes. Most narrowly, it is the tendency for people, when presented with the nonsense words bouba and kiki , to associate bouba with a rounded shape and kiki with a spiky shape. Its discovery dates back to the 1920s, when psychologists documented experimental participants as connecting nonsense words to shapes in consistent ways. There is a strong general tendency towards the effect worldwide; it has been robustly confirmed across a majority of cultures and languages in which it has been researched,[1] for example including among English-speaking American university students, Tamil speakers in India, speakers of certain languages with no writing system, young children, infants, and (though to a much lesser degree) the congenitally blind.[1] It has also been shown to occur with familiar names. The effect was investigated using fMRI in 2018.[2] The bouba/kiki effect is one form of sound symbolism.[3]

Research

This effect was first observed by Georgian psychologist Dimitri Uznadze in a 1924 paper.[4][non-primary source needed ] He conducted an experiment with 10 participants who were given a list with nonsense words, shown six drawings for five seconds each, then instructed to pick a name for the drawing from the list of given words. He describes the different "strategies" participants developed to match words to drawings and quotes their reasoning. He also describes situations where participants described very specific forms that they associated with a nonsense word, without reference to the shown drawings. He develops a theory of four factors that influence the way names for objects are decided.

In total, there were 42 words. For one particular drawing, 45% picked the same word. For three others, the percentages were 40%. Uznadze points out that this is significantly more overlap than one could expect, given the high number of possible words. He speculates that there must therefore be certain regularities "which the human soul follows in the process of name-giving".

German American psychologist Wolfgang Köhler referred to Uznadze's experiment in a 1929 book[5] which showed two forms and asked readers which shape was called "takete" and which was called "maluma". Although he does not say so outright, Köhler implies that there is a strong preference to pair the jagged shape with "takete" and the rounded shape with "maluma".[6]

In 2001, V. S. Ramachandran and Edward Hubbard repeated Köhler's experiment using the words "kiki" and "bouba" and asked American college undergraduates and Tamil speakers in India, "Which of these shapes is bouba and which is kiki?" In both groups, 95% to 98% selected the curvy shape as "bouba" and the jagged one as "kiki", suggesting that the human brain somehow attaches abstract meanings to the shapes and sounds consistently.[7][failed verification - see discussion]

Daphne Maurer and colleagues showed that even children as young as 21⁄2 years old may show this preference.[8] More recent work by Ozge Ozturk and colleagues in 2013 showed that even 4-month-old infants have the same sound-shape mapping biases as adults and toddlers.[9] Infants are able to differentiate between congruent trials (pairing an angular shape with "kiki" or a curvy shape with "bubu") and incongruent trials (pairing a curvy shape with "kiki" or an angular shape with "bubu"). Infants looked longer at incongruent pairings than at congruent pairings. Infants' mapping was based on the combination of consonants and vowels in the words, and neither consonants nor vowels alone sufficed for mapping. These results suggest that some sound-shape mappings precede language learning, and may in fact aid in language learning by establishing a basis for matching labels to referents and narrowing the hypothesis space for young infants. Adults in this study, like infants, used a combination of consonant and vowel information to match the labels they heard with the shapes they saw. However, this was not the only strategy that was available to them. Adults, unlike infants, were also able to use consonant information alone and vowel information alone to match the labels to the shapes, albeit less frequently than the consonant-vowel combination. When vowels and consonants were put in conflict, adults used consonants more often than vowels.

The effect has also been shown to emerge in other contexts, such as when words are paired with evaluative meanings (with "bouba" words associated with positive concepts and "kiki" words associated with negative concepts)[10] or when the words to be paired are existing first names, suggesting that some familiarity with the linguistic stimuli does not eliminate the effect. A study showed that individuals will pair names such as "Molly" with round silhouettes, and names such as "Kate" with sharp silhouettes. Moreover, individuals will associate different personality traits with either group of names (e.g., easygoingness with "round names"; determination with "sharp names"). This may hint at a role of abstract concepts in the effect.[11]

Other research suggests that this effect does not occur in all communities,[12] and it appears that the effect breaks if the sounds do not make licit words in the language.[13] The bouba/kiki effect seems to be dependent on a long sensitive period, with high visual capacities in childhood being necessary for its typical development. Although the congenitally blind have been reported to show a bouba/kiki effect, they show a much smaller one for touched shapes than sighted individuals do for visual shapes.[14][15]

Studies show that speakers of certain languages have notably failed to show the effect, namely including Mandarin Chinese, Turkish, and Romanian.[1]

In 2019, Nathan Peiffer-Smadja and Laurent Cohen published the first study using fMRI to explore the bouba/kiki effect.[2] They found that prefrontal activation is stronger to mismatching (bouba with spiky shape) than to matching (bouba with round shape) stimuli. A subsequent study by Kelly McCormick and colleagues reported a similar pattern of greater activation for mismatched word-shape stimuli, but with most activity in parietal regions including the intraparietal sulcus and supramarginal gyrus, regions known to play a role in sensory association and perceptual-motor processing.[16] Peiffer-Smadja and Cohen also found that sound-shape matching also influences activations in the auditory and visual cortices, suggesting an effect of matching at an early stage in sensory processing.[2]

Ramachandran and Hubbard suggest that the kiki/bouba effect has implications for the evolution of language, because it suggests that the naming of objects is not completely arbitrary.[7]: 17  The rounded shape may most commonly be named "bouba" because the mouth makes a more rounded shape to produce that sound while a more taut, angular mouth shape is needed to make the sounds in "kiki".[17] Alternatively, the distinction may be between coronal or dorsal consonants like /k/ and labial consonants like /b/.[18] Additionally, it was shown that it is not only different consonants (e.g., voiceless versus voiced) and different vowel qualities (e.g., /a/ versus /i/) that play a role in the effect, but also vowel quantity (long versus short vowels). In one study, participants rated words containing long vowels to refer to longer objects and short vowels to short objects, at least for languages that make a vowel length distinction.[19] The presence of these " synesthesia-like mappings" suggest that this effect may be the neurological basis for sound symbolism, in which sounds are non-arbitrarily mapped to objects and events in the world.[citation needed ] Research has also indicated that the effect may be a case of ideasthesia,[20] a phenomenon in which activations of concepts (inducers) evoke perception-like experiences (concurrents). The name comes from the Greek idea and aisthesis, meaning "sensing concepts" or "sensing ideas", and was introduced by Danko Nikolić.[21]

See also

References

1. ^ Ćwiek, Aleksandra; Fuchs, Susanne; Draxler, Christoph; Asu, Eva Liina; Dediu, Dan; Hiovain, Katri; Kawahara, Shigeto; Koutalidis, Sofia; Krifka, Manfred; Lippus, Pärtel; Lupyan, Gary; Oh, Grace E.; Paul, Jing; Petrone, Caterina; Ridouane, Rachid; Reiter, Sabine; Schümchen, Nathalie; Szalontai, Ádám; Ünal-Logacev, Özlem; Zeller, Jochen; Perlman, Marcus; Winter, Bodo (2022). "The bouba/Kiki effect is robust across cultures and writing systems". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 377 (1841). doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0390. PMC 8591387. PMID 34775818.

2. ^ Peiffer-Smadja, Nathan; Cohen, Laurent (2019-02-01). "The cerebral bases of the bouba-kiki effect". NeuroImage. 186: 679-689. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.11.033. ISSN 1053-8119. PMID 30503933. S2CID 54164828.

3. ^ Margiotoudi Konstantina and Pulvermüller Friedemann (2020). "Action sound-shape congruencies explain sound symbolism". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 12706. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1012706M. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69528-4. PMC 7392762. PMID 32728096. ProQuest 2428279185.

4. ^ Dimitri Usnadze. "Ein experimenteller Beitrag zum Problem der psychologischen Grundlagen der Namengebung" (PDF). bard.edu (in German).

5. ^ Köhler, Wolfgang (1929). Gestalt Psychology. New York: Liveright.

6. ^ Köhler, Wolfgang (1947). Gestalt Psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Liveright. p. 133.

7. ^ Ramachandran, V.S. & Hubbard, E.M. (2001). "Synaesthesia: A window into perception, thought and language" (PDF). Journal of Consciousness Studies. 8 (12): 3-34. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-13.

8. ^ Bross, Fabian (2018). "The Good, the Bad, the Bouba, and the Kiki. Cross-Modal Correspondences Between Evaluative Meanings, Speech-Sounds, and Object Shapes". 14th conference "Phonetics & Phonology in the German-Speaking World". University of Vienna. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.11463.14240.

9. ^ Sidhu, David M.; Pexman, Penny M. (2015-05-27). "What's in a Name? Sound Symbolism and Gender in First Names". PLOS ONE. 10 (5): e0126809. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1026809S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0126809. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4446333. PMID 26016856.

10. ^ Rogers, Susan K.; Ross, Abraham S. (1975). "A cross-cultural test of the maluma-takete phenomenon". Perception. 4 (1): 105-106. doi:10.1068/p040105. PMID 1161435. S2CID 30045028.

11. ^ Styles, Suzy; Gawne, Lauren (2017). "When Does Maluma/Takete Fail? Two Key Failures and a Meta-Analysis Suggest That Phonology and Phonotactics Matter". i-Perception. 8 (4): 204166951772480. doi:10.1177/2041669517724807. PMC 5574486. PMID 28890777.

12. ^ McCormick, Kelly; Lacey, Simon; Stilla, Randall; Nygaard, Lynne C.; Sathian, K. (2021-08-11). "Neural Basis of the Sound-Symbolic Crossmodal Correspondence Between Auditory Pseudowords and Visual Shapes". Multisensory Research. -1 (aop): 29-78. doi:10.1163/22134808-bja10060. ISSN 2213-4794. PMC 9196751. PMID 34384048. S2CID 236998825.

13. ^ D'Onofrio, Annette (2013). "Phonetic Detail and Dimensionality in Sound-shape Correspondences: Refining the Bouba-Kiki Paradigm". Language and Speech. 57 (3): 367-393. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1020.1352. doi:10.1177/0023830913507694. S2CID 51937587.

14. ^ McCormick, Kelly; Kim, Jee Young; List, Sara; Nygaard, Lynne C. (2015). "Sound to Meaning Mappings in the Bouba-Kiki Effect" (PDF). Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society: Mind, Technology, and Society: Pasadena, California, 23-25 July 2015. Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society. pp. 1565-1570. ISBN 978-0-9911967-2-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-02-09.

15. ^ Bross, Fabian (2018). "Cognitive associations between vowel length and object size: A new feature contributing to a bouba/kiki effect". In Belz, M.; Mooshammer, C.; Fuchs, S.; Jannedy, S.; Rasskazova, O.; Zygis, M. (eds.). Proceedings of the Conference on Phonetics & Phonology in German-Speaking Countries. Vol. 13. Berlin: Humbold University. pp. 17-20.

16. ^ Gómez Milán, E.; Iborra, O.; de Córdoba, M.J.; Juárez-Ramos, V.; Rodríguez Artacho, M.A.; Rubio, J.L. (2013). "The Kiki-Bouba effect: A case of personification and ideaesthesia". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 20 (1-2): 84-102.

17. ^ Nikolić, Danko (2009). "Is synaesthesia actually ideaestesia? An inquiry into the nature of the phenomenon" (PDF). Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Synaesthesia, Science & Art.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The bouba/kiki effect, or kiki/bouba effect, is a non-arbitrary mental association between certain speech sounds and certain visual shapes. Most narrowly, it is the tendency for people, when presented with the nonsense words bouba and kiki , to associate bouba with a rounded shape and kiki with a spiky shape.

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The traditional Egyptian depiction of the body in flat images. The figure represents the Roman Emperor Trajan (ruled 98-117 CE) making offerings to Egyptian Gods, Dendera Temple complex, Egypt.[1]

An artistic canon of body proportions (or aesthetic canon of proportion), in the sphere of visual arts, is a formally codified set of criteria deemed mandatory for a particular artistic style of figurative art. The word canon (from Ancient Greek 'measuring rod, standard') was first used for this type of rule in Classical Greece, where it set a reference standard for body proportions, to produce a harmoniously formed figure appropriate to depict gods or kings. Other art styles have similar rules that apply particularly to the representation of royal or divine personalities.

In 1961, Danish Egyptologist Erik Iverson described a canon of proportions in classical Egyptian painting. This work was based on still-detectable grid lines on tomb paintings: he determined that the grid was 18 cells high, with the base-line at the soles of the feet and the top of the grid aligned with hair line, and the navel at the eleventh line. These 'cells' were specified according to the size of the subject's fist, measured across the knuckles. (Iverson attempted to find a fixed (rather than relative) size for the grid, but this aspect of his work has been dismissed by later analysts.) This proportion was already established by the Narmer Palette from about the 31st century BCE, and remained in use until at least the conquest by Alexander the Great some 3,000 years later.

The Egyptian canon for paintings and reliefs specified that heads should be shown in profile, that shoulders and chest be shown head-on, that hips and legs be again in profile, and that male figures should have one foot forward and female figures stand with feet together.

Doryphoros (Roman copy)

Canon of Polykleitos

In Classical Greece, the sculptor Polykleitos (fifth century BCE) established the Canon of Polykleitos. Though his theoretical treatise is lost to history, he is quoted as saying, "Perfection ... comes about little by little ( para mikron) through many numbers". By this he meant that a statue should be composed of clearly definable parts, all related to one another through a system of ideal mathematical proportions and balance. Though the Kanon was probably represented by his Doryphoros, the original bronze statue has not survived, but later marble copies exist.

Despite the many advances made by modern scholars towards a clearer comprehension of the theoretical basis of the Canon of Polykleitos, the results of these studies show an absence of any general agreement upon the practical application of that canon in works of art. An observation on the subject by Rhys Carpenter remains valid: "Yet it must rank as one of the curiosities of our archaeological scholarship that no-one has thus far succeeded in extracting the recipe of the written canon from its visible embodiment, and compiling the commensurable numbers that we know it incorporates."

Canon of Lysippos

The sculptor Lysippos (fourth century BCE) developed a more gracile style. In his Historia Naturalis, Pliny the Elder wrote that Lysippos introduced a new canon into art: capita minora faciendo quam antiqui, corpora graciliora siccioraque, per qum proceritassignorum major videretur, signifying "a canon of bodily proportions essentially different from that of Polykleitos". Lysippos is credited with having established the ' eight heads high' canon of proportion.

Praxiteles

Praxiteles (fourth century BCE), sculptor of the famed Aphrodite of Knidos, is credited with having thus created a canonical form for the female nude, but neither the original work nor any of its ratios survive. Academic study of later Roman copies (and in particular modern restorations of them) suggest that they are artistically and anatomically inferior to the original.

Shiva as Nataraja (the Lord of Dance)

Various canons are set out in the Shilpa Shastras.

There are different sets of proportions given in the Hindu Āgamas for the making of images. Each of these varies with the subject; for example, images of the three Supreme deities, Bramā, Vishnu and Śiva are required to be formed according to the set of proportions collectively called the uttama-daśa-tāla measurement; similarly, the malhyama-daśa-tāla is prescribed for images of the principal Śaktis (goddesses), Lakshmi, Bhūmi, Durgā, Pārvati and Sarasvati: the pancha-tāla, for making the figure of Gaṇapati, and the chatus-tāla for the figures of children and of deformed and dwarfed men. The term tāla literally means the palm of the hand, and by implication is a measure of length equal to that between the tip of the middle finger and the end of the palm near the wrist. This length is in all instances taken to be equal to the length of the face from the scalp to the chin. It is therefore usual to measure the total length in terms of the length of the face rather than in terms of the palm of the hand. This practice is followed also in the succeeding paragraphs. The reader would be inclined to believe that the phrases daśa-tāla, paṅcha-tāla and ēkatāl mean lengths equal to ten, five and one tāla respectively, but unfortunately this interpretation does not seem to agree with the actual measurements; for example, the total length of an image made according to the Uttama-daśa-ālc measurement is 124 , and the tāla of this image measures 13 aṅgulas; dividing the total length by the length of the tāla we find that there are only 9 tāla in it; again, the total length of a chatus-tāla image is 48 aṅgulas and its tāla is 8 aṅgulas and therefore there are 6 tālas in this set of proportions. Thus it is found that there is no etymological significance clearly visible in the names given to the various proportions.

The artist does not choose his own problems: he finds in the canon instruction to make such and such images in such and such [a] fashion - for example, an image of Nataraja with four arms, of Brahma with four heads, of Mahisha-Mardini with ten arms, or Ganesa with an elephant's head.

It is in drawing from the life that a canon is likely to be a hindrance to the artist; but it is not the method of Indian art to work from the model. Almost the whole philosophy of Indian art is summed up in the verse of Śukrācārya's Śukranĩtisāra which enjoins meditations upon the imager: "In order that the form of an image may be brought fully and clearly before the mind, the imager should medi[t]ate; and his success will be proportionate to his meditation. No other way-not indeed seeing the object itself-will achieve his purpose." The canon then, is of use as a rule of thumb, relieving him of some part of the technical difficulties, leaving him free to concentrate his thought more singly on the message or burden of his work. It is only in this way that it must have been used in periods of great achievement, or by great artists.

Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci

Other such systems of 'ideal proportions' in painting and sculpture include Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man, based on a record of body proportions made by the architect Vitruvius, in the third book of his series De architectura. Rather than setting a canon of ideal body proportions for others to follow, Vitruvius sought to identify the proportions that exist in reality; da Vinci idealised these proportions in the commentary that accompanies his drawing:

The length of the outspread arms is equal to the height of a man; from the hairline to the bottom of the chin is one-tenth of the height of a man; from below the chin to the top of the head is one-eighth of the height of a man; from above the chest to the top of the head is one-sixth of the height of a man; from above the chest to the hairline is one-seventh of the height of a man. The maximum width of the shoulders is a quarter of the height of a man; from the breasts to the top of the head is a quarter of the height of a man; the distance from the elbow to the tip of the hand is a quarter of the height of a man; the distance from the elbow to the armpit is one-eighth of the height of a man; the length of the hand is one-tenth of the height of a man; the root of the penis is at half the height of a man; the foot is one-seventh of the height of a man; from below the foot to below the knee is a quarter of the height of a man; from below the knee to the root of the penis is a quarter of the height of a man; the distances from below the chin to the nose and the eyebrows and the hairline are equal to the ears and to one-third of the face.

Canon of Jōchō

Jōchō (定朝; died 1057 CE), also known as Jōchō Busshi, was a Japanese sculptor of the Heian period. He popularised the technique of sculpting a single figure out of many pieces of wood, and he redefined the canon of body proportions used in Japan to create Buddhist imagery. He based the measurements on a unit equal to the distance between the sculpted figure's chin and hairline. The distance between each knee (in the seated lotus pose) is equal to the distance from the bottoms of the legs to the hair.

Andrew Loomis's method, from Figure Drawing for All It's Worth

Contemporary (head-based) method

Modern figurative artists tend to use a shorthand of more comprehensive canons, based on proportions relative to the human head. In the system recommended by Andrew Loomis, an idealized human body is eight heads tall, the torso being three heads and the legs another four; a more realistically proportioned body, he claims, is closer to seven-and-a-half heads tall, the difference being in the length of the legs. He additionally recommends head-based proportions for children of varying ages, and as means of producing different effects in adult bodies (e.g. a "heroic" body is nine heads tall).

Academic art - Style of painting and sculpture

Anthropic units - Academic term in archaeology, social studies and measurement

Beauty - Characteristic that provides pleasure or satisfaction

Canon (basic principle), a rule or a body of rules or principles generally established as valid and fundamental in a field of art or philosophy

Chibi (style) - Style of caricature originating in Japan

Figurative art - Art that depicts real object sources

Nudity - Scientific and cultural information about human nudity

Depictions of nudity - Visual representations of the nude human form

Nude (art) - Work of art that has as its primary subject the unclothed human body

Neoclassicism - Western cultural movement inspired by ancient Greece and Rome

Physical attractiveness - Aesthetic assessment of physical traits

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Artistic canons of body proportions - Wikipedia

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An artistic canon of body proportions (or aesthetic canon of proportion), in the sphere of visual arts, is a formally codified set of criteria deemed mandatory for a particular artistic style of figurative art.

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The hypothetico-deductive model or method is a proposed description of the scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that can be falsifiable, using a test on observable data where the outcome is not yet known. A test outcome that could have and does run contrary to predictions of the hypothesis is taken as a falsification of the hypothesis. A test outcome that could have, but does not run contrary to the hypothesis corroborates the theory. It is then proposed to compare the explanatory value of competing hypotheses by testing how stringently they are corroborated by their predictions.

One example of an algorithmic statement of the hypothetico-deductive method is as follows:

1. Use your experience: Consider the problem and try to make sense of it. Gather data and look for previous explanations. If this is a new problem to you, then move to step 2.

2. Form a conjecture (hypothesis): When nothing else is yet known, try to state an explanation, to someone else, or to your notebook.

3. Deduce predictions from the hypothesis: if you assume 2 is true, what consequences follow?

4. Test (or experiment): Look for evidence (observations) that conflict with these predictions in order to disprove 2. It is a logical error to seek 3 directly as proof of 2. This formal fallacy is called affirming the consequent.

Note that this method can never absolutely verify (prove the truth of) 2. It can only 2. (This is what Einstein meant when he said, "No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong.")

Additionally, as pointed out by Carl Hempel (1905-1997), this simple view of the scientific method is incomplete; a conjecture can also incorporate probabilities, e.g., the drug is effective about 70% of the time. Tests, in this case, must be repeated to substantiate the conjecture (in particular, the probabilities). In this and other cases, we can quantify a probability for our confidence in the conjecture itself and then apply a Bayesian analysis, with each experimental result shifting the probability either up or down. Bayes' theorem shows that the probability will never reach exactly 0 or 100% (no absolute certainty in either direction), but it can still get very close to either extreme. See also confirmation holism.

Qualification of corroborating evidence is sometimes raised as philosophically problematic. The raven paradox is a famous example. The hypothesis that 'all ravens are black' would appear to be corroborated by observations of only black ravens. However, 'all ravens are black' is logically equivalent to 'all non-black things are non-ravens' (this is the contrapositive form of the original implication). 'This is a green tree' is an observation of a non-black thing that is a non-raven and therefore corroborates 'all non-black things are non-ravens'. It appears to follow that the observation 'this is a green tree' is corroborating evidence for the hypothesis 'all ravens are black'. Attempted resolutions may distinguish:

non-falsifying observations as to strong, moderate, or weak corroborations

investigations that do or do not provide a potentially falsifying test of the hypothesis.

Evidence contrary to a hypothesis is itself philosophically problematic. Such evidence is called a falsification of the hypothesis. However, under the theory of confirmation holism it is always possible to save a given hypothesis from falsification. This is so because any falsifying observation is embedded in a theoretical background, which can be modified in order to save the hypothesis. Karl Popper acknowledged this but maintained that a critical approach respecting methodological rules that avoided such immunizing stratagems is conducive to the progress of science.

Physicist Sean Carroll claims the model ignores underdetermination.

The hypothetico-deductive model (or approach) versus other research models

The hypothetico-deductive approach contrasts with other research models such as the inductive approach or grounded theory. In the data percolation methodology, the hypothetico-deductive approach is included in a paradigm of pragmatism by which four types of relations between the variables can exist: descriptive, of influence, longitudinal or causal. The variables are classified in two groups, structural and functional, a classification that drives the formulation of hypotheses and the statistical tests to be performed on the data so as to increase the efficiency of the research.

Types of inference

Brody, Thomas A. (1993), The Philosophy Behind Physics, Springer Verlag, ISBN 0-387-55914-0 . (Luis de la Peña and Peter E. Hodgson, eds.)

Bynum, W.F.; Porter, Roy (2005), Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations, Oxford, ISBN 0-19-858409-1 .

Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003), Theory and Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-30063-3

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The hypothetico-deductive model or method is a proposed description of the scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that can be falsifiable, using a test on observable data where the outcome is not yet known.

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This page indexes the individual year in art pages; see also Art periods. This is a list of the Visual Arts only; for Music see Timeline of musical events.

- Birth of Francis Bacon, Clement Greenberg, Henri Matisse completes , Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque jointly collaborate in the invention of Analytic Cubism

- Henri Matisse paints Le bonheur de vivre; Death of Paul Cézanne, Birth of Philip Johnson, David Smith

- Birth of Mark Rothko, Adolph Gottlieb, Graham Sutherland, Joseph Cornell, Death of Paul Gauguin, Hans Gude, Camille Pissarro, James McNeill Whistler, First Salon d'Automne

- Birth of Joseph Csaky, Josef Albers, Seán Keating, Giorgio de Chirico, Vincent van Gogh begins his Sunflowers series; Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema paints The Roses of Heliogabalus

- Birth of Georgia O'Keeffe, Marc Chagall, Marcel Duchamp, Le Corbusier, Juan Gris, Alexander Archipenko, Andrew Dasburg, August Macke

- Birth of Edward Hopper, George Bellows, Georges Braque, Auguste Herbin, Umberto Boccioni. Édouard Manet paints A Bar at the Folies-Bergère

- Birth of Hans Hofmann, Jacob Epstein, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, André Derain, Arthur Dove, Tobeen. Death of Anselm Feuerbach, Anton Mauve completes Changing Pasture

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This page indexes the individual year in art pages; see also Art periods. This is a list of the Visual Arts only; for Music see Timeline of musical events.

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This page gives a chronological list of years in literature (descending order), with notable publications listed with their respective years and a small selection of notable events. The time covered in individual years covers Renaissance, Baroque and Modern literature, while Medieval literature is resolved by century.

Note: List of years in poetry exists specifically for poetry.

See Table of years in literature for an overview of all "year in literature" pages.

Several attempts have been made to create a list of world literature. Among these are the great books project including the book series Great Books of the Western World, now containing 60 volumes. In 1998 Modern Library, an American publishing company, polled its editorial board to find the best 100 novels of the 20th century: Modern Library 100 Best Novels. These attempts have been criticized for their anglophone bias and disregard of other literary traditions.

1550 in literature - Fengshen Yanyi (Xu Zhonglin), Abecedarium (Trubar), Liao-Fan's Four Lessons, Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (Vasari), Svaramelakalanidhi (Ramamatya)

1553 in literature - Christianismi Restitutio (Servetus), Observations (Pierre Belon), Scepter of Judah (Solomon ibn Verga)

1557 in literature - Mirat ul Memalik (Seydi Ali Reis), Physica speculatio (Alonso Gutiérrez), Tottel's Miscellany, The Whetstone of Witte (Records)

1559 in literature - Elizabethan Book of Common Prayer, Magdeburg Centuries (first volume)

1566 in literature - "The Palace of Pleasure" (William Painter), A Caveat or Warning for Common Cursitors (Harman), Table Talk (Luther)

1567 in literature - Welsh Bible (Salesbury), (Pickering), Isabella Whitney's first poems published, Lope de Rueda's works published; Red Lion theatre built

1568 in literature - Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (Giorgio Vasari), Bannatyne Manuscript, De optimo senatore (Wawrzyniec Grzymala Goslicki), Plantin Polyglot, Fishing and Fishermen's Talk (Hektorovic)

1569 in literature - La Araucana, part 1 (Alonso de Ercilla), Thomissøn's hymnal, Florentine Codex

1582 in literature - Divers Voyages (Hakluyt), The Monument of Matrones, Piae Cantiones (Finno)

1583 in literature - The Anatomy of Abuses (Stubbes), De Heptarchia Mystica (Dee), De Constantia (Lipsius)

1584 in literature - , Sapho and Phao (Lyly), Jixiao Xinshu (second edition), Guðbrandsbiblía, Some Reulis and Cautelis to be observit and eschewit in Scottis poesie (James VI of Scotland)

1588 in literature - The Battle of Alcazar (date first performed; George Peele), The Misfortunes of Arthur (Hughes), (Greene), Tamburlaine (Marlowe)

1592 in literature - Journey to the West (Wu Cheng'en), Codex Huamantla, Pierce Penniless (Nashe), Doctor Faustus (Marlowe, approximate date)

1594 in literature - The Unfortunate Traveller (Nashe), Theatrum artis scribendi (Hondius), Codex iconographicus monacensis 236, Satire Ménippée

1595 in literature - A Midsummer Night's Dream, Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare), Korjenic-Neoric Armorial, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh (?Abd al-Qadir Badayuni), Prophecy of the Popes (Wion)

1599 in literature - and Julius Caesar (Shakespeare), Guzmán de Alfarache (Alemán), Basilikon Doron (King James VI), Postil of Mikalojus Daukša, The Model of Poesy (Scott)

1662 in literature - Molière's L'école des femmes, The Princess of Montpensier (De La Fayette), Erdeniin Tobchi, Port-Royal Logic, Het Gulden Cabinet (de Bie); Traditional puppet play Punch and Judy first performed

1663 in literature - Eliot Indian Bible, The Playhouse to Be Let (Davenant); Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres founded; first Theatre Royal, Drury Lane founded

1668 in literature - Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen's Simplicius Simplicissimus, Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum quos Unitarios vocant, Description of Africa (Dapper), Een Bloemhof (Koerbagh), The Isle of Pines (Neville)

1930 in literature - William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying; Dashiell Hammett's The Maltese Falcon; Andrei Platonov's The Foundation Pit; Carolyn Keene's The Secret of the Old Clock (first in the Nancy Drew stories); Vladimir Nabokov's The Defence; Olaf Stapledon's Last and First Men; Luigi Pirandello's The Man With the Flower in His Mouth becomes the first broadcast television drama; Sigmund Freud's Civilization and Its Discontents; Agatha Christie's The Murder at the Vicarage, Giant's Bread, and The Mysterious Mr Quin; Death of D. H. Lawrence

1931 in literature - Ilf and Petrov's The Little Golden Calf; Pearl S. Buck's The Good Earth; Georges Simenon's The Strange Case of Peter the Lett (first Jules Maigret novel); Agatha Christie's The Sittaford Mystery; The Floating Admiral (collaborative novel by 13 writers of the Detection Club: Victor Whitechurch, G. D. H. Cole and Margaret Cole, Henry Wade, Agatha Christie, John Rhode, Milward Kennedy, Dorothy L. Sayers, Ronald Knox, Freeman Wills Crofts, Edgar Jepson, Clemence Dane and Anthony Berkeley. Prologue written by G. K. Chesterton.); H. P. Lovecraft's The Whisperer in Darkness

1935 in literature - Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie; Russell Thorndike's Doctor Syn Returns; Agatha Christie's Death in the Clouds; First paperback published by Penguin Books; Death of Fernando Pessoa

1993 in literature - Irvine Welsh's Trainspotting; E. Annie Proulx' The Shipping News; Sebastian Faulks's ; Richard Paul Evans's The Christmas Box; Ken Follett's A Dangerous Fortune; Death of Kobo Abe, Anthony Burgess, William Golding, William L. Shirer

1994 in literature - Herta Müller's Herztier (The Land of Green Plums); Carol Shields's The Stone Diaries; Terry Goodkind's Wizard's First Rule; Francesca Simon's Horrid Henry; Antonio Tabucchi's Pereira Maintains; Death of Elias Canetti, James Clavell, Ralph Ellison, Eugène Ionesco

1995 in literature - James Redfield's The Celestine Prophecy; José Saramago's Ensaio sobre a cegueira (); Haruki Murakami's Nejimaki-dori kuronikuru (The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle); Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials; Samuel R. Delany's ; Dean Koontz's ; Ken Follett's A Place Called Freedom; Death of Kingsley Amis, Olga Ivinskaya (mistress of Boris Pasternak)

1996 in literature - Inaugural International Dublin Literary Award and Orange Prize for Fiction awarded; David Foster Wallace's Infinite Jest; Frank McCourt's Angela's Ashes; George R.R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire; Chuck Palahniuk's ; Tim Lahaye, Jerry B. Jenkins's Left Behind; Ken Follett's The Third Twin; Death of Erma Bombeck, Joseph Brodsky, Marguerite Duras, Timothy Leary, Carl Sagan

2002 in literature - Orhan Pamuk's Kar (); Julia Glass' Three Junes; Haruki Murakami's Umibe no Kafuka (Kafka on the Shore); Jonathan Safran Foer's Everything Is Illuminated; Jeffrey Eugenides's ; Neil Gaiman's ; Ken Follett's Hornet Flight; Death of Camilo José Cela, John B. Keane, Chaim Potok

2006 in literature - Richard Dawkins's The God Delusion; Kiran Desai's The Inheritance of Loss; Roberto Saviano's Gormorra (); Gerbrand Bakker's Boven is het stil (); Cormac McCarthy's ; Stieg Larsson's The Girl Who Played With Fire; John Boyne's The Boy in the Striped Pajamas; Joe Abercrombie's The Blade Itself; Death of Peter Benchley, Betty Friedan, Naguib Mahfouz, John McGahern, Muriel Spark, Mickey Spillane, Wendy Wasserstein

2008 in literature - Aravind Adiga's The White Tiger; Suzanne Collins' The Hunger Games; Neil Gaiman's The Graveyard Book; Death of Michael Crichton, Arthur C. Clarke, David Foster Wallace, Robert Giroux, Harold Pinter, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Studs Terkel, Margaret Truman

2009 in literature - Haruki Murakami's Ichi-kyu-hachi-yon (); Colm Tóibín's ; Reki Kawahara's Sword Art Online; James Dashner's The Maze Runner; Lev Grossman's The Magicians; Death of J. G. Ballard, Philip José Farmer, Frank McCourt, Budd Schulberg, John Updike

2010 in literature - Edmund de Waal's The Hare with Amber Eyes; Emma Donoghue's ; Brandon Sanderson's The Way of Kings; Ken Follett's Fall of Giants; 1970 Lost Man Booker Prize awarded; Death of Louis Auchincloss, Beryl Bainbridge, Ruth Cohn, Miguel Delibes, Philippa Foot, Martin Gardner, Tony Judt, Frank Kermode, David Markson, Tomás Eloy Martínez, Harry Mulisch, J. D. Salinger, José Saramago, Erich Segal, Alan Sillitoe, Howard Zinn

2011 in literature - E. L. James' Fifty Shades of Grey; Alexis Jenni's L'Art français de la guerre; Alan Hollinghurst's The Stranger's Child; Hisham Matar's Anatomy of a Disappearance; Téa Obreht's The Tiger's Wife; Death of Patrick Leigh Fermor, Édouard Glissant, Josephine Hart, Václav Havel, Christopher Hitchens, Russell Hoban, Brian Jacques, Diana Wynne Jones, Dick King-Smith, Agota Kristof, Arnošt Lustig, Anne McCaffrey, Gonzalo Rojas, Joanna Russ, Ernesto Sabato, Moacyr Scliar, Tomás Segovia, Jorge Semprún, Christa Wolf

2018 in literature - Anna Burns' ; Sigrid Nunez' The Friend; Paula Hawkins' Into the Water; Death of Stephen Hawking, Philip Roth

2019 in literature - Michel Houellebecq's ; Bernadine Evaristo's Girl, Woman, Other; Death of John Burningham, Judith Kerr

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This page gives a chronological list of years in literature (descending order), with notable publications listed with their respective years and a small selection of notable events. The time covered in individual years covers Renaissance, Baroque and Modern literature, while Medieval literature is resolved by century.

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This is a wide-ranging alphabetical list of philosophers from the Eastern traditions of philosophy, with special interest in Indo-Chinese philosophy. The list stops at the year 1950, after which philosophers fall into the category of contemporary philosophy.

Thiruvalluvar (c. 1st century BCE-2nd century CE), best known for authoring the Tirukkuṛaḷ, a collection of couplets on ethics

Vasubandhu (c. 4th century) - one of the main founders of the Yogacara school

Asanga (c. 4th century) - one of the main founders of the Yogacara school

Bodhidharma (c. 440-528) - founder of Zen Buddhism

Bhartrhari (450-510) - contributed to lingusitic theory

Buddhaghosa (c. 5th century)

Siddhasena Divākara (c. 5th century) - Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit

Dignāga (c. 5th century) - one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic

Śīlabhadra (c. 529-645) He is best known as being an abbot of Nālandā monastery in India, as being an expert on Yogācāra teachings, and for being the personal tutor of the Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang.

Abhinavagupta (c. 975-1025)

Atiśa (c. 980-1054) He was one of the major figures in the spread of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism in Asia and inspired Buddhist thought from Tibet to Sumatra

Ramanuja (c. 1017-1137) - founder of Vishishtadvaita or Qualified Non-dualism

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This is a wide-ranging alphabetical list of philosophers from the Eastern traditions of philosophy, with special interest in Indo-Chinese philosophy. The list stops at the year 1950, after which philosophers fall into the category of contemporary philosophy. Thiruvalluvar (c. 1st century BCE-2nd century CE), best known for authoring the Tirukkuṛaḷ, a collection of couplets on ethics Vasubandhu (c.

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This is a list of philosophers from the Western tradition of philosophy.

Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet (1788-1856).

Sojourner Truth (c. 1797-1883). Egalitarian, abolitionist.

Harriet Taylor Mill (1807-1858). Egalitarian, utilitarian.

Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876). Revolutionary anarchist.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902). Egalitarian.

Hermann Lotze (1817-1881).

Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). Egalitarian, dialectical materialist.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Nativism, libertarianism, social Darwinism.

Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906). Feminist.

Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911).

Edward Caird (1835-1908). Idealist.

T.H. Green (1836-1882). British idealist.

Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900). Rationalism, utilitarianism.

Ernst Mach (1838-1916). Philosopher of science, influence on logical positivism.

Franz Brentano (1838-1917). Phenomenologist.

Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914). Pragmatist.

Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921). Anarchist communism.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). Naturalistic philosopher, influence on Existentialism.

W. K. Clifford (1845-1879). Evidentialist.

F. H. Bradley (1846-1924). Idealist.

Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923). Social philosopher.

Bernard Bosanquet (1848-1923). Idealist.

Gottlob Frege (1848-1925). Influential analytic philosopher.

Cook Wilson (1849-1915).

Hans Vaihinger (1852-1933). Specialist in counterfactuals.

David George Ritchie (1853-1903). Idealist.

Alexius Meinong (1853-1920). Logical realist.

Henri Poincaré (1854-1912).

Josiah Royce (1855-1916). Idealist.

Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison (1856-1931).

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917). Social philosopher.

Giuseppe Peano (1858-1932).

Edmund Husserl (1859-1938). Founder of phenomenology.

Samuel Alexander (1859-1938). Perceptual realist.

Henri Bergson (1859-1941).

John Dewey (1859-1952). Pragmatism.

Jane Addams (1860-1935). Pragmatist.

Pierre Duhem (1861-1916).

Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947). Process Philosophy, Mathematician, Logician, Philosophy of Physics, Panpsychism.

Max Weber (1864-1920). Social philosopher.

Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936).

J. M. E. McTaggart (1866-1925). Idealist.

Benedetto Croce (1866-1952).

Emma Goldman (1869-1940). Anarchist.

Rosa Luxemburg (1870-1919). Marxist political philosopher.

G. E. Moore (1873-1958). Common sense theorist, ethical non-naturalist.

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This is a list of philosophers from the Western tradition of philosophy. Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet (1788-1856). Sojourner Truth (c. 1797-1883). Egalitarian, abolitionist. Harriet Taylor Mill (1807-1858). Egalitarian, utilitarian. Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876). Revolutionary anarchist. Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902). Egalitarian. Hermann Lotze (1817-1881). Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). Egalitarian, dialectical materialist.

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The word pastiche is a French cognate of the Italian noun , which is a pâté or pie-filling mixed from diverse ingredients. Metaphorically, pastiche and describe works that are either composed by several authors, or that incorporate stylistic elements of other artists' work. Pastiche is an example of eclecticism in art.

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There are two options to submit your paper.

The author may submit the paper via e-mail to the executive editor at editor@aripd.org

This is the most convenient method of submission for both the authors and editor.

Mention the name of the journal in which you are interested to publish your paper as ARIPD follows central submission policy for all journals i.e. same e-mail ( editor@aripd.org) for submission in any ARIPD journal.

Option - 2
The author may submit the paper through journal's submission link

Submit Your Paper Now!
The authors(s) must follow the Author Guidelines in preparing the manuscript before submission.

The journal follows double blind peer review policy. The paper is sent to two reviewers (the experts in respective field) to review the paper in the light of journal's guidelines and features of a quality research paper. For papers which require changes, the same reviewers will be used to ensure that the quality of the revised paper is acceptable.

The journal follows a systematic review and publication policy.

Step - 1: The submitted manuscript is acknowledged within 24 hours upon receipt.

Step - 2: The manuscript/paper is sent to two reviewers (paper without the name and affiliations of the author(s). The review process takes maximum two weeks.

Step - 3: The review reports are collected from the reviewers and the executive editor will send the review reports to the authors including all terms and conditions of the publication.

Step - 4: If the paper is accepted, the executive editor will ask the author/corresponding author to pay the publication fee of the journal within the specified time. If the paper is accepted subject to modification, the executive editor will send the review reports to the author/corresponding author including a formal request to modify the paper by seven days as per the suggestions of the reviewers. The executive author will send the modified paper to the same reviewers of the said paper to justify the modifications. If the paper is again returned by the reviewers, the paper is said to be finally rejected. The journal will not proceed with the said paper. However, in case of very minor changes, the editorial board may consider the paper for further modifications.

Step - 5: The accepted paper is processed for publication (soft copy) upon the successful completion of the journal's terms and conditions (It takes maximum three days after receiving the publication fee). The author may ask for acceptance letter after making the payment of publication fee. The acceptance letter is issued within two days of publication fee receipt.

Step - 6: Proof Reading. The executive editor will send the processed paper for publication (MS Word) to the author/corresponding author for proof reading.

Step - 7: The paper is published online first. The executive editor will notify the author/corresponding author about online publication with necessary download link. The author/corresponding author may request for any correction in published paper (in case of extremely important changes) within three days of online publication.

Step - 8: The journal is published in print within one week of online publication.

Step - 9: The executive editor will ask the authors of the published papers to send their correct and complete mailing address (with proper ZIP Code and postal code) by three days after print publication.

Step - 10: The executive editor will send the hard copy of the journal to the authors within one month after print publication.

The publication processing fee for a research paper is 200 USD. The author/corresponding author will get one print copy. However, the author may order for additional print copy. The charge for each additional print copy is 30 USD. The publication fee is charged only for accepted paper. The author/corresponding author has to pay the publication as per the method determined by the executive editor. The author will get official receipt of publication fee with proper seal and signature.

Copyrights for articles published in the journal are retained by the authors, with first publication rights granted to the journal. The journal/publisher is not responsible for subsequent uses of the work. It is the author's responsibility to bring an infringement action if so desired by the author.

The editorial board is very strict regarding plagiarism. The journal believes that taking the ideas and work of others without giving them credit is unfair and dishonest. Copying even one sentence from someone else's manuscript, or even one of your own that has previously been published, without proper citation is considered plagiarism-use your own words instead. The editorial board retains the absolute authority to reject the review process of a submitted manuscript if it subject to minor or major plagiarism and even may cancel the publication upon the complaint of victim(s) of plagiarism.

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International Journal of Art and Art History

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There are two options to submit your paper. The author may submit the paper via e-mail to the executive editor at editor@aripd.org This is the most convenient method of submission for both the authors and editor. Mention the name of the journal in which you are interested to publish your paper as ARIPD follows central submission policy for all journals i.e.

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IMAGE SOURCES AND RIGHTS CLEARANCE AGENCIES

This section lists sources that provide images for a wide range of uses, including academic and scholarly use, with a focus on images suitable for publication. The current movement to make images in the public domain available without charge for use in academic publications is gaining momentum among cultural institutions and libraries. The increasing availability of high-resolution images combined with changes in scholarly publishing practice grounded in the principles of fair use, allows artists and scholars greater flexibility when using copyrighted material. The College Art Association no longer requires authors who publish in its journals to obtain permissions for the use of images and other third-party works if they determine, in good faith, that use of such third-party works is a fair use under US copyright law. In making that determination, authors are required to review the PDF of CAA's Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for the Visual Arts, available online at online at www.collegeart.org/programs/caa-fair-use/best-practices. The Code summarizes fair use, its application, and possible limitations on it.

In addition to asserting fair use, authors may use works in the public domain without obtaining permissions. Even if the work itself is in the public domain, however, photographers of three-dimensional artworks (such as sculpture, architecture, or performance) or the organizations that employ them may hold rights in their photographs and control access to them. Likewise, fair use can be applied only to images and other third-party materials to which the user has access. Sometimes permission must be sought because a sole source controls an object or high-quality image of it, even when the underlying work itself is in the public domain. Because demands for permission fees in this context are not based on copyright, fair use cannot be invoked to avoid paying such fees

Some users may prefer to work through image providers and agencies (e.g., Art Resource) in order to license high-quality reproductions of public-domain works. When working with fee-based agencies, a user may be asked to accept conditions regarding use and publication of the image that add limits to what would be otherwise freely available in the public domain. Requirements, such as a limited print run, may apply in some cases; these conditions are not copyright requirements, but rather part of a contractual agreement between the user and the institution offering access to the images. The user then will be bound by a contract or license that falls outside the legal domain of copyright.

Users should be mindful that contractual agreements are not a requirement of the public domain or fair use. Choosing not to accept a contract or to negotiate the conditions of a contract is a user's right, but doing so may limit the user's ability to license an image from that agency. Like some fee-based image licensing agencies, many copyright clearance agencies have arrangements with organizations in other countries and may be able to administer non-US copyright rights.

The list below provides basic information regarding terms and conditions of image use at institutions, with links that lead to the homepage or image resources page of the organization. Descriptions for each entry are provided by the institutions; the tags, such as "Fee for Commercial Use" or "Fee Discount for Academic Publication" are provided by CAA to guide the user in choosing resources appropriate to his or her needs. Agencies that supply images for publication only in exchange for a fee are listed at the end of this section.

Please carefully review the rights and permissions statements provided by each institution.

The Committee on Intellectual Property strives to keep this list up to date and all inclusive, but it recognizes that online information changes rapidly. We ask you to contact us with new links and corrections to assist us in maintaining this site.

Image Banks Based in the US*

The Frick Digital Image Archive

Free for Personal Use in Education, Teaching, Academic Study and Research

National Gallery of Art

Free, Unrestricted Use; Open Access; Artworks in the Public Domain

Image Banks Based Outside of the US*

Bibliothèque nationale de France

Free for Personal Use in Education, Teaching, Academic Study and Research; Fee for Noncommercial Use; Fee Discount for Academic Publications; Fee for Commercial Use

Koninklijke Bibliotheek: National Library of the Netherlands

Free, Unrestricted Use

Fee-Based Image Banks

Some of the organizations listed below offer discounts for bulk orders and scholarly publications.
Alamy (UK) Alinari (Italy) Art Resource Bridgeman Art Library (UK and US) BPK (Germany) Getty Images Réunion des Musées Nationaux (France) Scala (Italy) Smithsonian Institution Worldimages

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serving the visual arts community since 1911.

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Intellectual Property | Standards & Guidelines | CAA

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This section lists sources that provide images for a wide range of uses, including academic and scholarly use, with a focus on images suitable for publication. The current movement to make images in the public domain available without charge for use in academic publications is gaining momentum among cultural institutions and libraries.

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Association of American Colleges & Universities

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The Essential Learning Outcomes define the knowledge and skills gained from a liberal education, providing a framework to guide students' cumulative progress.

Beginning in school, and continuing at successively higher levels across their college studies, students should prepare for twenty-first-century challenges by gaining:
Knowledge of Human Cultures and the Physical and Natural World

Through study in the sciences and mathematics, social sciences, humanities, histories, languages, and the arts

Focused by engagement with big questions, both contemporary and enduring
Intellectual and Practical Skills, Including

Inquiry and analysis

Critical and creative thinking

Written and oral communication

Quantitative literacy

Information literacy

Teamwork and problem solving

Practiced extensively, across the curriculum, in the context of progressively more challenging problems, projects, and standards for performance
Personal and Social Responsibility, Including

Civic knowledge and engagement-local and global

Intercultural knowledge and competence

Ethical reasoning and action

Foundations and skills for lifelong learning

Anchored through active involvement with diverse communities and real-world challenges
Integrative and Applied Learning, Including

Synthesis and advanced accomplishment across general and specialized studies

Demonstrated through the application of knowledge, skills, and responsibilities to new settings and complex problem

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The Essential Learning Outcomes define the knowledge and skills gained from a liberal education, providing a framework to guide students' cumulative progress.

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We are a globally renowned resource that provides assistance with English to students, teachers, professionals, and organizations across the world. Our goal is to assist clients in their development as writers - no matter their skill level.

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Purdue OWL® - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University

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We are a globally renowned resource that provides assistance with English to students, teachers, professionals, and organizations across the world. Our goal is to assist clients in their development as writers - no matter their skill level.

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Artsy — Discover, Buy, and Sell Fine Art

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Artsy is the world’s largest online art marketplace. Browse over 1 million artworks by iconic and emerging artists from 4000+ galleries and top auction houses.

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Photographic Processes Series, Updated - YouTube

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The discovery of these processes have forever changed our understanding of time. For the first time in history we could see what our ancestors looked like. T...

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In this unprecedented exploration of 100 photographs that shaped the human experience, TIME goes behind each spectacular image to reveal how and why it chang...

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How Professional Photography Has Changed & Where It's Going | Mastering Your Craft

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How to film traditional animation on Stop Motion Studio

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Interview with Jason Shulman regarding Photographs of Films

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Watch the official book trailers for the newest and most popular books in YA!

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How to Get the Most Out of Studying Video Series - YouTube

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Dr. Stephen Chew provides great insight to effective study strategies. Visit www.samford.edu to learn more.

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Making the web more beautiful, fast, and open through great typography

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Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours 208th Exhibition | George Butler

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Explore all art movements on Google Arts & Culture.

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The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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The story of art and global culture through the Museum’s collection.

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Global contemporary art | Art History | Khan Academy - YouTube

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Artists of the 20th Century Documentaries - YouTube

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Artists of the 20th Century Documentaries. Full Episodes. Featuring Artists: Andy Warhol Alberto Giacometti Francis Bacon Jackson Pollock Man Ray Paul Klee P...

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Videos in American Sign Language - YouTube

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Deaf museum educators discuss Whitney exhibitions and topics in contemporary art in American Sign Language (ASL).

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Our Artistic Director Tim Marlow gives short introductions to leading artists whose work you can see in our temporary exhibitions.

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Thom Browne's Entire Design Process, From Sketch to Dress | Vogue

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Are you a bit postmodern, or do you belong in the Bauhaus? Watch 6 videos about famous design movements through history.

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In the Studio | The New York Times - YouTube

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Where does a collection begin? In the mind and imagination of a designer, of course, but also in a physical space, an insider sanctum that is almost never se...

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Artists have created art in national parks since the late 19th century when famed Hudson River School painters captured the majestic views of our nation's western parks. Today, the sights and sounds in national parks continue to inspire artists in more than 50 residency programs across the country.

Whether staying in a remote wilderness cabin at Denali National Park and Preserve in Alaska or contemplating history at Herbert Hoover National Historic Site in Iowa or working in a contemporary studio overlooking the stone-lined fields at Weir Farm National Historic Site in Connecticut, these programs provide artists with unique opportunities to create works of art in varied natural and cultural settings.

There are programs for visual artists, writers, musicians, and other creative media. Programs vary, but residencies are typically 2 to 4 weeks in length and most include lodging. Often artists are invited to participate in park programs by sharing their art with the public.
Each park has its own application process and timeline, so please visit a given park's website (linked below) for specifics.

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Be an Artist-in-Residence - Arts in the Parks (U.S. National Park Service)

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Artists have created art in national parks since the late 19th century when famed Hudson River School painters captured the majestic views of our nation's western parks. Today, the sights and sounds in national parks continue to inspire artists in more than 50 residency programs across the country.

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The question of what art is has occupied humanity since the dawn of recorded history. For Tolstoy, the purpose of art was to provide a bridge of empathy between us and others, and for Anaïs Nin, a way to exorcise our emotional excess. But the highest achievement of art might be something that reconciles the two: a channel of empathy into our own psychology that lets us both exorcise and better understand our emotions - in other words, a form of therapy.

In Art as Therapy (public library), philosopher Alain de Botton - who has previously examined such diverse and provocative subjects as why work doesn't work, what education and the arts can learn from religion, and how to think more about sex - teams up with art historian John Armstrong to examine art's most intimate purpose: its ability to mediate our psychological shortcomings and assuage our anxieties about imperfection. Their basic proposition is that, far more than mere aesthetic indulgence, art is a tool - a tool that serves a rather complex yet straightforwardly important purpose in our existence:

Like other tools, art has the power to extend our capacities beyond those that nature has originally endowed us with. Art compensates us for certain inborn weaknesses, in this case of the mind rather than the body, weaknesses that we can refer to as psychological frailties.

De Botton and Armstrong go on to outline the seven core psychological functions of art:

1. REMEMBERING

Given the profound flaws of our memory and the unreliability of its self-revision, it's unsurprising that the fear of forgetting - forgetting specific details about people and places, but also forgetting all the minute, mundane building blocks that fuse together into the general wholeness of who we are - would be an enormous source of distress for us. Since both memory and art are as much about what is being left out as about what is being spotlighted, de Botton and Armstrong argue that art offers an antidote to this unease:

What we're worried about forgetting ... tends to be quite particular. It isn't just anything about a person or scene that's at stake; we want to remember what really matters, and the people we call good artists are, in part, the ones who appear to have made the right choices about what to communicate and what to leave out. ... We might say that good artwork pins down the core of significance, while its bad counterpart, although undeniably reminding us of something, lets an essence slip away. It is an empty souvenir.

Art, then, is not only what rests in the frame, but is itself a frame for experience:

Art is a way of preserving experiences, of which there are many transient and beautiful examples, and that we need help containing.

2. HOPE

Our conflicted relationship with beauty presents a peculiar paradox: The most universally admired art is of the "pretty" kind - depictions of cheerful and pleasant scenes, faces, objects, and situations - yet "serious" art critics and connoisseurs see it as a failure of taste and of intelligence. (Per Susan Sontag's memorable definition, the two are inextricably intertwined anyway: "Intelligence ... is really a kind of taste: taste in ideas.") De Botton and Armstrong consider the implications:

The love of prettiness is often deemed a low, even a "bad" response, but because it is so dominant and widespread it deserves attention, and may hold important clues about a key function of art. ... The worries about prettiness are twofold. Firstly, pretty pictures are alleged to feed sentimentality. Sentimentality is a symptom of insufficient engagement with complexity, by which one really means problems. The pretty picture seems to suggest that in order to make life nice, one merely has to brighten up the apartment with a depiction of some flowers. If we were to ask the picture what is wrong with the world, it might be taken as saying 'you don't have enough Japanese water gardens' - a response that appears to ignore all the more urgent problems that confront humanity. . . . . The very innocence and simplicity of the picture seems to militate against any attempt to improve life as a whole. Secondly, there is the related fear that prettiness will numb us and leave us insufficiently critical and alert to the injustices surrounding us.

But these worries, they argue, are misguided. Optimism, rather than a failure of intelligence, is a critical cognitive and psychoemotional skill in our quest to live well - something even neuroscience has indicated - and hope, its chariot, is something to cherish, not condemn:

Cheerfulness is an achievement, and hope is something to celebrate. If optimism is important, it's because many outcomes are determined by how much of it we bring to the task. It is an important ingredient of success. This flies in the face of the elite view that talent is the primary requirement of a good life, but in many cases the difference between success and failure is determined by nothing more than our sense of what is possible and the energy we can muster to convince others of our due. We might be doomed not by a lack of skill, but by an absence of hope.

Put simply and poignantly, it pays to "imagine immensities."

They offer an example:

The dancers in Matisse's painting are not in denial of the troubles of this planet, but from the standpoint of our imperfect and conflicted - but ordinary - relationship with reality, we can look to their attitude for encouragement. They put us in touch with a blithe, carefree part of ourselves that can help us cope with inevitable rejections and humiliations. The picture does not suggest that all is well, any more than it suggests that women always delight in each other's existence and bond together in mutually supportive networks.

And so we return to why prettiness sings to us:

The more difficult our lives, the more a graceful depiction of a flower might move us. The tears - if they come - are in response not to how sad the image is, but how pretty.

[...]

We should be able to enjoy an ideal image without regarding it as a false picture of how things usually are. A beautiful, though partial, vision can be all the more precious to us because we are so aware of how rarely life satisfies our desires.

3. SORROW

Since we're creatures of infinite inner contradiction, art can help us be more whole not only by expanding our capacity for positive emotions but also by helping us to fully inhabit and metabolize the negative - and by doing so with dignity and by reminding us "of the legitimate place of sorrow in a good life":

One of the unexpectedly important things that art can do for us is teach us how to suffer more successfully. ... We can see a great deal of artistic achievement as "sublimated" sorrow on the part of the artist, and in turn, in its reception, on the part of the audience. The term sublimation derives from chemistry. It names the process by which a solid substance is directly transformed into a gas, without first becoming liquid. In art, sublimation refers to the psychological processes of transformation, in which base and unimpressive experiences are converted into something noble and fine - exactly what may happen when sorrow meets art.

Above all, de Botton and Armstrong argue, art helps us feel less alone in our suffering, to which the social expression of our private sorrows lends a kind of affirmative dignity. They offer an example in the work of photographer Nan Goldin, who explored the lives of the queer community with equal parts curiosity and respect long before champions like Andrew Sullivan first pulled the politics of homosexuality into the limelight of mainstream cultural discourse:

Until far too recently, homosexuality lay largely outside the province of art. In Nan Goldin's work, it is, redemptively, one of its central themes. Goldin's art is filled with a generous attentiveness towards the lives of its subjects. Although we might not be conscious of it at first, her photograph of a young and, as we discern, lesbian woman examining herself in the mirror is composed with utmost care. The device of reflection is key. In the room itself the woman is out of focus; we don't see her directly, just the side of her face an and the blur or a hand. The accent is on the make-up she has just been using. It is in the mirror that we see her as she wants to be seen: striking and stylish, her hand suave and eloquent. The work of art functions like a kindly voice that says, "I see you as you hope to be seen, I see you as worthy of love." The photograph understands the longing to become a more polished and elegant version of oneself. It sounds, of course, an entirely obvious wish; but for centuries, partly because there were no Goldins, it was anything but.

Therein, they argue, lies one of art's greatest gifts:

Art can offer a grand and serious vantage point from which to survey the travails of our condition.

4. REBALANCING

With our fluid selves, clusters of tormenting contradictions, and culture of prioritizing productivity over presence, no wonder we find ourselves in need of recentering. That's precisely what art can offer:

Few of us are entirely well balanced. Our psychological histories, relationships and working routines mean that our emotions can incline grievously in one direction or another. We may, for example, have a tendency to be too complacent, or too insecure; too trusting, or too suspicious; too serious, or too light-hearted. Art can put us in touch with concentrated doses of our missing dispositions, and thereby restore a measure of equilibrium to our listing inner selves.

This function of art also helps explain the vast diversity of our aesthetic preferences - because our individual imbalances differ, so do the artworks we seek out to soothe them:

Why are some people drawn to minimalist architecture and others to Baroque? Why are some people excited by bare concrete walls and others by William Morris's floral patterns? Our tastes will depend on what spectrum of our emotional make-up lies in shadow and is hence in need of stimulation and emphasis. Every work of art is imbued with a particular psychological and moral atmosphere: a painting may be either serene or restless, courageous or careful, modest or confident, masculine or feminine, bourgeois or aristocratic, and our preferences for one kind over another reflect our varied psychological gaps. We hunger for artworks that will compensate for our inner fragilities and help return us to a viable mean. We call a work beautiful when it supplies the virtues we are missing, and we dismiss as ugly one that forces on us moods or motifs that we feel either threatened or already overwhelmed by. Art holds out the promise of inner wholeness.

Viewing art from this perspective, de Botton and Armstrong argue, also affords us the necessary self-awareness to understand why we might respond negatively to a piece of art - an insight that might prevent us from reactive disparagement. Being able to recognize what someone lacks in order to find an artwork beautiful allows us to embody that essential practice of prioritizing understanding over self-righteousness. In this respect, art is also a tuning - and atoning - mechanism for our moral virtues. In fact, some of history's most celebrated art is anchored on moralistic missions - what de Botton and Armstrong call "an attempt to encourage our better selves through coded messages of exhortation and admonition" - to which we often respond with resistance and indignation. But such reactions miss the bigger point:

We might think of works of art that exhort as both bossy and unnecessary, but this would assume an encouragement of virtue would always be contrary to our own desires. However, in reality, when we are calm and not under fire, most of us long to be good and wouldn't mind the odd reminder to be so; we simply can't find the motivation day to day. In relation to our aspirations to goodness, we suffer from what Aristotle called akrasia, or weakness of will. We want to behave well in our relationships, but slip up under pressure. We want to make more of ourselves, but lose motivation at a critical juncture. In these circumstances, we can derive enormous benefit from works of art that encourage us to be the best versions of ourselves, something that we would only resent if we had a manic fear of outside intervention, or thought of ourselves as perfect already.

The best kind of cautionary art - art that is moral without being "moralistic" - understands how easy it is to be attracted to the wrong things.

[...]

The task for artists, therefore, is to find new ways of prying open our eyes to tiresomely familiar, but critically important, ideas about how to lead a balanced and good life.

They summarize this function of art beautifully:

Art can save us time - and save our lives - through opportune and visceral reminders of balance and goodness that we should never presume we know enough about already.

5. SELF-UNDERSTANDING

Despite our best efforts at self-awareness, we're all too often partial or complete mysteries to ourselves. Art, de Botton and Armstrong suggest, can help shed light on those least explored nooks of our psyche and make palpable the hunches of intuition we can only sense but not articulate:

We are not transparent to ourselves. We have intuitions, suspicions, hunches, vague musings, and strangely mixed emotions, all of which resist simple definition. We have moods, but we don't really know them. Then, from time to time, we encounter works of art that seem to latch on to something we have felt but never recognized clearly before. Alexander Pope identified a central function of poetry as taking thoughts we experience half-formed and giving them clear expression: "what was often thought, but ne'er so well expressed." In other words, a fugitive and elusive part of our own thinking, our own experience, is taken up, edited, and returned to us better than it was before, so that we feel, at last, that we know ourselves more clearly.

More than that, they argue, the self-knowledge art bequeaths gives us a language for communicating that to others - something that explains why we are so particular about the kinds of art with which we surround ourselves publicly, a sort of self-packaging we all practice as much on the walls of our homes as we do on our Facebook walls and art Tumblrs. While the cynic might interpret this as mere showing off, however, de Botton and Armstrong peel away this superficial interpretation to reveal the deeper psychological motive - our desire to communicate to others the subtleties of who we are and what we believe in a way that words might never fully capture.

6. GROWTH

Besides inviting deeper knowledge of our own selves, art also allows us to expand the boundaries of who we are by helping us overcome our chronic fear of the unfamiliar and living more richly by inviting the unknown:

Engagement with art is useful because it presents us with powerful examples of the kind of alien material that provokes defensive boredom and fear, and allows us time and privacy to learn to deal more strategically with it. An important first step in overcoming defensiveness around art is to become more open about the strangeness that we feel in certain contexts.

De Botton and Armstrong propose three critical steps to overcoming our defensiveness around art: First, acknowledging the strangeness we feel and being gentle on ourselves for feeling it, recognizing that it's completely natural - after all, so much art comes from people with worldviews radically different from, and often contradictory to, our own; second, making ourselves familiar and thus more at home with the very minds who created that alien art; finally, looking for points of connection with the artist, "however fragile and initially tenuous," so we can relate to the work that sprang from the context of their life with the personal reality of our own context.

7. APPRECIATION

Our attention, as we know, is "an intentional, unapologetic discriminator" that blinds us to so much of what is around us and to the magic in our familiar surroundings. Art, de Botton and Armstrong argue, can lift these blinders so we can truly absorb not only just what we're expecting to see, but also what we aren't:

One of our major flaws, and causes of unhappiness, is that we find it hard to take note of what is always around us. We suffer because we lose sight of the value of what is before us and yearn, often unfairly, for the imagined attraction elsewhere.

While habit can be a remarkable life-centering force, it is also a double-edged sword that can slice off a whole range of experiences as we fall into autopilot mode. Art can decondition our habituation to what is wonderful and worthy of rejoicing:

Art is one resource that can lead us back to a more accurate assessment of what is valuable by working against habit and inviting us to recalibrate what we admire or love.

One example they offer comes from Jasper Johns's famous bronze-cast beer cans, which nudge us to look at a mundane and familiar object with new eyes:

The heavy, costly material they are made of makes us newly aware of their separateness and oddity: we see them as though we had never laid eyes on cans before, acknowledging their intriguing identifies as a child or a Martian, both free of habit in this area, might naturally do.

Johns is teaching us a lesson: how to look with kinder and more alert eyes at the world around us.

Such is the power of art: It is both witness to and celebrator of the value of the ordinary, which we so frequently forsake in our quests for artificial greatness, a kind of resensitization tool that awakens us to the richness of our daily lives:

[Art] can teach us to be more just towards ourselves as we endeavor to make the best of our circumstances: a job we do not always love, the imperfections of middle age, our frustrated ambitions and our attempts to stay loyal to irritable but loved spouses. Art can do the opposite of glamorizing the unattainable; it can reawaken us to the genuine merit of life as we're forced to lead it.

The rest of Art as Therapy goes on to examine such eternal questions as what makes good art, what kind of art one should make, how art should be displayed, studied, bought and sold, and a heartening wealth more. Complement it with 100 ideas that changed art.

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Art as Therapy: Alain de Botton on the 7 Psychological Functions of Art

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The question of what art is has occupied humanity since the dawn of recorded history. For Tolstoy, the purpose of art was to provide a bridge of empathy between us and others, and for Anaïs Nin, a way to exorcise our emotional excess.

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Formalism in aesthetics has traditionally been taken to refer to the view in the philosophy of art that the properties in virtue of which an artwork is an artwork-and in virtue of which its value is determined-are formal in the sense of being accessible by direct sensation (typically sight or hearing) alone.

While such Formalist intuitions have a long history, prominent anti-Formalist arguments towards the end of the twentieth century (for example, from Arthur Danto and Kendall Walton according to which none of the aesthetic properties of a work of art are purely formal) have been taken by many to be decisive. Yet in the early twenty-first century there has been a renewed interest in and defense of Formalism. Contemporary discussion has revealed both "extreme" and more "moderate" positions, but the most notable departure from traditional accounts is the move from Artistic to Aesthetic Formalism.

One might more accurately summarize contemporary Formalist thinking by noting the complaint that prominent anti-Formalist arguments fail to accommodate an important aspect of our aesthetic lives, namely those judgements and experiences (in relation to art, but also beyond the art-world) which should legitimately be referred to as "aesthetic" but which are accessible by direct sensation, and proceed independently of one's knowledge or appreciation of a thing's function, history, or context.

Table of Contents

1. A Brief History of Formalism

1. Nineteenth Century Antecedents

2. Twentieth Century Reception

2. Clive Bell's Artistic Formalism

1. Clive Bell and 'Significant Form'

2. The Pursuit of Lasting Values

3. Aesthetic versus Non-Aesthetic Appreciation

4. Conclusions: From Artistic to (Moderate) Aesthetic Formalism

3. Nick Zangwill's Moderate Aesthetic Formalism

1. Extreme Formalism, Moderate Formalism, Anti-Formalism

2. Responding to Kendall Walton's Anti-Formalism

3. Kant's Formalism

4. From Art to the Aesthetic Appreciation of Nature

1. Anti-Formalism and Nature

2. Formalism and Nature.

5. Conclusions

6. References and Further Reading

1. A Brief History of Formalism

a. Nineteenth Century Antecedents

When A. G. Baumgarten introduced the term "aesthetic" into the philosophy of art it seemed to be taken up with the aim of recognising, as well as unifying, certain practices, and perhaps even the concept of beauty itself. It is of note that the phrase l'art pour l'art seemed to gain significance at roughly the same time that the term aesthetic came into wider use.

In a slightly different direction (although recognisably local to the above), one might cite James Whistler: Art should be independent of all claptrap-should stand alone [...] and appeal to the artistic sense of eye or ear, without confounding this with emotions entirely foreign to it, in devotion, pity, love, patriotism and the like.

b. Twentieth Century Reception

However, Artistic Formalism, or its close relatives, have met with serious (or potentially disabling) opposition of the kind found in Meyer. Gregory Currie (1989) and David Davies (2004) both illustrate a similar disparity between our actual critical and appreciative practices and what is (in the end) suggested to be merely some pre-theoreticalintuition. Making such a point in his An Ontology of Art, Currie draws together a number of familiar and related aesthetic stances under the term "Aesthetic Empiricism", according to which

[T]he boundaries of the aesthetic are set by the boundaries of vision, hearing or verbal understanding, depending on which art form is in question. (Currie, 1989, p.18)

Currie asserts that empiricism finds its natural expression in aesthetics in the view that a work-a painting, for instance-is a "sensory surface". Such a view was, according to Currie, supposed by David Prall when he said that "Cotton will suffice aesthetically for snow, provided that at our distance from it it appears snowy". It is the assumption we recover from Monroe Beardsley (1958) in the view that the limits of musical appreciation are the limits of what can be heard in a work. Currie also recognises a comparable commitment concerning literature in Wimsatt and Beardsley's The Intentional Fallacy (1946). We can add to Currie's list Clive Bell's claim that

To appreciate a work of art we need bring with us nothing from life, no knowledge of its ideas and affairs, no familiarity with its emotions... we need bring with us nothing but a sense of form and colour and a knowledge of three-dimensional space.

Alfred Lessing, in his "What is Wrong with Forgery?" (in Dutton, 1983), argues that on the assumption that an artwork is a "sensory surface" it does seem a natural extension to claim that what is aesthetically valuable in a painting is a function solely of how it looks. This "surface" terminology, again, relates back to Prall who characterised the aesthetic in terms of an exclusive interest in the "surface" of things, or the thing as seen, heard, felt, immediately experienced. It echoes Fry's claim that aesthetic interest is constituted only by an awareness of "order and variety in the sensuous plane". However, like Kendall Walton (1970) and Arthur Danto (1981) before him, Currie's conclusion is that this common and influential view is nonetheless false.

Walton's anti-formalism is presented in his essay "Categories of Art" in which he first argues that the aesthetic properties one perceives an artwork as having will depend on which category one perceives the work as belonging to (for example, objects protruding from a canvas seen under the category of "painting"-rather than under the category of "collage"-may appear contrary to expectation and thus surprising, disturbing, or incongruous). Secondly, Walton argues that the aesthetic properties an artwork actually has are those it is perceived as having when seen under the category to which it actually belongs. Determination of "correct" categories requires appeal to such things as artistic intentions, and as knowledge concerning these requires more than a sense of form, color, and knowledge of three-dimensional space, it follows that Artistic Formalism must be false (see Part 3 for a more in-depth discussion of Walton's anti-formalist arguments).

Similarly, Danto's examples-these include artworks such as Marcel Duchamp's "Readymades", Andy Warhol's Brillo Boxes, and Danto's hypothetical set of indiscernible red squares that constitute distinct artworks with distinct aesthetic properties (indeed, two of which are not artworks at all but "mere things") - are generally taken to provide insurmountable difficulties for traditional Artistic Formalism. Danto argues that, regarding most artworks, it is possible to imagine two objects that are formally or perceptually indistinguishable but differ in artistic value, or perhaps are not artworks at all.

This distinction between "artistic" and "aesthetic" value marks the transition from Artistic to Aesthetic Formalism. Danto, for example, actually endorsed a version of the latter in maintaining that (while indistinguishable objects may differ in terms of their artistic value or art-status) in being perceptually indiscernible, two objects would be aesthetically indiscernible also. Hence, at its strongest formulation Aesthetic Formalism distinguishes aesthetic from non-aesthetic value whilst maintaining that the former is restricted to those values that can be detected merely by attending to what can be seen, heard, or immediately experienced. Values not discerned in this way may be important, but should not be thought of as (purely) "aesthetic" values.

2. Clive Bell's Artistic Formalism

Formalism of this kind has received largely unsympathetic treatment for its estimation that perceptual experience of line and colour is uniquely and properly the domain of the aesthetic. Yet there is some intuitive plausibility to elements of the view Bell describes which have been preserved in subsequent attempts to re-invigorate an interest in the application of formalism to aesthetics (see Part 3). In this section we consider Bell's initial formulation, identifying (along the way) those themes that re-emerge in contemporary discussion.

a. Clive Bell and 'Significant Form'

The claim under consideration is that in pictorial art (if we may narrow the scope for the purposes of this discussion) a work's value is a function of its beauty and beauty is to be found in the formal qualities and arrangement of paint on canvas. Nothing more is required to judge the value of a work. Here is Bell:

What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible - significant form. In each, lines and colours combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions. These relations and combinations of lines and colours, these aesthetically moving forms, I call "Significant Form"; and "Significant Form" is the one quality common to all works of visual art. (1913, p.5)

Unlike the proponents of the previous century Bell is not so much claiming an ought (initially) but an is. Significant form must be the measure of artistic value as it is the only thing that all those works we have valued through the ages have in common. For Bell we have no other means of recognising a work of art than our feeling for it. If a work is unable to engage our feelings it fails, it is not art. If it engages our feelings, but feelings that are sociologically contingent (for example, certain moral sensibilities that might be diminished or lost over time), it is not engaging aesthetic sensibilities and, inasmuch, is not art. Thus if a work is unable to stir the viewer in this precise and uncontaminated way (in virtue of its formal qualities alone), it will be impossible to ascribe to the object the status of artwork.

We are, then, to understand that certain forms-lines, colours, in particular combinations-are de facto producers of some kind of aesthetic emotion. They are in this sense "significant" in a manner that other forms are not. Without exciting aesthetic rapture, although certain forms may interest us; amuse us; capture our attention, the object under scrutiny will not be a work of art. Bell tells us that art can transport us

[F]rom the world of man's activity to a world of aesthetic exaltation. For a moment we are shut off from human interests; our anticipations and memories are arrested; we are lifted above the stream of life. The pure mathematician rapt in his studies knows a state of mind which I take to be similar if not identical.

Thus the significance in question is a significance unrelated to the significance of life. "In this [the aesthetic] world the emotions of life find no place. It is a world with emotions of its own." Bell writes that before feeling an aesthetic emotion one perceives the rightness and necessity of the combination of form at issue, he even considers whether it is this, rather than the form itself, that provokes the emotion in question. Bell's position appears to echo G. E. Moore's intuitionism in the sense that one merely contemplates the object and recognises the significant form that constitutes its goodness.

b. The Pursuit of Lasting Values

Bell holds that the discerning viewer is concerned only with line and colour, their relations and qualities, the apprehension of which (in significant form) can allow the viewer an emotion more powerful, profound, and genuinely significant than can be afforded by any description of facts or ideas. Thus, for Bell:

Great art remains stable and unobscure because the feelings that it awakens are independent of time and place, because its kingdom is not of this world. To those who have and hold a sense of the significance of form what does it matter whether the forms that move them were created in Paris the day before yesterday or in Babylon fifty centuries ago. The forms of art are inexhaustible; but all lead by the same road of aesthetic emotion to the same world of aesthetic ecstasy. (1913, p.16)

In discussion of much of the criticism Bell's account has received it is important not to run together two distinct questions. On the one hand there is the question of whether or not there exists some emotion that is peculiar to the aesthetic; that is "otherworldly" in the sense that it is not to be confused with those responses that temper the rest of our lives. The affirmation of this is certainly implicated in Bell's account and is rightly met with some consternation. But what is liable to become obscured is that the suggestion of such an inert aesthetic emotion was part of Bell's solution to the more interesting question with which his earlier writing was concerned. This question concerns whether or not one might isolate a particular reaction to certain (aesthetic) objects that is sufficiently independent of time, place and enculturation that one might expect it to be exhibited in subjects irrespective of their historical and social circumstance.

One response to this question is indeed to posit an emotional response that is unlike all those responses that are taken to be changeable and contingent on time, culture and so forth. Looking at the changeable interests of the art-world over time, one might well see that an interest in representation or subject matter betrays the spectator's allegiance to "the gross herd" (as Bell puts it) of some era. But it seems this response is unsatisfactory. As we have seen, McLaughlin and Carey are sceptical of the kind of inert emotion Bell stipulates. Bell's response to such criticisms is to claim that those unable to accept the postulation are simply ignorant of the emotion he describes. While this is philosophically unsatisfactory the issue is potentially moot. Still, it might be thought that there are other ways in which one might characterise lasting value such as to capture the kind of quality Bell pursued whilst dismissing the more ephemeral significances that affect a particular time.

c. Aesthetic versus Non-Aesthetic Appreciation

Yet aside from this aim there are some valuable mechanisms at work in Bell's theory. As a corollary of his general stance, Bell mentions that to understand art we do not need to know anything about art-history. It may be that from works of art we can draw inferences as to the sort of people who made them; but an intimate understanding of an artist will not tell us whether his pictures are any good. This point again relates to Bell's contention that pure aesthetics is concerned only with the question of whether or not objects have a specific emotional significance to us. Other questions, he believes, are not questions for aesthetics:

To appreciate a man's art I need know nothing whatever about the artist; I can say whether this picture is better than that without the help of history, but if I am trying to account for the deterioration of his art, I shall be helped by knowing that he has been seriously ill... To mark the deterioration was to make a pure, aesthetic judgement: to account for it was to become an historian. (1913, pp.44-5, emphasis added)

It is fairly well acknowledged that Bell had a non-philosophical agenda for these kinds of claims. It is easy to see in Bell a defense of the value of abstract art over other art forms and this was indeed his intention. The extent to which Renaissance art can be considered great, for example, has nothing to do with representational accuracy but must be considered only in light of the formal qualities exhibited. In this manner many of the values formerly identified in artworks, and indeed movements, would have to be dismissed as deviations from the sole interest of the aesthetic: the pursuit of significant form.

d. Conclusions: From Artistic to (Moderate) Aesthetic Formalism

So what are we to take from Bell's account? His claims that our interactions with certain artworks yield an emotion peculiar to the aesthetic, and not experienced in our everyday emotional lives, is rightly met with consternation. It is unclear why we should recognise such a reaction to be of a different kind (let alone a more valuable kind) to those experienced in other contexts such as to discount many of our reactions to ostensible aesthetic objects as genuine aesthetic responses. Few are prompted by Bell's account to accept this determination of the aesthetic nor does it seem to satisfactorily capture all that we should want to in this area. However, Bell's aim in producing this theory was (ostensibly) to capture something common to aesthetic objects. In appealing to a timeless emotion that will not be subject to the contingencies of any specific era, Bell seemingly hoped to account for the enduring values of works throughout time. It is easy enough to recognise this need and the place Bell's theory is supposed to hold in satisfying what does appear to be a sensible requirement. It is less clear that this path, if adequately pursued, should be found to be fruitless.

By construing formalism as an aesthetic theory (as an account of what constitutes aesthetic value) or as part of an aesthetic theory (as an account of one kind of aesthetic value), whilst at the same time admitting that there are other values to be had (both aesthetic and non-aesthetic), the Formalist needn't go so far as to ordain the priority or importance of this specific value in the various practices in which it features. In this way, one can anticipate the stance of the Moderate Formalist who asserts (in terms reminiscent of Kant's account) there to be two kinds of beauty: formal beauty, and non-formal beauty. Formal beauty is an aesthetic property that is entirely determined by "narrow"non-aesthetic properties (these include sensory and non-relational physical properties such as the lines and colours on the surface of a painting). Non-formal beauty is determined by "broad" non-aesthetic properties (which covers anything else, including appeals to the content-related aspects that would be required to ascertain the aptness or suitability of certain features for the intended end of the painting, or the accuracy of a representational portrait, or the category to which an artwork belongs).

3. Nick Zangwill's Moderate Aesthetic Formalism

a. Extreme Formalism, Moderate Formalism, Anti-Formalism

Nick Zangwill recognises that arrangements of lines, shapes, and colours (he includes "shininess" and "glossiness" as colour properties) are typically taken as formal properties, contrasting these with non-formal properties which are determined, in part, by the history of production or context of creation for the artwork. In capturing this divide, he writes:

The most straightforward account would be to say that formal properties are those aesthetic properties that are determined solely by sensory or physical properties-so long as the physical properties in question are not relations to other things or other times. This would capture the intuitive idea that formal properties are those aesthetic properties that are directly perceivable or that are determined by properties that are directly perceivable. (2001, p.56)

b. Responding to Kendall Walton's Anti-Formalism

Part 1 briefly considersed Kendall Walton's influential position according to which in order to make any aesthetic judgement regarding a work of art one must see it under an art-historical category. This claim was made in response to various attempts to "purge from criticism of works of art supposedly extraneous excursions into matters not (or not "directly") available to inspection of the works, and to focus attention on the works themselves" (See, for example, the discussion of Clive Bell in Part 2). In motivating this view Walton offers what he supposes to be various "intuition pumps" that should lead to the acceptance of his proposal.

The bust's uniform color, motionlessness, and abrupt ending at the chest are standard properties relative to the category of busts, and since we see it as a bust they are standard for us. [...] A cubist work might look like a person with a cubical head to someone not familiar with the cubist style. But the standardness of such cubical shapes for people who see it as a cubist work prevents them from making that comparison. (1970, p.345)

Zangwill argues that while representational properties might not be aesthetic properties (indeed they are possessed by ostensibly non-aesthetic, non-art items such as maps, blueprints, and road signs) they do appear to be among the base (non-aesthetic) properties that determine aesthetic properties. Given that representational properties of a work are, in part, determined by the history of production, and assuming that some aesthetic properties of representational works are partly determined by what they represent, Zangwill concludes some aesthetic properties to be non-formal. This is no problem for the Moderate Formalist of course; Walton's intuition pump does not lead to an anti-formalist argument for it seems equally clear that only a subclass of artworks are representational works. Many works have no representational properties at all and are thus unaffected by the insistence that representational properties can only be successfully identified via the presence of art-historical or categorical information. Given that Zangwill accepts Walton's claim in respect only to a subclass of aesthetic objects, Moderate Formalism remains undisturbed.

However, Walton offers other arguments that might be thought to have a more general application and thus forestall this method of "tactical retreat" on the part of the would-be Moderate Formalist. The claim that Walton seems to hold for all artworks (rather than just a subclass) is that the art-historical category into which an artwork falls is aesthetically relevant because one's belief that a work falls under a particular category affects one's perception of it-one experiences the work differently when one experiences it under a category. Crucially, understanding a work's category is a matter of understanding the degrees to which its features are standard, contra-standard and variable with respect to that category. Here is Walton's most well-known example:

This analysis has been variously accepted in the literature; it is particularly interesting, therefore, to recognise Zangwill's initial suspicion of Walton's account. He notes that a plausible block to this intuition comes in the observation that it becomes very difficult to make aesthetic judgements about whole categories or comparisons of items across categories. Zangwill stipulates that Walton might respond with the claim that we simply widen the categories utilised in our judgements. For example, when we say that Minoan art is (in general) more dynamic than Mycenean art, what we are saying is that this is how it is when we consider both sorts of works as belonging to the class of "prehistoric Greek art". He continues:

But why should we believe this story? It does not describe a psychological process that we are aware of when we make cross-category judgements. The insistence that we are subconsciously operating with some more embracing category, even though we are not aware of it, seems to be an artefact of the anti-formalist theory that there is no independent reason to believe. If aesthetic judgements are category-dependent, we would expect speakers and thinkers to be aware of it. But phenomenological reflection does not support the category-dependent view. (2001, pp. 92-3)

On this view, one can allow that reference to art-historical categories is a convenient way of classifying art, artists, and art movements, but the fact that this convenience has been widely utilised need not be telling against alternative accounts of aesthetic value.

c. Kant's Formalism

Zangwill's own distinction between formal and non-formal properties isderived (broadly) from Immanuel Kant's distinction between free and dependent beauty. Indeed, Zangwill has asserted that "Kant was also a moderate formalist, who opposed extreme formalism when he distinguished free and dependent beauty in §16 of the Critique of Judgement " (2005, p.186). In the section in question Kant writes:

This is not the place for a detailed exegesis of Kant's aesthetics, but it is pertinent to at least note the suggestion that it is nature (rather than art) that provides the paradigm objects of formal aesthetic judgement. In the next part of this presentation we will explore this possibility, further considering Zangwill's moderate, and more extreme Formalist conclusions in the domain of nature appreciation.

4. From Art to the Aesthetic Appreciation of Nature

a. Anti-Formalism and Nature

Carlson has characterised contemporary debates in the aesthetics of nature as attempting to distance nature appreciation from theories of the appreciation of art. Contemporary discussion introduces different models for the appreciation of nature in place of the inadequate attempts to apply artistic norms to an environmental domain. For example, in his influential "Appreciation and the Natural Environment" (1979) he had disputed both "object" and "landscape" models of nature appreciation (which might be thought attractive to the Moderate Formalist), favouring the "natural environmental" model (which stands in opposition to the other two). Carlson acknowledged that the "object" model has some utility in the art-world regarding the appreciation of non-representational sculpture (he takes Brancusi's Bird in Space (1919) as an example). Such sculpture can have significant (formal) aesthetic properties yet no representational connections to the rest of reality or relational connections with its immediate surroundings. Indeed, he acknowledges that the formalist intuitions discussed earlier have remained prevalent in the domain of nature appreciation, meeting significant and sustained opposition only in the domain of art criticism.

The assumption implicit in the above rejection of Formalism is familiar from the objections (specifically regarding Walton) from Part 3. It is the suggestion that the appropriate way to appreciate some target object is via recourse to the kind of thing it is; taking the target for something it is not does not constitute appropriate aesthetic appreciation of that thing. Nature is natural so cannot be treated as "readymade" art. Carlson holds that the target for the appreciation of nature is also an environment, entailing that the appropriate mode of appreciation is active, involved appreciation. It is the appreciation of a judge who is in the environment, being part of and reacting to it, rather than merely being an external onlooker upon a two-dimensional scene. It is this view that leads to his strong anti-formalist suggestion that the natural environment as such does not possess formal qualities. For example, responding to the "landscape" model Carlson suggests that the natural environment itself only appears to have formal qualities when a person somehow imposes a frame upon it and thus formally composes the resultant view. In such a case it is the framed view that has the qualities, but these will vary depending upon the frame and the viewer's position. As a consequence Carlson takes the formal features of nature, such as they are, to be (nearly) infinitely realisable; insofar as the natural environment has formal qualities, they have an indeterminateness, making them both difficult to appreciate, and of little significance in the appreciation of nature.

Put simply, the natural environment is not an object, nor is it a static two-dimensional "picture", thus it cannot be appreciated in ways satisfactory for objects or pictures; furthermore, the rival models discussed do not reveal significant or sufficiently determinate appreciative features. In rejecting these views Carlson has been concerned with the questions of what and how we should appreciate; his answer involves the necessary acknowledgement that we are appreciating x qua x, where some further conditions will be specifiable in relation to the nature of the x in question. It is in relation to this point that Carlson's anti-formalist "cognitive naturalism" presents itself.

In general we do not produce, but rather discover, natural objects and aspects of nature. Why should we therefore not discover the correct categories for their perception? We discover whales and later discover that, in spite of somewhat misleading perceptual properties, they are in fact mammals and not fish. (Carlson, 2000, p.64)

By discovering the correct categories to which objects or environments belong, we can know which is the correct judgement to make (the whale is not a lumbering and inelegant fish). It is in virtue of this that Carlson claims our judgements of the aesthetic appreciation of nature sustain responsible criticism in the way Walton characterises the appreciation of art. It is for this reason that Carlson concludes that for the aesthetic appreciation of nature, something like the knowledge and experience of the naturalist or ecologist is essential. This knowledge gives us the appropriate foci of aesthetic significance and the appropriate boundaries of the setting so that our experience becomes one of aesthetic appreciation. He concludes that the absence of such knowledge, or any failure to perceive nature under the correct categories, leads to aesthetic omission and, indeed, deception.

b. Formalism and Nature.

However, Carlson's objection is not to the existence of formal value, but to the appropriateness of consideration of such value. Our knowledge of an environment is supposed to allow us to select certain foci of aesthetic significance and abstract from, or exclude, others such as to characterise different kinds of appropriate experience:

...we must survey a prairie environment, looking at the subtle contours of the land, feeling the wind blowing across the open space, and smelling the mix of prairie grasses and flowers. But such an act of aspection has little place in a dense forest environment. Here we must examine and scrutinise, inspecting the detail of the forest floor, listening carefully for the sounds of birds and smelling carefully for the scent of spruce and pine. (Carlson, 2000, p.64)

Clearly knowledge of the terrain and environment that is targeted in each of these cases might lead the subject to be particularly attentive to signs of certain expected elements; however, there are two concerns that are worth highlighting in closing.

Firstly, it is unclear why one should, for all one's knowledge of the expected richness or desolation of some particular landscape, be in a position to assume of (say) the prairie environment that no detailed local scrutiny should yield the kind of interest or appreciation (both formal and non-formal) that might be found in other environments. It is unclear whether Carlson could allow that such acts might yield appreciation but must maintain that they would not yield instances of aesthetic appreciation of that environment, or whether he is denying the availability of such unpredicted values-in either case the point seems questionable. Perhaps the suspicion is one that comes from proportioning one's expectation to one's analysis of the proposed target. The first concern is thus that knowledge (even accurate knowledge) can be as potentially blinding as it is potentially enlightening.

The second concern is related to the first, but poses more of a direct problem for Carlson. His objection to the "object" and "landscape" models regards their propensity to limit the potentiality for aesthetic judgement by taking the target to be something other than it truly is. Part of the problem described above relates to worries regarding the reduction of environments to general categories like prairie landscape, dense forest, pastoral environment such that one enlists expectations of those attentions that will and will not be rewarded, and limits one's interaction accordingly. While it might be true that some understanding of the kind of environment we are approaching will suggest certain values to expect as well as indicating the act of aspection appropriate for delivering just these, the worry is that this account may be unduly limiting because levels of appreciation are unlikely to exceed the estimations of the theory and the acts of engagement and interaction these provoke. In nature more than anywhere else this seems to fail to do justice to those intuitions that the target really is (amongst other things) a rich, unconstrained sensory manifold. To briefly illustrate the point with a final example, Zangwill (2001, pp.116-8) considers such cases (which he doesn't think Carlson can account for) asthe unexpected or incongruous beauty of the polar bear swimming underwater. Not only is this "the last thing we expected", but our surprise shows that

...it is not a beauty that we took to be dependent in some way upon our grasp of its polar-bearness. We didn't find it elegant as a polar bear. It is a category-free beauty. The underwater polar bear is a beautiful thing in beautiful motion...

5. Conclusions

6. References and Further Reading

Crawford, Donald (1974) Kant's Aesthetic Theory Madison: Wisconsin University Press
A scholarly and influential engagement with Kant's Critique of Judgement (see also Guyer (1997)).

Currie, Gregory(1989) An Ontology of Art Basingstoke: Macmillan
See Chapter 3 especially for a discussion of "Aesthetic Empiricism" in connection with the anti-formalist arguments discussed in Part 1.

Danto, Arthur (1981) The Transfiguration of the Commonplace Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press
For Danto, Warhol's Brillo Box exhibition (1964) marked a watershed in the history of aesthetics, rendering almost worthless everything written by philosophers on art. Warhol's sculptures were indistinguishable from ordinary Brillo boxes, putatively showing that an artwork needn't posses some special perceptually discernible quality in order to afford art-status.

Guyer, Paul (1997) Kant and the Claims of Taste [2nd Edition] Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
A clear and comprehensive critical exploration of Kant's Critique of Judgement.

Kant, Immanuel (1952) Critique of Judgement, [trans. Meredith] Oxford: Clarendon Press

Wimsatt, W. and Beardsley, M. (1946) 'The Intentional Fallacy', Sewanee Review 54, pp.468-88
The authors argue against the view that an artwork's meaning is determined by reference to the artist's intentions.

Zangwill, Nick (2001) The Metaphysics of Beauty, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press
A thorough exploration and defense of formalist intuitions; the book includes re-printed versions of many of Zangwill's important contributions (for example, his 'Feasible Aesthetic Formalism', Noús 33 (1999)) from earlier years.

Zangwill, Nick (2005) 'In Defence of Extreme Formalism about Inorganic Nature: Reply to Parsons', British Journal of Aesthetics, 45, pp.185-191

Author Information

Christopher Dowling
Email: c.dowling@open.ac.uk
The Open University
United Kingdom

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Formalism in aesthetics has traditionally been taken to refer to the view in the philosophy of art that the properties in virtue of which an artwork is an artwork-and in virtue of which its value is determined-are formal in the sense of being accessible by direct sensation (typically sight or hearing) alone.

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Your full access to today's world of art. Brilliant Ideas looks at the most exciting artists at work in the world today.

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Big questions answered. Big theories explained. Philosophical concepts in under 2 minutes from the BBC Radio 4 programme - A History of Ideas. Animated by Co…

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The poor image is a copy in motion. Its quality is bad, its resolution substandard. As it accelerates, it deteriorates. It is a ghost of an image, a preview, a thumbnail, an errant idea, an itinerant image distributed for free, squeezed through slow digital connections, compressed, reproduced, ripped, remixed, as well as copied and pasted into other channels of distribution.

The poor image is a rag or a rip; an AVI or a JPEG, a lumpen proletarian in the class society of appearances, ranked and valued according to its resolution. The poor image has been uploaded, downloaded, shared, reformatted, and reedited. It transforms quality into accessibility, exhibition value into cult value, films into clips, contemplation into distraction. The image is liberated from the vaults of cinemas and archives and thrust into digital uncertainty, at the expense of its own substance. The poor image tends towards abstraction: it is a visual idea in its very becoming.

The poor image is an illicit fifth-generation bastard of an original image. Its genealogy is dubious. Its filenames are deliberately misspelled. It often defies patrimony, national culture, or indeed copyright. It is passed on as a lure, a decoy, an index, or as a reminder of its former visual self. It mocks the promises of digital technology. Not only is it often degraded to the point of being just a hurried blur, one even doubts whether it could be called an image at all. Only digital technology could produce such a dilapidated image in the first place.

Poor images are the contemporary Wretched of the Screen, the debris of audiovisual production, the trash that washes up on the digital economies' shores. They testify to the violent dislocation, transferrals, and displacement of images-their acceleration and circulation within the vicious cycles of audiovisual capitalism. Poor images are dragged around the globe as commodities or their effigies, as gifts or as bounty. They spread pleasure or death threats, conspiracy theories or bootlegs, resistance or stultification. Poor images show the rare, the obvious, and the unbelievable-that is, if we can still manage to decipher it.

1. Low Resolutions

In one of Woody Allen's films the main character is out of focus. It's not a technical problem but some sort of disease that has befallen him: his image is consistently blurred. Since Allen's character is an actor, this becomes a major problem: he is unable to find work. His lack of definition turns into a material problem. Focus is identified as a class position, a position of ease and privilege, while being out of focus lowers one's value as an image.

The contemporary hierarchy of images, however, is not only based on sharpness, but also and primarily on resolution. Just look at any electronics store and this system, described by Harun Farocki in a notable 2007 interview, becomes immediately apparent.In the class society of images, cinema takes on the role of a flagship store. In flagship stores high-end products are marketed in an upscale environment. More affordable derivatives of the same images circulate as DVDs, on broadcast television or online, as poor images.

Obviously, a high-resolution image looks more brilliant and impressive, more mimetic and magic, more scary and seductive than a poor one. It is more rich, so to speak. Now, even consumer formats are increasingly adapting to the tastes of cineastes and esthetes, who insisted on 35 mm film as a guarantee of pristine visuality. The insistence upon analog film as the sole medium of visual importance resounded throughout discourses on cinema, almost regardless of their ideological inflection. It never mattered that these high-end economies of film production were (and still are) firmly anchored in systems of national culture, capitalist studio production, the cult of mostly male genius, and the original version, and thus are often conservative in their very structure. Resolution was fetishized as if its lack amounted to castration of the author. The cult of film gauge dominated even independent film production. The rich image established its own set of hierarchies, with new technologies offering more and more possibilities to creatively degrade it.

2. Resurrection (as Poor Images)

But insisting on rich images also had more serious consequences. A speaker at a recent conference on the film essay refused to show clips from a piece by Humphrey Jennings because no proper film projection was available. Although there was at the speaker's disposal a perfectly standard DVD player and video projector, the audience was left to imagine what those images might have looked like.

In this case the invisibility of the image was more or less voluntary and based on aesthetic premises. But it has a much more general equivalent based on the consequences of neoliberal policies. Twenty or even thirty years ago, the neoliberal restructuring of media production began slowly obscuring non-commercial imagery, to the point where experimental and essayistic cinema became almost invisible. As it became prohibitively expensive to keep these works circulating in cinemas, so were they also deemed too marginal to be broadcast on television. Thus they slowly disappeared not just from cinemas, but from the public sphere as well. Video essays and experimental films remained for the most part unseen save for some rare screenings in metropolitan film museums or film clubs, projected in their original resolution before disappearing again into the darkness of the archive.

This development was of course connected to the neoliberal radicalization of the concept of culture as commodity, to the commercialization of cinema, its dispersion into multiplexes, and the marginalization of independent filmmaking. It was also connected to the restructuring of global media industries and the establishment of monopolies over the audiovisual in certain countries or territories. In this way, resistant or non-conformist visual matter disappeared from the surface into an underground of alternative archives and collections, kept alive only by a network of committed organizations and individuals, who would circulate bootlegged VHS copies amongst themselves. Sources for these were extremely rare-tapes moved from hand to hand, depending on word of mouth, within circles of friends and colleagues. With the possibility to stream video online, this condition started to dramatically change. An increasing number of rare materials reappeared on publicly accessible platforms, some of them carefully curated (Ubuweb) and some just a pile of stuff (YouTube).

At present, there are at least twenty torrents of Chris Marker's film essays available online. If you want a retrospective, you can have it. But the economy of poor images is about more than just downloads: you can keep the files, watch them again, even reedit or improve them if you think it necessary. And the results circulate. Blurred AVI files of half-forgotten masterpieces are exchanged on semi-secret P2P platforms. Clandestine cell-phone videos smuggled out of museums are broadcast on YouTube. DVDs of artists' viewing copies are bartered. Many works of avant-garde, essayistic, and non-commercial cinema have been resurrected as poor images. Whether they like it or not.

3. Privatization and Piracy

That rare prints of militant, experimental, and classical works of cinema as well as video art reappear as poor images is significant on another level. Their situation reveals much more than the content or appearance of the images themselves: it also reveals the conditions of their marginalization, the constellation of social forces leading to their online circulation as poor images. Poor images are poor because they are not assigned any value within the class society of images-their status as illicit or degraded grants them exemption from its criteria. Their lack of resolution attests to their appropriation and displacement.

Obviously, this condition is not only connected to the neoliberal restructuring of media production and digital technology; it also has to do with the post-socialist and postcolonial restructuring of nation states, their cultures, and their archives. While some nation states are dismantled or fall apart, new cultures and traditions are invented and new histories created. This obviously also affects film archives-in many cases, a whole heritage of film prints is left without its supporting framework of national culture. As I once observed in the case of a film museum in Sarajevo, the national archive can find its next life in the form of a video-rental store. Pirate copies seep out of such archives through disorganized privatization. On the other hand, even the British Library sells off its contents online at astronomical prices.

As Kodwo Eshun has noted, poor images circulate partly in the void left by state-cinema organizations who find it too difficult to operate as a 16/35-mm archive or to maintain any kind of distribution infrastructure in the contemporary era. From this perspective, the poor image reveals the decline and degradation of the film essay, or indeed any experimental and non-commercial cinema, which in many places was made possible because the production of culture was considered a task of the state. Privatization of media production gradually grew more important than state controlled/sponsored media production. But, on the other hand, the rampant privatization of intellectual content, along with online marketing and commodification, also enable piracy and appropriation; it gives rise to the circulation of poor images.

4. Imperfect Cinema

The emergence of poor images reminds one of a classic Third Cinema manifesto, For an Imperfect Cinema, by Juan García Espinosa, written in Cuba in the late 1960s. Espinosa argues for an imperfect cinema because, in his words, "perfect cinema-technically and artistically masterful-is almost always reactionary cinema." The imperfect cinema is one that strives to overcome the divisions of labor within class society. It merges art with life and science, blurring the distinction between consumer and producer, audience and author. It insists upon its own imperfection, is popular but not consumerist, committed without becoming bureaucratic.

In his manifesto, Espinosa also reflects on the promises of new media. He clearly predicts that the development of video technology will jeopardize the elitist position of traditional filmmakers and enable some sort of mass film production: an art of the people. Like the economy of poor images, imperfect cinema diminishes the distinctions between author and audience and merges life and art. Most of all, its visuality is resolutely compromised: blurred, amateurish, and full of artifacts.

In some way, the economy of poor images corresponds to the description of imperfect cinema, while the description of perfect cinema represents rather the concept of cinema as a flagship store. But the real and contemporary imperfect cinema is also much more ambivalent and affective than Espinosa had anticipated. On the one hand, the economy of poor images, with its immediate possibility of worldwide distribution and its ethics of remix and appropriation, enables the participation of a much larger group of producers than ever before. But this does not mean that these opportunities are only used for progressive ends. Hate speech, spam, and other rubbish make their way through digital connections as well. Digital communication has also become one of the most contested markets-a zone that has long been subjected to an ongoing original accumulation and to massive (and, to a certain extent, successful) attempts at privatization.

The networks in which poor images circulate thus constitute both a platform for a fragile new common interest and a battleground for commercial and national agendas. They contain experimental and artistic material, but also incredible amounts of porn and paranoia. While the territory of poor images allows access to excluded imagery, it is also permeated by the most advanced commodification techniques. While it enables the users' active participation in the creation and distribution of content, it also drafts them into production. Users become the editors, critics, translators, and (co-)authors of poor images.

Poor images are thus popular images-images that can be made and seen by the many. They express all the contradictions of the contemporary crowd: its opportunism, narcissism, desire for autonomy and creation, its inability to focus or make up its mind, its constant readiness for transgression and simultaneous submission. Altogether, poor images present a snapshot of the affective condition of the crowd, its neurosis, paranoia, and fear, as well as its craving for intensity, fun, and distraction. The condition of the images speaks not only of countless transfers and reformattings, but also of the countless people who cared enough about them to convert them over and over again, to add subtitles, reedit, or upload them.

In this light, perhaps one has to redefine the value of the image, or, more precisely, to create a new perspective for it. Apart from resolution and exchange value, one might imagine another form of value defined by velocity, intensity, and spread. Poor images are poor because they are heavily compressed and travel quickly. They lose matter and gain speed. But they also express a condition of dematerialization, shared not only with the legacy of conceptual art but above all with contemporary modes of semiotic production. Capital's semiotic turn, as described by Felix Guattari, plays in favor of the creation and dissemination of compressed and flexible data packages that can be integrated into ever-newer combinations and sequences.

This flattening-out of visual content-the concept-in-becoming of the images-positions them within a general informational turn, within economies of knowledge that tear images and their captions out of context into the swirl of permanent capitalist deterritorialization. The history of conceptual art describes this dematerialization of the art object first as a resistant move against the fetish value of visibility. Then, however, the dematerialized art object turns out to be perfectly adapted to the semioticization of capital, and thus to the conceptual turn of capitalism. In a way, the poor image is subject to a similar tension. On the one hand, it operates against the fetish value of high resolution. On the other hand, this is precisely why it also ends up being perfectly integrated into an information capitalism thriving on compressed attention spans, on impression rather than immersion, on intensity rather than contemplation, on previews rather than screenings.

5. Comrade, what is your visual bond today?

But, simultaneously, a paradoxical reversal happens. The circulation of poor images creates a circuit, which fulfills the original ambitions of militant and (some) essayistic and experimental cinema-to create an alternative economy of images, an imperfect cinema existing inside as well as beyond and under commercial media streams. In the age of file-sharing, even marginalized content circulates again and reconnects dispersed worldwide audiences.

The poor image thus constructs anonymous global networks just as it creates a shared history. It builds alliances as it travels, provokes translation or mistranslation, and creates new publics and debates. By losing its visual substance it recovers some of its political punch and creates a new aura around it. This aura is no longer based on the permanence of the "original," but on the transience of the copy. It is no longer anchored within a classical public sphere mediated and supported by the frame of the nation state or corporation, but floats on the surface of temporary and dubious data pools. By drifting away from the vaults of cinema, it is propelled onto new and ephemeral screens stitched together by the desires of dispersed spectators.

The circulation of poor images thus creates "visual bonds," as Dziga Vertov once called them. This "visual bond" was, according to Vertov, supposed to link the workers of the world with each other. He imagined a sort of communist, visual, Adamic language that could not only inform or entertain, but also organize its viewers. In a sense, his dream has come true, if mostly under the rule of a global information capitalism whose audiences are linked almost in a physical sense by mutual excitement, affective attunement, and anxiety.

But there is also the circulation and production of poor images based on cell phone cameras, home computers, and unconventional forms of distribution. Its optical connections-collective editing, file sharing, or grassroots distribution circuits-reveal erratic and coincidental links between producers everywhere, which simultaneously constitute dispersed audiences.

The circulation of poor images feeds into both capitalist media assembly lines and alternative audiovisual economies. In addition to a lot of confusion and stupefaction, it also possibly creates disruptive movements of thought and affect. The circulation of poor images thus initiates another chapter in the historical genealogy of nonconformist information circuits: Vertov's "visual bonds," the internationalist workers pedagogies that Peter Weiss described in The Aesthetics of Resistance, the circuits of Third Cinema and Tricontinentalism, of non-aligned filmmaking and thinking. The poor image-ambivalent as its status may be-thus takes its place in the genealogy of carbon-copied pamphlets, cine-train agit-prop films, underground video magazines and other nonconformist materials, which aesthetically often used poor materials. Moreover, it reactualizes many of the historical ideas associated with these circuits, among others Vertov's idea of the visual bond.

Imagine somebody from the past with a beret asking you, "Comrade, what is your visual bond today?"

You might answer: it is this link to the present.

6. Now!

The poor image embodies the afterlife of many former masterpieces of cinema and video art. It has been expelled from the sheltered paradise that cinema seems to have once been. After being kicked out of the protected and often protectionist arena of national culture, discarded from commercial circulation, these works have become travelers in a digital no-man's land, constantly shifting their resolution and format, speed and media, sometimes even losing names and credits along the way.

Now many of these works are back-as poor images, I admit. One could of course argue that this is not the real thing, but then-please, anybody-show me this real thing.

The poor image is no longer about the real thing-the originary original. Instead, it is about its own real conditions of existence: about swarm circulation, digital dispersion, fractured and flexible temporalities. It is about defiance and appropriation just as it is about conformism and exploitation.

In short: it is about reality.

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In Defense of the Poor Image - Journal #10

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360° versions of The New York Times's virtual reality films. For a more immersive experience, download the free NYT VR app here: http://nyti.ms/1Ngf2d8 More ...

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Visual Artist Curriculum Vitae: Recommended Conventions
Adopted by the CAA Board of Directors in February 1999; amended on October 28, 2012.
General Comments

The curriculum vitae conventions presented here are primarily for those with academic careers. Approaches to CV development can vary based on number of years in the field, area(s) of specialization, specified institutional formats, etc.

According to Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary (www.m-w.com), the noun "curriculum vitae" is pronounced:
"\kə-ˈri-kyə-ləm-ˈvē-ˌtī, -kə-ləm-, -ˈwē-ˌtī, -ˈvī-ˌtē\ plural: cur·ric·u·la vitae" and literally means "course of (one's) life." The Latin term "curriculum vitae" is commonly used, so it need not be underlined or italicized. The abbreviation "CV" should be written in uppercase without periods. This format has been adopted by the Modern Language Association of America (MLA) and The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS).

There is a difference between a CV and an artist résumé. The CV is a record of all your professional activities, usually intended for use in academic situations as well as for applications to employment opportunities. The artist résumé is an abbreviated document, typically one to four pages in length, and is often tailored to reflect a specific expertise. The artist résumé is used in conjunction with commercial and non-profit galleries, the search for exhibition opportunities, residency and grant applications, public art proposals, etc.

The CV outlined here, the "long CV," is merely a framework on which to build. It takes into account the basic needs of both the artist and the readers of the document. As your career progresses, you will undoubtedly need to add new categories or make changes in your format. Always keep your CV up to date, just as you would letters of reference.

Occasionally, you might be asked to provide a "short CV." It, too, is usually designed for academic needs and is sometimes requested for grant applications, special events, etc. It highlights your most significant professional achievements and should be three or four pages in length (unless the maximum length is specified). Service and nonacademic activities are usually omitted in a short CV. If you have a significant number of exhibitions or a lengthy bibliography, you might place them under Selected Solo Exhibitions or Selected Bibliography.

Avoid making your CV complicated. Dramatic layouts and attempts to pad your CV will probably work against you. The CV should augment your images and other documentation. A beautifully prepared CV will not earn you a position if your art or its documentation is weak; however, a poorly designed CV could cost you one, especially if you're applying for employment or an opportunity in a design-related field.

Easy-to-read fonts and type sizes help facilitate reading. In general, use white space well and do not use colored paper. Do not use headshots, images, or colored type. Submit your CV in the format the application or guidelines specify.

You should always keep a comprehensive master copy of your CV with everything relevant included. This will allow you to compile a short CV when needed by adding items in relevant categories and by subtracting items in less relevant categories, depending on the target audience and the required length of the CV. If you take the time to document all relevant entries in a comprehensive master copy, you can retain important information that might otherwise be forgotten or lost.

A current good practice is to save your CV as both PDF and Word files. You should maintain a current copy of your CV as a Word document because it is the easiest format to edit and update. PDF files are best to submit or display because spacing, margins, and formatting are retained across computer platforms. If no submission directions are given, or if an institution gives you the option of sending a Word document or a PDF, you should always choose to send a PDF.

Both the résumé and the CV should list entries within each category in reverse chronological order (i.e., placing the most recent entry first and so on, with the least recent entry being the last entry in each category). Exceptions to this convention are entries without dates under categories such as Collections or Gallery Affiliation. In these cases entries should be listed in alphabetical order. Another exception to using reverse chronology is found under Education, where you should list institutions attended without earning a degree after listing schools (in reverse chronology) where degrees were earned.

Depending on your individual strengths as an artist, you may choose to rearrange the order of the categories listed below. For example, you may choose to put exhibitions first, before any awards or honors. As a general rule, you should "play to your strengths" by placing more important, relevant, and recent information near the beginning of your CV. Otherwise, the order presented below is suggested. Also, do not list category headings that are not relevant to you.

While it is important to avoid padding your "long CV," it is equally important that you do not omit anything. Be sure to list all your degrees, not just the ones related to studio art. In your efforts to keep the CV current, you should develop the habit of documenting everything you do. Keep a file or records that prove you had an exhibition, received a grant, gave a visiting-artist lecture, etc. You may eventually have to do this in some form for salary raises, retention (reappointment), promotion, tenure, or post-tenure reviews. Ideally, your record keeping should prove the existence of everything in your curriculum vitae.

Developing Your Curriculum Vitae

Applicants for positions in academia should be aware that individuals outside the department to which they are applying are frequently involved in the search process, and there are many administrators in academia who are unfamiliar with the specifics of art-related fields. Therefore, make your CV easy to follow, so it can be understood by laypeople.

Search-committee members and administrators may need to review hundreds of applications, so your CV must be easy on the eye. Select typefaces and sizes that facilitate reading, and use white space well. Submit your CV in the format specified in the submission guidelines (e.g., a PDF file). 10-12-point type should be sufficient, depending on the font. (Times New Roman is very small at 10-point size.) Consider simple and straightforward fonts like Arial, Helvetica, Times New Roman, or Palatino, to name a few. Avoid using exotic fonts that may detract from the content.

Neatness, legibility, grammar, spelling, etc., are often problematic in visual artists' résumés and CVs.
Take extreme care proofreading, and ask a friend or two to proofread it, as well.

Sample Curriculum Vitae (with Commentary)

Comments: For hard copies, pagination (after the first page) is recommended. Following the personal information at the top of your CV, list dates (years) in reverse chronology, on the far left for all categories (if relevant) with the exception of Collections, Gallery Affiliation, Bibliography, and Publications as Author which follow their own particular format. (See below under these headings.)
Under each heading, list your most recent activities first, and use 10-point or larger type.

1. Name (and Contact Information)

Name: Your full name in can appear in uppercase, bold, or large type-or a combination of these.

Address: Providing your institutional, studio, or home address is optional.

Phone Number(s): List any numbers (work, studio, home, or fax) where you are comfortable being contacted. Some artists prefer to list their cell number as a studio number. Other artists may choose to remove their cell number and other personal address information from their CV-especially from a web version of the résumé or CV. Consider listing at least one phone number, so you can be easily reached.)

Email: An email address (a must!) can be an institutional or a non-institutional address, depending on personal preference. (If you are an employed faculty member searching for another position, it is advisable to use a separate, personal email address.) If you choose to use a personal email address, use one that looks professional.

Website: Personal websites are becoming more and more essential. Providing a URL to a personal website is highly recommended. Institutional and/or professional websites may be used.

Comments: List addresses and phone numbers that are current. Make it easy to be reached. The inclusion of personal information such as place and date of birth is optional; however, the inclusion of date of birth, race, or marital status is not recommended.
2. Education

2013

MFA (pending), Maryland Institute College of Art, Baltimore, MD (expected May 2013)

2010

BFA with Distinction, Sculpture, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, RI

2011

Brown University, Providence, RI (French language courses)

Comments: List all academic degrees you have earned (noting honors). Degrees outside the studio fields do not diminish your standing as an artist. In fact, the opposite is true. For example, a degree in French could tell a dean or department chair that you might be able to assist with their study abroad program. An art history degree might indicate an ability to teach a course in art appreciation.
It is not uncommon to have studied art at a university or college without completing the degree. You should list these periods of study, but they should be listed after the degrees you have earned.
For currently enrolled degree-seeking students, clearly state that the degree is pending and list an expected graduation date.

3. Professional Experience (Teaching/Academic Appointments/Related Work Experience)
Teaching Experience

2011-Present

Full-time Faculty, Maryland Institute College of Art, Baltimore, MD

OR

2011-13

Full-time Faculty, Maryland Institute College of Art, Baltimore, MD

OR

2011-

Full-time Faculty, Maryland Institute College of Art, Baltimore, MD

2009-11

Part-time Faculty, Maryland Institute College of Art, Baltimore, MD

2009-10

Adjunct Instructor, University of North Carolina, Asheville, NC

Comments: The exact professional titles you provide are very important. There are distinct differences among such titles as Instructor, Lecturer, Adjunct Professor, Visiting Assistant Professor, etc.-however, some schools do not have these ranks or distinctions, so the word "faculty" can be used.

1997-98

Teaching Assistant, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS (courses taught: Introduction to Sculpture [instructor of record], Spring 1998, and Drawing, Fall 1997)

OR list the above two positions separately as below:

1998

Teaching Assistant, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS (Introduction to Sculpture [instructor of record], Spring 1998)

1997

Teaching Assistant, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS (Drawing, Fall 1997)

1996

Teacher's Assistant, Lawrence High School, Lawrence, KS (Drawing, Ceramics)

1995

Studio Assistant, Norman Art Association, Norman, OK (maintained studio equipment
and prepared workshops)

If you had the opportunity to teach as a graduate student, it might be useful to indicate whether or not you were the instructor of record. This tells the reader you were responsible for all aspects of the course (lectures, syllabi, grades, etc.).

If you have just completed graduate school and do not have significant teaching experience, you may have art-related experiences and/or other positions outside of the field that are worth listing (e.g., military service, Peace Corps, AmeriCorps). Use a heading that best describes your work experience. It is acceptable to provide brief descriptions of nonacademic positions in a CV.

4. Awards/Grants/Fellowships (Honors/Scholarships/Residencies, etc.)

2012

NYFA Fellowship (sculpture), New York Foundation for the Arts, New York, NY
Third Place Award, Earth Through a Lens, an international juried exhibition, Rancho
Mirage, CA, and Museum of Photographic Arts (MOPA), San Diego, CA (Juror: Arthur Ollman, Founding Director, Museum of Photographic Arts, San Diego, CA)
2011 Artist-in-Residence, McColl Center for Visual Art, Charlotte, NC

2009

Residency, Helsinki International Artist Programme, Suomenlinna, Finland

2007

Berkman Development Grant, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA

2002

Pollock-Krasner Foundation Grant, New York, NY

5. Exhibition Record
Comments: The visual artist's exhibition or creative activity record is the equivalent of a publication record in other academic disciplines. This record may be the most important category in your CV and should be near the beginning. If you have a more impressive exhibition record than list of awards, then list exhibitions before awards. For those wishing to teach, an exhibition record serves as a rough measure of how active you may be as a member of the faculty and often plays a major role in the hiring process.

There are many ways to present an exhibition record. For less experienced artists, such as artists just out of graduate school, it is probably more useful to list all exhibitions under one heading, and indicate (in bold) any that are solo exhibitions, by stating "Solo Exhibition" or "Two-Person Exhibition" at the beginning of the entry, just after the date.

In listing exhibitions, include the title of the exhibition (if applicable) in italics, then the name of venue, city, and state (and country, if needed). If an exhibition catalogue accompanies the exhibition, this may also be noted with "(catalogue)" at the end of the entry. (See below.)

Exhibitions (may include a combined list of solo, two-person, and group exhibitions)

2012

Solo Exhibition, MFA Thesis Exhibition, Katherine Nash Gallery, Regis Center for
Art, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN

2007

Two-Person Exhibition, Reeves Contemporary, New York, NY (with sculptor,
Johnny Swing)

2006

Solo Exhibition, Blue Spiral 1, Asheville, NC

2000

Solo Exhibition, Dream Life of Babies, Fay Gold Gallery, Atlanta, GA (catalogue)

Comments: Artists well into their careers may want to divide the Exhibitions category into separate headings such as Solo Exhibitions and Group Exhibitions. This allows the reader to easily grasp the number and type of exhibitions in any given year. (See below.)

Solo Exhibitions (or Selected Solo Exhibitions)

Comments: As you exhibit more, you may want to separate the categories and use both Solo Exhibitions and Group Exhibitions as headings. (If you include the separate heading Solo Exhibitions, it is not necessary to include the words "solo exhibition" at the beginning of the entry, as they are all solo.)
Solo Exhibitions
Comments: When listing solo exhibitions, begin with the italicized title of the exhibition (if applicable), then the name of venue, city, state, and country (if needed). If an exhibition catalogue accompanies the exhibition, it may be noted with "(catalogue)" placed at the end of the entry.

The CV serves as a record of all professional activities, so for those just beginning their careers, there is little need for the headings Selected Solo Exhibitions and Selected Group Exhibitions. However, as your career progresses, it is likely that you will use the Selected Solo Exhibitions.
Selected Solo Exhibitions

2004

Lee Hansley Gallery, Raleigh, NC

Comments: For artists in certain time-based media, an exhibition might be referred to as a screening. In that case, the category heading might read Exhibitions/Screenings or Exhibitions/Screenings/ Performances instead of Exhibitions or Exhibition Record. For performance artists, the heading Performances may be adequate. Depending upon the nature of the work, an artist may use any one or any combination of headings, such as Exhibitions, Screenings, Performances, Curatorial Projects, or Collaborative Projects.
Collaborative Projects
Comments: If you work in digital art, new media, video, performance art, or other collaborative projects (such as co-curating exhibitions), be sure to note whether or not the work is collaborative. Develop a simple and consistent method for identifying and crediting individual contributors, as well as clarifying your own contribution. One option is to list these under the heading "Collaborative Projects."

Group Exhibitions (or Selected Group Exhibitions)

Group exhibition entries should begin with the italicized title of the exhibition, name of gallery or venue, city, state, and country (if needed). If the exhibition has no formal title, but is a group exhibition, then you may list it under Group Exhibition (no italics). If a catalogue accompanies the group exhibition, this may also be noted with "(catalogue)" placed at the end of the entry.

With a juried or curated exhibition, you should list the name of the jurors or curators, their professional titles and institutions (if applicable), city, and state of their residence or work. This section may be of particular important if prominent jurors were involved. It is also worthwhile to provide information about the type of exhibition (e.g., juried vs. invitational) and any awards won.

Administrators who are unfamiliar with the visual arts may want to know if any of your exhibitions have been adjudicated or refereed. Refereed academic activities often carry more weight, especially if they are juried exhibitions that do not charge artists entry fees. However, "pay-to-play" exhibitions are far less prestigious and should not necessarily be listed on your CV once you have more prestigious shows to list.
Group Exhibitions
Comments: Consider separating the venue city and state from the curator or juror information with parentheses (for example). Remember to be consistent!

2011

Group Exhibition, Gallery A, Richmond, VA2008
Worlds Away: New Suburban Landscapes, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, MN (catalogue)

Selected Group Exhibitions
Comments: You may choose to list awards won in juried exhibition competitions under "Exhibitions." It is acceptable to use bold text to highlight these awards. You may also choose to list these awards under the heading Awards. (See example below and under Awards/Grants/Fellowships in section 4, above.)

6. Commissions (if applicable)

Comments: Commissions, if numerous, may be divided into subcategories such as Public, Corporate, and Private.

7. Bibliography (Reviews/Articles/Catalogues/Interviews)

Comments: A bibliography in a CV or résumé consists of entries published about you and your artwork. These include reviews or articles (in print or online), books, catalogues, radio and television interviews, and photographic reproductions of your artwork.
Print Media
The Chicago Manual of Style is a good resource if you are in need of a style guide for listing articles and reviews, etc. The link below is useful in understanding how to format entries under the Bibliography heading, as well as those in Publications or Publications as Author.
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html

Daniel Mendelsohn, "But Enough about Me," New Yorker, January 25, 2010. 68.
Willard W. Wilson, "Sculpture Exhibition: Clinton Shows Region's Best," Syracuse Gazette,
Syracuse, NY, December 11, 1998. 42.
Utica Post, exhibition announcement with photograph, Utica, NY, Dec. 8, 1998. 12-18.
Diane Terrel, "New Work in Central New York," Sculpture 17, no. 1 (January 1998): 63.

Comments: The example (immediately above) refers to a review or article written by Diane Terrel in Sculpture magazine, volume 17, issue one, in January 1998, on page sixty-three. The Chicago Manual of Style recommends that the author's last name come before the first name in an alphabetical list-but since in a résumé or CV, bibliography and publication entries are listed in reverse chronology, rather than alphabetically, the preferred convention is to list the first name before the last name, as it is easier to read.
Radio/Television
Comment: You should document interviews and/or features about your work on radio or television and enter the following information on your CV or résumé.

Jane Williams, Interview, WUWJ Radio, Utica, NY, December 9, 1998.
John Doe, "Commissioned Artwork Arrives in Charlotte," WSOC-TV, Charlotte, NC, March 12, 1995.
Online Periodicals
Author's first and last name, "title of article," journal title in italics, volume, issue number (if available), date published, or accessed. DOI: or the URL

For online reviews or articles, etc., the following formats should be followed, including listing date of publication. (If the publication date is not available, date accessed should be listed.) The URL may be listed at the end of the entry, at the artist's discretion; however, links can break, and maintaining links requires upkeep.

Journals are increasingly assigning a DOI (Digital Object Identifier) to articles and reviews published online. Initiated by the International DOI Foundation (a not-for-profit member-based organization created in 1998), the DOI is an efficient means of identifying and managing digital entities. Designed not to "break" as some links do, the DOI is unique and remains unchanged even though the digital entity may move to different locations. See the Baylor University site for more information on locating a DOI. You may also find helpful information at the Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) site.
To convert a DOI to a web address, add the following URL to the DOI: http://dx.doi.org/. Thus the example below becomes: http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijacdt.2012010103.

Patrick Lichty, "On Virtual FLUXUS," International Journal of Art, Culture and Design Technologies, 2(1),
(January-June 2012). DOI: 10.4018/ijacdt.2012010103
Eva Diaz, "Critic's Picks," Artforum, February 28, 2010. http://artforum.com/archive/id=25015
Jessica Lack, "Exhibition Preview: Omer Fast, London," The Guardian, October 2, 2009.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2009/oct/03/art-preview-omerfast
Stuart Low, "Rochester Contemporary Art Center features exhibit of Alison Saar art," Rochester Democrat
and Chronicle, May 11, 2008. http://www.lalouver.com/html/saar_bio/rochester.html

Comments: If you are in need of a style guide for listing articles and reviews about you, consider using
The Chicago Manual of Style Online. http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html

Website Publications (for images or text published on various websites about you and your artwork)

Author (if known), "title of web page," publishing organization or name of website, publication date (if available) or alternatively an access date. DOI: if available, or URL

Hooper Turner, "Artist Statement," Skidmore Contemporary Art, access date: February 2, 2012.
http://www.skidmorecontemporaryart.com/hooper-turner-about
"Image Credits," Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery, 2011. http://www.npg.si.edu/competition/site3/
about/image_credits.html
Blogs
Author, "title of blog entry," title of blog in italics, followed by "(blog)." date and time of blog entry. URL

Lee Rosenbaum, "Dorothy Kosinski, Phillips Collection's Director, Named to National Council on the
Humanities (plus some musings on NEA)," CultureGrrl: Lee Rosenbaum's cultural commentary (blog).
July 11, 2012. 11:52 am. www.artsjournal.com/culturegrrl
Selected Bibliography
When you have a large number of publications about your work on your CV, consider editing the list down to the most important and relevant for a "short CV"; title the category Selected Bibliography.

8. Publications as Author (or Published Writings, Critical Writings, Selected Publications as Author)

Comments: This category describes material that you have written. Artists who are also writers should use this category heading or something similar to distinguish it from the bibliography to list books, articles, etc., written by the artist. List any art related publications you have written here, including reviews, catalogue essays, blogs, etc. (See below.)

"A Day in the Life: Editing and Writing for the New Art Examiner," The Essential New Art Examiner, Terri Griffith, Kathryn Born, and Janet Koplos, eds. (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press,
2011): 259-264.
"What does it mean to kill an animal in the name of art?," Quodlibetica, Constellation #5
Death, November 2009. www.quodlibetica.com/author/jestep/
"Pop Art and Vernacular Cultures," Modern Painters, October 2007. 105-106.

9. Lectures, Presentations, Workshops, (Critiques/Conferences/Symposia, etc.)

Comments: Depending upon the nature of the presentation, an artist may use any one or a combination of headings, such as: Visiting Artist Lectures, Lectures, Presentations, Panels, Workshops, Critiques, and Guest Lectures. For lectures at conferences, be sure to list the title of your paper or presentation, as well as the title of the session (in italics), title of conference or sponsoring institution, city, and state. Some universities like to see specific dates as well, which should be placed at the end of the entry.

2012

"Applying Relevancy," What Is Conceptual Thinking?, session chair and panelist,
sponsored by the Mid-America College Art Association, College Art Association
Annual Conference, Los Angeles, CA, February 23.

Comments: You may give a presentation or chair a panel at a conference. Many institutions value this kind of activity because it adds to the visibility of a department and institution, helps the faculty member network, etc. Do not list conferences attended; only list conferences if you presented a paper, chaired a panel, led a workshop, exhibited your work, etc.
Visiting Artist Lectures/Presentations/Critiques

2007

Lecture/Presentation, Graduate and Undergraduate Critiques, The Ernest G. Welch
School of Art and Design, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, March 21.

2006

Lecture and Graduate Critiques, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, November 15.

2005

Workshop, Colgate University, Hamilton, NY, April 28-30.

Comments: Giving a lecture or technical demonstration at another institution is an important activity. This is often done in conjunction with a solo show at an institution. Sometimes the visiting artist will be asked to conduct a critique as well. You should specify the type of activity at the beginning of the entry, along with the host institution, city, state, and date(s), as shown above.
10. Collections
Comments: If your work is part of a collection (private, public, institutional, corporate, museum, etc.), this should be included in your CV. Simply list the name of the collector, city, and state. If your list of collections is long, separate collections into subcategories such as Private, Public, and Corporate.

Agnes Gund, New York, NY
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, DC
The Progressive Art Collection, Cleveland, OH
The West Collection, Paoli, PA

Comments: List collections alphabetically under each category or subcategory. Because some private collectors often prefer to maintain privacy, it is best to ask for their consent before listing the names of private collectors of your work. A collection listing should only be used for high profile, public or corporate collections and very impressive private collections. (Some artists list friends and family members in this section when they should be omitted.)
11. Other Categories
There are a wide variety of professional activities that may require additional headings.

11.A. Artist Residencies (or Artist-in-Residence)

Comments: This category is sometimes combined with Awards Honors and Grants. It should not be confused with the heading "Visiting Artist Lectures." The major distinction is one of duration. This heading includes visits to universities where you are scheduled to conduct seminars, workshops, lectures, etc., over a period of several days, as opposed to residencies, which can last weeks, months, or years.

List the year, name of residency, institution (if applicable), city, and state, (and dates).

2012

MacDowell Colony, Peterborough, NH (June 1-September 30)

2010-11

Roswell Artist-in-Residence Program, Roswell, NM (December 1-November 30)

2009

McColl Center for Visual Art, Charlotte, NC (January 1-March 31)

2008

Omi International Art Center, Ghent, NY (July)

11.B. Professional Service (or Professional Activities/Service)

Comments: Most universities require a certain amount of service within the university and local community. This can be in the form of working on a committee, serving on a board, consulting for a public art project, assisting with a local art event, etc. (List year, title or role, organization, city, and state.)

2007-09

Co-Chair of Programming, ArtTable, New York, NY

1993-94

Board of Directors, Asheville Area Arts Council, Asheville, NC

11.C. Technical Abilities (or Technical Expertise, or Technical Skills)

Comments: It is highly desirable to list your technical skills somewhere in your cover letter, CV, or both. You might indicate the types of tools, machines, presses, computer technologies, processes, software, etc., that you know well enough to teach. (At the artist's discretion, such skills may be listed here or above under category 3, Professional Experience or Related Work Experience.)

2009-2011

Woodshop and Sculpture Technician, School of Art, Ohio University, Athens, OH
(extensive operational and safety knowledge of a variety of woodworking power tools,
such as: table, radial-arm, jig and band saws; planers; drills; routers, and sanders.)

11.D. Consultancies
Comments: If you served as a consultant to an art center, gallery, corporation, institution, etc., list it here.

2011

Consultant, Ann Arbor Public Art Commission regarding large-scale sculpture installation,
Ann Arbor, MI

2007

Consultant, Asheville Regional Airport Authority regarding new gallery design and
construction, Fletcher, NC

11.E. Professional Organizations (or Memberships, or Professional Affiliations)

Comments: It is important to list the professional organizations, to which you belong at the international, national, regional, and local levels. (These may be listed alphabetically.)

Black Mountain College Museum + Art Center, Asheville, NC
College Art Association (CAA), New York, NY
Foundations in Art: Theory and Education (FATE)
Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), New York, NY
Southeastern College Art Conference (SECAC)
11.F. Exhibitions Juried
Comments: On occasion you may serve as a juror or judge for an exhibition (university, grant, residency program, art association, etc.). Record the year, name of exhibition, venue (and institution, if applicable), city, and state. These may also be listed under "Professional Service" or "Professional Activities."

2010

Artist Studio Program, Smack Mellon, Brooklyn, NY

2009

North Carolina Arts Council, Individual Artists Fellowships, Raleigh, NC

11.G. Exhibitions Curated (or Curatorial Projects)

Comments: You may have the opportunity to select work for an exhibition that does not involve a blind jurying process. List the year (in reverse chronology), title of the show, venue, institution (if applicable), (e.g., university, museum, art center, etc.), city, and state. If you co-curated an exhibition, be sure to give credit to other curators.
11.H. Travel/Foreign Languages Spoken
Fluent in Spanish. Traveled to Barcelona and Madrid, Spain, in 2005.

12. Gallery Affiliation(s) (or Client List)

Comments: This category can be placed where appropriate, but it is usually found at or near the end of the CV. Some artists have careers that involve a close working relationship with a commercial gallery. Sometimes these working relationships are temporary or sporadic. List only galleries with whom you have current relationships. Many artists spend their entire career without representation, so this heading may not be necessary.
Gallery Affiliations
Mixed Greens, New York, NY
Tony Wight Gallery, Chicago, IL
OR Client List
Maryland State Department of Education, Baltimore, MD
The Children's Learning Center, Aspen Hill, MD
Comments: Designers may want to use a category such as Client List.
13. References
Comments: It is often helpful to list the names, titles, addresses, phone numbers, and email addresses of references at the end of the CV, or they might best be included on a separate page, behind a cover letter. These would usually be former teachers or other art professionals with whom you have worked. You should always get permission, by asking these individuals if they would be willing to serve as a reference for you, before placing them on your list.

For academic positions, a CV typically contains academic references (former professors or faculty colleagues, for example) but this may not always be the case. Other professionals in the field may sometimes prove to be better references. As with academic positions, applications for non-academic positions should include references who know you well, can attest to your strengths, and would be best able to articulate your qualifications for the position you seek. Non-academic references might include art professionals such as: gallery directors, museum curators, or other artists.

References:

Jane Doe, Chair and Professor of Art, Department of Art, XXX College, City, ST ZIP
Phone: 555.555.1212 Email: jane.doe@xxx.edu
John Doe, Faculty, XXXX College of Art, Printmaking Department, City, ST ZIP
Phone: 555.555.1212 Email: jdoe@xxxxcoa.edu
Morgan Doe, Associate Professor of Art, Art Department, University of XXXXX, City, ST ZIP
Phone: 555.555.1212 Email: mdoe@xxxxx.edu

Comments: List the name, title, institution, address, phone (office or referee's preferred phone number), and email address of each reference. A list of three to five references is typical, and the number is often specified in a position announcement. (It is advisable for emerging artists/professionals to include a list of references. However, depending on the specific purpose of the CV and the targeted audience, established artists/professionals often do not feel the need to include references.)

Authors and Contributors

Submitted to the CAA Professional Practices Committee, Jim Hopfensperger (chair), by the Ad Hoc Committee to Review Artist Résumé and CV Recommended Conventions: Robert Tynes, University of North Carolina, Asheville (chair); Karen Atkinson, California Institute of the Arts; Heather Bhandari, Mixed Greens, NYC; Jenna Frye, Maryland Institute College of Art; Ralph Gilbert, Georgia State University; Dennis Ichiyama, Purdue University; and Clarence Morgan, University of Minnesota.

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Adopted by the CAA Board of Directors in February 1999; amended on October 28, 2012. The curriculum vitae conventions presented here are primarily for those with academic careers. Approaches to CV development can vary based on number of years in the field, area(s) of specialization, specified institutional formats, etc.

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A depth of field calculator is a useful photographic tool for assessing what camera settings are required to achieve a desired level of sharpness. For a background on what everything here means, also see the tutorial on depth of field.

Note: CF = "crop factor" (commonly referred to as the focal length multiplier)

USING THE CALCULATOR

In order to calculate the depth of field, one needs to first decide on what will be considered acceptably sharp. More specifically, this is called the maximum circle of confusion (CoC), and is based on the camera sensor size (camera type), viewing distance and print size. The default is to say that features smaller than 0.01 inches are unnecessary, when viewed in an 8x10 inch print at a distance of 1 foot (~25 cm). However, people with 20-20 vision can see features 1/3 this size. This calculator therefore also has the ability to adjust for parameters such as viewing distance, print size and eyesight - thereby providing more control over what is "acceptably sharp".

Viewing Distance & Print Size. As the viewing distance increases, our eyes become less able to perceive fine detail in the print, and so the depth of field increases (max. CoC increases). Conversely, our eyes can perceive finer detail as the print size increases, and so the depth of field decreases (max. CoC decreases). A photo intended for close viewing at a large print size (such as in a gallery) will likely have a far more restrictive set of constraints than a similar image intended for display as a postcard or on a roadside billboard.

Visual Acuity. People with 20/20 vision can perceive details which are roughly 1/3 the size of those used by lens manufacturers (~0.01 in features for a 8x10 in print viewed at 1 ft) to set the standard for lens markings. Changing the eyesight parameter therefore has a significant influence on the depth of field. On the other hand, even if you can detect the circle of confusion with your eyes, the image may still be perceived as "acceptably sharp." This should serve only as a rough guideline to conditions where detail can no longer be resolved by our eyes.

Camera Type. This determines the size of your film or digital sensor, and thus how much the original image needs to be enlarged to achieve a given print size. Larger sensors can get away with larger circles of confusion because these images do not have to be enlarged as much, however they also require longer focal lengths to achieve the same field of view. Consult your camera's manual or manufacturer website if unsure what to enter for this parameter.

Lens focal length. This refers to the actual focal length in mm listed for your lens, NOT the "35 mm equivalent focal length" sometimes used. Most compact digital cameras have a zoom lens that varies on the order of 6 or 7 mm to about 30 mm (often listed on the front of your camera on the side of the lens). If you are using a focal length outside this range for a compact digital camera, then it is likely to be incorrect. SLR cameras are more straightforward as most of these use standard 35 mm lenses and clearly state the focal length, but be sure not to multiply the value listed on your lens by a crop factor (or focal length multiplier). If you have already taken your photo, nearly all digital cameras also record the actual lens focal length in the EXIF data for the image file.

Hyperfocal distance. This is the focus distance where everything from half the hyperfocal distance to infinity is within the depth of field. This is useful when deciding where to focus such that you maximize the sharpness within your scene, although I do not recommend using this value "as is" since sharpness is often more critical at infinity than in front of the focus distance. For more on this topic, please see " Understanding the Hyperfocal Distance."

IN PRACTICE

Care should be taken not to let all of these numbers get in the way of taking your photo. I do not recommend calculating the depth of field for every image, but instead suggest that you get a visual feel for how aperture and focal length affect your image. This can only be achieved by getting out there and experimenting with your camera. Once you have done this, the depth of field calculator can then be used to enhance those carefully planned landscape, macro, and low-light images where the range of sharpness is critical.

For a more in-depth background on this topic, please see:
" Understanding Depth of Field"

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A depth of field calculator is a useful photographic tool for assessing what camera settings are required to achieve a desired level of sharpness. For a background on what everything here means, also see the tutorial on depth of field.

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by Darlene Hildebrandt | Last Updated:

I hear a lot of people in my photography classes and workshops say they want to upgrade to a full frame camera. It seems to be the ultimate goal for many photographers, but why is that? Are you really clear on exactly what are the differences between full frame and a crop sensor camera?

In this article, I'll demonstrate the difference using side-by-side image examples and try and dispel some of the most common misconceptions about why crop sensor cameras aren't as good.

What is full frame?

I'll start with explaining full frame because I think it's easier to grasp the concept.

Back in the film days, there were many sizes of cameras and coincidentally different sizes of film. 35mm cameras became the standard for hobbyists and even some pros towards the end of the 90s (I even used 35mm at weddings for black and white low light work).

The size of a frame of 35mm film is 24x36mm (the name 35mm comes from the width of the actual film strip including the sprocket holes). But that actual image area of 24x36mm is the same size as the digital sensor inside full frame cameras.

What that means

So what that means for your application in the digital world is that any lenses you used on your old 35mm film cameras will work and behave the same on a full frame digital camera (if the mount is the same).

But they will not work the same on a crop sensor camera (APS-C), though, because of something called covering power and crop factor.

I'll explain that a bit later in the article, keep reading.

Why aren't all digital cameras full frame?
The short answer here is cost.
The first digital cameras had much smaller sensors and a lot lower resolution ( image quality). As the technology advanced, manufacturers were able to make larger sensors, ones that replicated the 35mm size and which had increased image quality.

I bought the first Canon full frame body, the 5D Classic (it was just called the 5D then) in my city back in 2006. It cost me about $4000 CAD (about $3150 USD) which was a lot at the time! More than you'd pay for a full frame digital camera now even (the Canon 6D II is under $2000 USD).

That's also a lot more than the Canon 30D which was released a few months after the original 5D. The 30D at 8 megapixels compared to the 5D which was 13, are both small by comparison to today's DSLRs.

So while prices have gone down in some areas of digital photography, you can still expect to pay quite a bit more for a full frame than a crop sensor camera. Read my article: 7 Questions to Ask Before You Upgrade to a Full Frame Camera Body to help you decide if you should spend the extra money on full frame or not.

What is crop sensor then?

You may have seen a chart like this before, yes?

It shows the relative sizes of the most common digital crop sensor sizes. For purposes of this article, we're comparing the largest (35mm or full frame) to the next size down (APS-C or crop sensor).

Let's see how that applies in the real world.

Look at the image below which shows the sizing grid above, overlaid on top of the image area of the Kodachrome slide. Notice how much smaller APS-C is compared to full frame.

The smallest on the chart represents the size of a common smartphone camera sensor. So when people say their phone can take photos that are just as good quality as your DSLR, show them this!

So sometimes size does matter.

But does that mean that your crop sensor camera is no good? Are the images that you create with your Canon EOS Rebel, Nikon D5500, or Sony a6500 always going to be inferior? No - let's take a closer look.

Side-by-side comparison

Crop Sensor Camera vs Full Frame

In order to demonstrate the differences between full frame and crop sensor cameras (APS-C), I did a little shoot with the cameras side by side using the same lenses.

Often, I find the biggest confusion most people have is around understanding the crop factor, and what the heck that really means.

Same distance - same lens
Full Frame vs Crop Sensor Camera Example Photos

This series of images was shot with both cameras the same distance from the subject, using the same lens. Let's look at how they compare.

The cameras used for this experiment were my Fuji X-T1 (APS-C or crop sensor) and a Canon 5D Mark II (full frame) I borrowed from a friend because I have now sold ALL my Canon gear!

Wow - what do notice about the two images above?

The one shot with the Canon shows a lot more of the room and the model seems a lot farther away, right?

So, you can see that an 18mm focal length lens on a full frame camera captures a lot wider field of view than does an 18mm lens on a crop sensor body.

Once again using roughly a 35mm focal length produced very different images with the different cameras, as seen above.

Finally, above you can see less of a difference between the two images shot at 135mm on both cameras.

Crop factor

Crop sensor cameras or APS-C cameras have smaller sensors, and the resulting image magnification is called the crop factor - as you can see in action in the images above.

It varies by manufacturer (Canon is 1.6x and Nikon is 1.5x), but we'll use 1.5 as an example here.

Imagine I took the image shot with an 18mm lens on the full frame camera, then zoomed in on it and cropped part of the image out. Making it roughly 1.5x bigger (like the crop factor) should result in a similar image as that from the APS-C (crop) camera and 18mm lens. Or does it?

Taking that a step further, you may often hear that the crop factor of 1.5x is kind of like multiplying the focal length by that factor.

But it is and it isn't.

What it actually means is that the sensor is that much smaller than one which is full frame.

For example, full frame is 24x36mm. Nikon's crop factor is 1.5x so by doing the math on that we can figure out that Nikon's APS-C sensors are roughly 16x24mm. As Canon's is 1.6 their sensors are roughly 15×22.5mm. These are approximations using just the math, not actual dimensions.

But that math does NOT apply to lens focal length which does not change regardless of which camera the lens is mounted to. A 50mm lens will always be a 50mm lens because the focal length is defined as the distance from the center of the lens (middle of the glass elements) to the imaging sensor or film plane. That does not change no matter what camera you use.

Lens covering power

What does change, is how much of the image that the lens is projecting into the camera is actually captured. Remember I mentioned something called covering power before? This is where it comes into play.
let me explain.
Okay, what you see above is a representation of how the light coming through your lens applies to each of the different sized sensors.

As your lens is circular, the image produced by it is also a circle. Your camera captures a rectangular portion of that circular image. Notice how much less of the whole image the smaller APS-C sensors actually capture.

Any lenses that are compatible with full frame cameras must produce a circle or light larger than the sensor, otherwise, you'd get image cut-off.

That is why lenses made especially for crop sensor bodies (called Dx lenses by Nikon) will NOT work on a full frame camera. This will happen if it were attempted (but they usually won't fit on the mount anyway).

How this all applies to you

Okay so now you know, and hopefully understand some of the science going on behind the sensor size issue. But you may be asking some of the following questions:

How does this apply to me? Is one better than the other?

Can I still get the same and good photos with a crop sensor camera?

What happens to my lenses if I upgrade from crop sensor camera to a full frame camera? Will they still work?

The short answer here is that yes you can still take great photos with an APS-C or crop sensor camera.

You just have to think and work a little differently.

Same lens - different distance to the subject

Let's look at another example.

This time I set up both cameras with the same focal length lens but adjusted the distance to the subject (the Fuji had to be moved back) to keep the model the same size in the frame.

What do you notice about the two images above? Do you see any major differences? I do!

Look at the bench she's sitting on. In the image shot with the Canon, it looks distorted and the arms are exaggerated. Likewise the girl's hands look a lot bigger than her face in that image than they do in the one shot with the Fuji. Why is that if they were both shot with an 18mm lens? You tell me - what did I change?

The distance between the camera and the subject changed the perspective!

The only thing I changed was that I moved back to get the shot with the Fuji camera.

Because of the crop factor, the Fuji sees less of the scene so I had to move back to keep her roughly the same size.

Camera to subject distance affects perspective - the closer you are, the more distortion you will get.

So you can learn something else as a side bonus lesson here - being closer to your subject will add more distortion to the subject, especially on the edges of your image.

With an 18mm lens, your angle of view is the same regardless of the camera used. But you can't see the edges of the image in the crop sensor because well, the image has already been cropped in-camera.

So if I were in the same spot as the Canon I'd have gotten the same distortion on the Fuji shot, but not the same framing. Does that make sense?

The two images above look more similar because I was farther away from the subject for both, and the 35mm lens doesn't create as much distortion. But I see a few subtle differences. See if you can spot them.

Pretty close!

I tried to keep the girl the same size in the frame and using a 70mm lens for both was able to get shots that are very similar. Again I do notice some small differences, like a slightly shallower depth of field in the image shot with the Canon - so let's look at that in more detail.

Depth of field
The depth of field differences between full frame and crop sensor camera is a complicated issue.
I won't go into the science of it here, but suffice to know that you can get a slightly better shallow depth of field and the much coveted "bokeh" when shooting full frame.

But . . . having said that, personally, I think it's marginal.

Unless you're shooting at f/1.2 for paid jobs that demand it - you'll likely be fine using a crop sensor camera and its bokeh.

Same distance and aperture - different focal length

My final set of images were shot to show this difference.

I placed my tripods side-by-side and used a 50mm f/1.8 lens on the Canon and my 35mm f/1.4 on the Fuji. I selected f/2 for both to maintain consistency in the aperture for this test.

Can you see the difference? Yes, the background in the Canon image is slightly more of out of focus. Take particular note of the imperfections on the wall that are almost invisible in the Canon shot but are clearly showing in the Fuji image.

But is that enough to send you running to the camera store to upgrade? I would suggest you hold off on that because there are things you can do to get a similar look to the Canon image.

You could use a bit longer lens on the Fuji and back up a bit.

Move the model away from the background a few more feet.

Use a larger aperture if you have that option on your lens. (Hint: Invest in better lenses before you upgrade your camera body!)

There are three factors that affect depth of field and how blurry your background is in your image. I've pretty much named them above, but if you missed it they are:

1. Focal length (because using a longer lens will make you get farther from the subject, thus affecting depth of field)

2. The distance between the subject and the background

3. Aperture

So it's not just a large aperture that will give you the creamy bokeh you so desire - all three of those factors must be taken into consideration.

No matter if you use full frame, shoot at f/1.2, and use a long lens - if you put your model a foot from the background you will NEVER get it out of focus. Period!

Which brings me to some things that a lot of people get wrong or misunderstand when it comes to sensor size.

3 Common misconceptions about sensor size

1. A 50mm lens on a crop sensor camera is the same as 75mm on a full frame body - FALSE!

2. You can only use lenses specifically made for crop sensor on those camera bodies. Ones made for full frame won't work - FALSE!

3. A 35mm lens made for crop sensor is wider than a 35mm lens made for full frame - FALSE!

I hope that after reading this article you can see why these misconceptions about sensor size are all incorrect.

A 50mm lens on a crop sensor is not the same as a 75mm lens on FF because the lens optics of those two focal lengths are different. You will get something similar to using a 75mm lens on FF but the angle of view and amount of distortion is still that of a 50mm lens.

Yes, you can put full frame (Nikon Fx) lenses onto crop sensor bodies. They will work, but the view you see is not the same - as we saw in the examples above.

But, you can NOT put a lens made specifically for crop sensor (Nikon Dx) cameras onto a full frame body. They do not have enough covering power, and often the lens mount is different as well.

No, a 35mm lens isn't any wider on one camera than another.

The 35mm represents the focal length which is the distance from the middle of the lens to your sensor. The angle of view doesn't change either. The only thing that does change is how much of that image is captured by the sensor.

This article on full frame vs crop sensor cameras really helps explain the difference Click To Tweet

If you have any other questions about sensor size and what it means for you, please post them in the comments area below.

If you're not sure if you need a full frame camera still - go read 7 Questions to Ask Before You Upgrade to a Full Frame Camera Body if you haven't already and hopefully you can answer your own questions on that topic.

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What Does Having a Crop Sensor Camera Really Mean?

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Are you confused over the differences between crop sensor and full frame cameras? Have your eyes already glazed over? Here is an article to help beginner photographers understand this complex issue so you can get on with taking better photos.

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Get credit toward iPhone 15 or iPhone 15 Pro when you trade in an eligible smartphone. Get credit toward iPhone 15 or iPhone 15 Pro when you trade in an eligible smartphone. Shop iPhone

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Compare features and technical specifications for iPhone 15 Pro, iPhone 15 Pro Max, iPhone 15, iPhone 15 Plus, iPhone SE, and many more.

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Compare resolution, size, weight, performance, battery life, and storage of iPad Pro, iPad Air, iPad, and iPad mini models.

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It might sound like the kind of great escape found in movies, but "jailbreaking" is also a tech term that has a different meaning when applied to your smartphone. In this case, the jailbreak is from software restrictions.

Jailbreaking isn't the same as "unlocking" a smartphone, which allows you to switch over to a new carrier while keeping your old phone.

Here's what you need to know about jailbreaking.

What is jailbreaking?

Jailbreaking is the process by which Apple users can remove software restrictions imposed on iOS and Apple products like the iPad ®, iPhone, iPod ®, and more. Jailbreaking allows root access to iOS. It lets users install applications, extensions, and other software applications that are not authorized by Apple's App Store.

Jailbreaking has a mixed legal history that began with hacker groups. There are several types of jailbreaking software, and jailbreaking is generally used for device customization, iPhone feature extension, and piracy.

Is jailbreaking legal?

The short answer is yes, although it hasn't always been legal.

Jailbreaking falls under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, which addresses digital copyright issues. Section 1201 of the law makes it illegal to circumvent digital locks that protect access to copyrighted works, which can include software.

Congress reviews the law every three years and has gradually expanded the list of items that are exempt. Jailbreaking phones - or "rooting" when referring to Android devices - became legal in 2010, followed by smartwatches and tablets in 2015. In 2018, Congress added more devices to the list.

Worth noting: it's legal to jailbreak or root a phone if you're doing it to use legally acquired apps, for a smartphone. The same is not true for illegally acquired apps.

Is jailbreaking safe?

Although legal, it's not necessarily a good idea to jailbreak your smartphone.

"It's become a popular way for attackers to break security and get on mobile devices," says Kevin Haley, director of product management for Security Response at Symantec. "People who jailbreak their own phones save cybercriminals a lot of time and effort, putting their device at risk."

Apple, maker of the iPhone, tends to agree. The tech giant says it considers jailbreaking the iOS, its operating system, not only a violation of their terms and conditions of use, but also a practice that exposes a phone to a host of risks. Those include security vulnerabilities, stability issues, potential crashes and freezes, and a shortened battery life. If something goes wrong with your jailbroken iPhone, Apple says, it's up to you to fix it.

Keep in mind, this article is not comprehensive and shouldn't be relied upon as legal advice to consumers. The information focuses on U.S. laws at the time of publication, and what's legal now is subject to change in the future.

Jailbreaking purposes

Jailbreaking has many purposes, some legitimate and some not. Here are the most common reasons people jailbreak their phones.

Device customization

The desire to customize the operating system is one of the top reasons people jailbreak their phones. The ability to download apps that are otherwise banned from or unauthorized by the Apple App Store, bypass file restrictions, and customize the overall appearance is alluring to some tech-savvy individuals.

Feature expansion

This goes hand-in-hand with device customization. Apple's process for verifying apps is lengthy and requires them to comply with a strict license agreement. On a jailbroken phone, users can purchase open-source packages and special modifications that allow them to expand the normal set of apps available on an iPhone.

Malware installation

Smartphone makers are pretty persnickety about security measures. That's because removing those security features (via jailbreaking) leaves the operating system vulnerable. For example, third-party apps purchased through unauthorized app stores could introduce malware to your device. That's what happened to more than 250,000 jailbroken iPhones in 2015. In this case, cybercriminals were able to steal passwords, make unauthorized Apple App Store purchases, and even remotely lock devices and hold them for ransom.

Piracy and hacking

These are two ways some people use a legal technique - jailbreaking phones - to break the law. Piracy (a type of copyright infringement) and some forms of hacking (the unauthorized access to data) are illegal in the U.S. Some of the apps you can access on jailbroken phones carry pirated software, films, or music, and you may not realize what you're using is pirated material.

Cybercriminals can also take advantage of security vulnerabilities in jailbroken phones to hack into accounts and steal information, as in the case of the 2015 iPhone malware incident.

Unlocking carrier active iPhones

If you're ready to switch cellular carriers for a better phone plan, but you want to keep your device, the carrier will unlock it - usually only requiring that the phone is paid off. However, because the process can be tedious, some people choose to bypass the carrier altogether. Using a jailbroken phone allows you to go from one carrier to the next by changing the SIM card.

Jailbreaking glossary

Baseband

Enables smartphones to connect to a cellular network, which lets you send and receive data and phone calls. The baseband also keeps the device locked to the intended phone carrier, so you would need to hack into the baseband to unlock or jailbreak the phone and use the cellular modem.

Cydia

An alternative to Apple's App Store, Cydia, can be installed on a jailbroken phone to buy applications not available in Apple's store.

Jailbreaking/rooting

Jailbreaking is the process by which Apple users can remove software restrictions imposed on iOS and Apple products. Jailbreaking allows root access to iOS and lets users install applications, extensions, and other software applications that are not authorized by Apple's App Store. Rooting refers to the same process on Android smartphones.

Privilege escalation

This means taking advantage of a design flaw in an operating system or program to gain unauthorized access. Jailbreaking is, essentially, privilege escalation.

Redsn0w

Just one of several free applications that allows you to jailbreak devices, Redsn0w allows you to jailbreak both Mac and Windows devices.

Tethered jailbreak

If a jailbroken phone crashes or loses battery power, it can't turn back on by itself. You'll need to attach - tether - the device to a computer and use a jailbreak app, such as Redsn0w, to turn the phone back on.

Unlocking

Unlocking a smartphone allows you to switch over to a new carrier while keeping your old phone.

Untethered jailbreak

You may find jailbreaks that are "untethered," which means you won't need to hook up your phone to a computer every time your jailbroken phone crashes or loses battery power.

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It might sound like the kind of great escape found in movies, but "jailbreaking" is also a tech term that has a different meaning when applied to your smartphone. In this case, the jailbreak is from software restrictions. Jailbreaking isn't the same as "unlocking" a smartphone, which allows you to switch over to a new carrier while keeping your old phone.

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Darkroom, from Vox producer Coleman Lowndes, digs into stories of the past, one photograph at a time.

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If you've ever taken a photography class in your life, you've likely heard the phrase "don't center your subject". If this is such an important rule of photography, why has there been a rise of deadpan photographs over the past decade? (Note: the deadpan aesthetic has been around for decades, although newer photographers are beginning to adopt the aesthetic of the old professionals)

First, let's speak about what exactly a 'deadpan' photograph is. While there are a handful of different definitions, the most popular is that a deadpan photograph is devoid of emotion. It simply exists as a subject and photograph, yet it seems to be empty. There is no joy or sorrow, although some can argue that the deadpan itself is a mood of its own. Famous photographers who use this aesthetic seem to be completely detached from the subject that they are photographing, and the word 'indifference' seems to describe the photograph perfectly.

There are a handful of aesthetics that you should be aware of when determining whether or not a photograph is considered deadpan, or if you are planning on creating your own series of deadpan photographs. Most commonly, the subject is in the center of the image, and the photographer is looking at the subject straight-on. There is no fancy camerawork involved here. The photographer is not laying on the ground, or standing on a ladder to distort the subject any which way, it is simply pictured exactly as you'd see it if you walked right up to it in real life.

The deadpan photograph simply says "this is how things are". Deadpan portraits show people in their natural state, typically not showing any sort of emotion. These subjects are not posed, are not dressed up for the occasion, and seem completely honest. The color of deadpan photographs is commonly de-saturated. While not completely devoid of color, the colors tend to be muted.

So what purpose does this type of photography have? Why would photographers want to show these people or landscapes in such a mundane light? Many famous deadpan photographers choose this aesthetic to capture changes in the world around them, to generate questions that the viewer keeps in mind, or to provide an image that allows a non-biased relationship between the viewer and the subject matter.

Famous and Upcoming Deadpan Photographers
1. Jitka Hanzlova
Czech photographer Jitka Hanzlova, in her series "Here", captures small moments in Germany that many people would walk by without ever noticing. A run-down building, a stoic young girl, an empty soccer field. Because of the deadpan quality of the photographs, she offers no personal interpretation, no peek into her every day life. The viewers are left with a sense of unease and unfamiliarity, which are two emotions that are common in this aesthetic. Throughout the series you get the vague notion that the photographer is viewing these same landscapes and people with the same apprehension, trying to make sense of this new foreign land.
2. Rineke Dijkstra
Born in the Netherlands, Rineke Dijkstra is famous for her many different series of deadpan portraits. While technically and compositionally her portraits are very simple - they tend to showcase one individual, shot straight-on in the center of the frame - the meaning behind the images is not as straightforward. Many of the individuals she chooses to photograph are in a state of transition. They may be transitioning from childhood to adulthood, they may be pregnant, or they may be preparing to join the military. While the exact details of their life and personality are left out, this only makes the photographs even more compelling. Who is this person? What kind of life are they living? Why did she choose to photograph them in particular?
3. Bernd and Hilla Becher
Perhaps two of the most famous deadpan photographers in history, Bernd and Hilla Becher became famous through their typological deadpan photographs of water towers, coal mines, industrial landscapes, grain elevators and gas tanks. Their many different series of photographs offer a look into the industrial past of the world, and showcase landscapes and subjects that cannot be seen as readily in the world today. While many viewers may see the images as lacking substance or meaning, their work resonates with many people today as a typology of a world that no longer exists.
4. Alec Soth
Alec Soth has an incredible way of creating engaging images while at the same time seeming disengaged with his subjects. He photographs a mixture of still lifes, portraits and landscapes, and in each image a sense of distance is so tangible you can almost feel it. He photographs people who seem as though they have worlds of stories to tell, yet the photographs of them speak nothing about these stories. His strange abandoned landscapes and forlorn subjects offer lots of questions but no answers. The result is a series of striking images that the viewer cannot draw themselves away from, no matter how many of their questions go unanswered. Instead of drawing away in frustration, the viewer simply looks deeper.

While deadpan photography is not for everyone, it offers an interesting way of looking at the world in a completely un-biased way. While many photographers choose to pose their subjects and distort the images to create a certain mood or tell a specific story, those who choose to share their world through deadpan images offer an honest look into the everyday life of people and scenarios that all too often go unnoticed.

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If you've ever taken a photography class in your life, you've likely heard the phrase "don't center your subject". If this is such an important rule of photography, why has there been a rise of deadpan photographs over the past decade?

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A guide to the cyanotype process - one of the first non-silver technologies used to create photographic images.

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A tronie (16/17th-century Dutch for "face") is a common type, or group of types, of works common in Dutch Golden Age painting and Flemish Baroque painting that shows an exaggerated facial expression or a stock character in costume. It is related to the French word "trogne" which is slang for "mug" or head.

The term 'tronie' is not clearly defined in art historical literature. Literary and archival sources show that initially the term 'tronie' was not always associated with people. Inventories sometimes referred to flower and fruit still lifes as 'tronies'. More common was the meaning of face or visage. Often the term referred to the entire head, even a bust, and in exceptional cases the whole body. A tronie could be two-dimensional, but also made of plaster or stone. Sometimes a tronie was a likeness, the depiction of an individual, including the face of God, Christ, Mary, a saint or an angel. In particular a tronie denoted the characteristic appearance of the head of a type, for example a farmer, a beggar or a jester. Tronie sometimes meant so much as a grotesque head or a model such as the type of an ugly old person. When conceived as the face of an individual and of a type a tronie's aim was to express feelings and character in an accurate manner and must therefore be expressive.

In modern art-historical usage the term tronie is typically restricted to figures not intended to depict an identifiable person, so it is a form of genre painting in a portrait format. Typically a painted head or bust only, if concentrating on the facial expression, but often half-length when featured in an exotic costume, tronies might be based on studies from life or use the features of actual sitters. The picture was typically sold on the art market without identification of the sitter, and was not commissioned and retained by the sitter as portraits normally were. Similar unidentified figures treated as history paintings would normally be given a title from the classical world, for example the Rembrandt painting now known as Saskia as Flora.

The genre started in the Low Countries in the 16th century where it was likely inspired by some of the grotesque heads drawn by Leonardo. Leonardo had pioneered drawings of paired grotesque heads whereby two heads, usually in profile, were placed opposite each other in order to accentuate their diversity. This paired juxtaposition was also adopted by artists in the Low Countries. In 1564 or 1565 Joannes and Lucas van Doetecum are believed to have engraved 72 heads attributed to Pieter Brueghel the Elder that followed this paired arrangement.

This paired model was still being used by some artists in the 17th century. For instance, the Flemish artist Jan van de Venne who was active in the first half of the 17th century painted a number of tronies juxtaposing different faces.

Several Rembrandt self-portrait etchings are tronies, as are paintings of himself, his son and his wives. Three Vermeer paintings were described as "tronies" in the Dissius auction of 1696, perhaps including the Girl with a Pearl Earring and the Washington Young Girl with a flute. Frans Hals also painted a number of tronies, which are now among his best-known works, including the two tronies known as Malle Babbe and the (see gallery).

Adriaen Brouwer was one of the most successful practitioners of the genre as he had a talent for expressiveness. His work gave a face to lower-class figures by infusing their images with recognizable and vividly expressed human emotions-anger, joy, pain, and pleasure. His Youth Making a Face (c. 1632/1635, National Gallery of Art) shows a young man with a satirical and mocking gesture which humanises him, however uninviting he may appear. Brouwer's vigorous application of paint in this composition, with his characteristically short, unmodulated brushstrokes, increases the dramatic effect. Genre painters often returned to the old theme of the allegory of the five senses and created series of tronies depicting the five senses. Examples are Lucas Franchoys the Younger's A man removing a plaster, the sense of touch and Joos van Craesbeeck's The Smoker which represents taste.

The tronie is related to, and has some overlap with, the "portrait historié", a portrait of a real person as another, usually historical or mythological, figure. Jan de Bray specialised in these, and many portraitists sometimes showed aristocratic ladies in particular as mythological figures.

Hirschfelder, Dagmar: Tronie und Porträt in der niederländischen Malerei des 17. Jahrhunderts. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 2008. ISBN 978-3-7861-2567-9

Gottwald, Franziska: Das Tronie. Muster - Studie - Meisterwerk. Die Genese einer Gattung der Malerei vom 15. Jahrhundert bis zu Rembrandt, München/Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2009. ISBN 978-3-422-06930-5

Hirschfelder, Dagmar / Krempel, León (Eds.): Tronies. Das Gesicht in der Frühen Neuzeit, Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 2013.

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A tronie (16/17th-century Dutch for "face") is a common type, or group of types, of works common in Dutch Golden Age painting and Flemish Baroque painting that shows an exaggerated facial expression or a stock character in costume. It is related to the French word "trogne" which is slang for "mug" or head.

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In photography, bokeh (originally , - also sometimes pronounced as , Japanese: ) is the aesthetic quality of the blur produced in the out-of-focus parts of an image produced by a lens. Bokeh has been defined as "the way the lens renders out-of-focus points of light".

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Outdoor tableau vivant about gold mining in Paramaribo, 1892, in front of what is now the Presidential Palace of Suriname, then the Dutch Governor's palace.

A group of European royalty pose in costumes in 1860s Vienna

A (French: [tablovivɑ̃]; often shortened to ; plural: ), French for 'living picture', is a static scene containing one or more actors or models. They are stationary and silent, usually in costume, carefully posed, with props and/or scenery, and may be theatrically lit. It thus combines aspects of theatre and the visual arts.

They were a popular medieval form which revived considerably from the 19th century, probably as they were very suitable for recording by photography. The participants were now mostly amateurs, participating in a quick and easy form of amateur dramatics that could be brought together in an evening, and required little skill in acting or speaking. They were also popular for various sorts of community events and parades.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there was also a type of tableau used in the professional theatre, taking advantage of the extra latitude the law allowed for the display of nudity so long as the actors did not move. Tableaux featured poses plastiques ('flexible poses') by virtually nude models, providing a form of erotic entertainment, both on stage and in print. Tableaux continue to the present day in the form of living statues, street performers who busk by posing in costume. In film or live theatre the performers sometimes briefly freeze in position for a tableau vivant effect.

In the Middle Ages occasionally a Mass was punctuated with short dramatic scenes and painting-like tableaux. They were a major feature of festivities for royal weddings, coronations and royal entries into cities. Often the actors imitated statues or paintings, much in the manner of modern street entertainers, but in larger groups, and mounted on elaborate temporary stands along the path of the main procession. Johan Huizinga, in The Autumn of the Middle Ages, describes the use and design of tableaux vivants in the late middle ages. Many paintings and sculptures probably recreate tableaux vivants, by which art historians sometimes account for groups of rather static figures. Artists were often the designers of public pageantry of this sort.

The history of Western visual arts in general, until the modern era, has had a focus on symbolic, arranged presentation, and (aside from direct personal portraiture) was heavily dependent on stationary artists' models in costume - which can be regarded as small-scale tableaux vivants with the artist as temporary audience. The Realism movement, with more naturalistic depictions, did not begin until the mid-19th century, a direct reaction against Romanticism and its heavy dependence on stylized tableau format.

The invention of photography caused a revival in the form. Initially photography was expensive, and the form flourished in the English country house parties of the rich. Queen Victoria was an early adopter (only taking the part of the audience herself). In the mid-1850s the actors were her children, who performed tableaux for their parents 14th wedding anniversary in 1854. By the 1890s the settings had become very elaborate, as when her third son Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, his wife and their three children posed for a Japanese Scene, in 1891.

They became popular for community events and festivals, very often using children, who might parade before settling into a tableau for the audience and a camera.

A tableau vivant on May 29, 1897, in the Girls High School (San Francisco) by Union Army veterans, at right, who sang "Tenting on the Old Camp Ground".

Before radio, film and television, tableaux vivants were popular forms of entertainment, even in American frontier towns. Before the age of color reproduction of images, the tableau was sometimes used to recreate artworks on stage, based on an etching or sketch of a painting. This could be done as an amateur venture in a drawing room, or as a more professionally produced series of tableaux presented on a theatre stage, one following another, usually to tell a story without requiring all the usual trappings and production of a full theatre performance. They thus influenced the form taken by later Victorian and Edwardian era magic lantern shows, and perhaps also sequential narrative comic strips (which first appeared in modern form in the late 1890s).

Tableaux vivants were often performed as part of school Nativity plays in England during the Victorian period; the custom is still practised at Loughborough High School (believed to be one of England's oldest grammar schools for girls). Several tableaux are performed each year at the school carol service, including the depiction of an engraving en grisaille (in which the subjects are painted and dressed completely grey).

Tableaux were also performed for charity events. The February 1917 edition of the American magazine Harper's Bazar reported, with many photographs, on two events in London where society ladies posed, mostly as paintings. One event concentrated on paintings by James McNeill Whistler and John Singer Sargent, posed by ladies of American birth in London. The other included Violet Trefusis and Lady Diana Cooper.

Tableau vivant featuring Olga Desmond and Adolf Salge, around 1908

By a quirk of English law, nudity on the stage was not permitted unless the performers remained motionless while the stage curtains were open; the situation in locations in the United States was often similar. In the early years of the 20th century, performers took advantage of this exception to stage "plastic representations", as they were sometimes called, centring on nudity. The most persistent performer in this line was the German dancer Olga Desmond, beginning in London, and who later put on "Evenings of Beauty" ( Schönheitsabende) in Germany, in which she posed nude in imitation of actual or imagined classical works of art ("living pictures"). The English tradition in risqué entertainment continued until the English law was changed in the 1960s.

In the nineteenth century, tableaux vivants took such titles as "Nymphs Bathing" and "Diana the Huntress" and were to be found at such places as the Hall of Rome in Great Windmill Street, London. Other venues were the Coal Hole in the Strand and the Cyder Cellar in Maiden Lane. Nude and semi-nude poses plastiques were also a frequent feature of variety shows in the US: first on Broadway in New York City, then elsewhere in the country. The Ziegfeld Follies featured such tableaux from 1917. The Windmill Theatre in London (1932-1964) featured nude poses plastiques on stage; it was the first, and for many years the only, venue for them in 20th-century London.

Tableaux vivants were often included in fairground sideshows (as seen in the 1961 film A Taste of Honey). Such shows had largely died out by the 1970s, but continue in the Bridgewater Carnival in Somerset. Tableaux remain a major attraction at the annual Pageant of the Masters in Laguna Beach, California.

tableaux in modern photographic theory

Jean-François Chevrier was the first to use the term tableau in relation to a form of art photography, which began in the 1970s and 1980s in an essay titled "The Adventures of the Picture Form in the History of Photography" in 1989. The initial translation of this text substitutes the English word picture for the French word tableau. However, Michael Fried retains the French term when referring to Chevrier's essay, because according to Fried (2008), there is no direct translation into English for tableau in this sense. While picture is similar, "... it lacks the connotations of constructedness, of being the product of an intellectual act that the French word carries." (p. 146) Other texts and Clement Greenberg's theory of medium specificity also cover this topic.

The key characteristics of the contemporary photographic tableau according to Chevrier are, firstly:

They are designed and produced for the wall. summoning a confrontational experience on the part of the spectator that sharply contrasts with the habitual processes of appropriation and projection whereby photographic images are normally received and "consumed" (p. 116)

By this, Chevrier notes that scale and size is obviously important if the pictures are to "hold the wall". But size has another function; it distances the viewer from the object, requiring one to stand back from the picture to take it all in. This "confrontational" experience, Fried notes, is actually quite a large break from the conventional reception of photography, which up to that point was often consumed in books or magazines.

The photographic tableau has its roots not in the theatrical tableau vivant, but in pictorialist photography, such as that of Alfred Stieglitz, a movement with its roots in Aestheticism, which already made heavy use of the tableau as a non-theatrical visual art style. Pictorialism, according to Jeff Wall could be seen as an attempt by photographers to imitate painting (perhaps unsuccessfully):

Pictorialist photography was dazzled by the spectacle of Western painting and attempted, to some extent, to imitate it in acts of pure composition. Lacking the means to make the surface of its pictures unpredictable and important, the first phase of Pictorialism, Stieglitz's phase, emulated the fine graphic arts, re-invented the beautiful look, set standards for gorgeousness of composition, and faded. (p. 75)

However photography did have the ability to become unpredictable and spontaneous. This was achieved by making photographs related to the inherent capabilities of the camera itself. And this, Wall argues, was a direct result of photojournalism, and the mass media and pop culture industries.

By divesting itself of the encumbrances and advantages inherited from older art forms, reportage, or the spontaneous fleeting aspect of the photographic image pushes toward a discovery of qualities apparently intrinsic to the medium, qualities that must necessarily distinguish the medium from others and through the self-examination of which it can emerge as a modernist art on a plane with others. (pp. 76-78)

The argument is that, unlike most other art forms, photography can profit from the capture of chance occurrences. Through this process-the snapshot, the "accidental" image-photography invents its own concept of the picture: a hybrid form of the "Western picture" (pictorialist photography) and the spontaneous snapshot. This is the stage whereby Wall argues that photography enters a "modernist dialectic". Wall states that unpredictability is key to modern aesthetics. This new concept of the picture, which Wall proposes, with the compositional aspects of the Western picture combined with the unpredictability that the camera affords through its shutter, can be seen in the work of many contemporary photographic artists, including Luc Delahaye, Andreas Gursky, Thomas Struth, Irene Caesar, and Philip-Lorca diCorcia.

The tableau as a form still dominates the art photography market. As Fried notes: "Arguably the most decisive development in the rise of the new art photography has been the emergence, starting in the late 1970s and gaining impetus in the 1980s and after, of what the French critic Jean-François Chevrier has called the " tableau form" (p. 143).

However, there appears to be only a handful of young, emerging artists working within the tableau form. Examples include Florian Maier Aichen, Matthew Porter and Peter Funch. More recently, Canadian artist Sylvia Grace Borda has worked since 2013 to continue to stage tableaux for the camera within the Google Street View engine. Her work creates 360° immersive tableau vivant images for the viewer to explore. Through her efforts to pioneer the tableaux vivant for online exploration, she and her collaborator, John M. Lynch, won the Lumen Prize 2016 for Web Arts.

In Pier Paolo Pasolini's 1963 film , a film maker tries to have actors represent two paintings, by Jacopo Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentino, of the Passion of Jesus.

The 1969 film The Color of Pomegranates, directed by Sergei Parajanov, presents a loose biography of the Armenian poet Sayat Nova in a series of tableaux vivants of Armenian costume, embroidery and religious rituals depicting scenes and verses from the poet's life.

The 2013 film, A Field in England, makes use of the effect to add to the general occult look of the film.

There is a 2014 Estonian feature film produced entirely in tableau format titled In the Crosswind.

Ramos, J. & Pouy, L. (2014). Le tableau vivant ou l'image performée. Paris: Mare & Martin/INHA.

Greenberg, C. (2003) [1965]. "Modernist Painting". In Harrison, C; Wood, P (eds.). Art in Theory 1900-2000. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Kracauer, S. (1960). Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality. Princeton New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

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A (French: [tablovivɑ̃]; often shortened to ; plural: ), French for 'living picture', is a static scene containing one or more actors or models. They are stationary and silent, usually in costume, carefully posed, with props and/or scenery, and may be theatrically lit. It thus combines aspects of theatre and the visual arts.