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Tibet Autonomous Region

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The Oroqen people are an ethnic group in northern China. The Oroqen people are largely concentrated in the northern Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang and Inner Mongolia, which are home to 45.54% and 41.94% of the 8,659 Oroqen people living in China, respectively.

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A majority of Oroqen speakers use Chinese as a literary language and some also speak Daur.

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They live near to the Nujiang river and their name "Nu" was derived from there.
The Nu live mainly in Kachin State and Yunnan province. They are divided into the Northern, Central and Southern groups. Their homeland is a country of high mountains and deep ravines crossed by the Dulong, Irrawaddy (N'Mai River and Mali River), and Nujiang rivers. 90% of them are found in Gongshan, Fugong and Lanping counties in Yunnan Province, along with Lisu, Drung, Tibetan, Nakhi, Bai and Han. There is also a sparse distribution of Nu in Weixi County in the Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Zayu County in Tibet Autonomous Region, particularly at the border between Yunnan and Tibet.

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According to the China Statistical Yearbook-2021, the total population of Nu in China is 36575

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The Nu people speak a language belonging to the Tibetan-Myanmese group of the Chinese-Tibetan language family. The dialects within the Nu language differ so much that Nu people from different regions cannot communicate with each other. It has no written form, the Nus used to keep records by carving notches on sticks.
Educated Nus nowadays use the Han language (Chinese) for administrative purposes.

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Their languages are Tibeto-Burman languages written with the Tibetan alphabet.

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Many customs, habits and dress of different clan members may vary. The Lhoba men in Luoyu wear knee-length black jackets without sleeves and buttons made out of sheep's wool. They wear helmet-like hats either made from bearskin or woven from bamboo stripes or rattan laced with bearskin. They also wear ornaments that include earrings, necklaces made of beads, and bamboo plugs inserted into the ear lobe. The Lhoba women wear narrow-sleeved blouses and skirts of sheep's wool. The weight of the ornaments the womenfolk wear is a symbol of their wealth, which includes shells, silver coins, iron chains bells, silver and brass earrings. Both sexes usually go barefooted. Their dress are quite similar to the Tibetan costume. The Idu men wear a sword and waterproof cane helmet, and a chignon on their hair and shields made of buffalo hide. Yidu weaponry includes straight Tibetan sword, dagger, bow and poisoned arrows.

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They live in an area called the Jino Mountains (Jinuoshan 基诺山) in eastern Jinghong, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan province.
Most of the Jino concentrate in Jinoshan, in a series of mild hills with wet climate near Mengyang Township in Jinghong Municipality, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan Province. They live in an area of about 70x50 km. They live in subtropical rainforest, home of elephants, wild oxen and monkeys.

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The Jino have a population of 20,900 people according to the census of the year 2000.

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The Jino language (Jinuo 基諾語; autonyms: tɕy˦no˦, ki˦ɲo˦) constitutes a pair of Loloish language varieties spoken by the Jino people of Yunnan, China.

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Still, the Jino hold on to special traditions that keep them unique.

Jino society is completely egalitarian, with hunters dividing meat equally between adults, children, and even newborns alike. Sexually, the Jino are quite open-minded. Premarital sex is not frowned upon, and is often encouraged in the form of special houses built for unmarried men and women to spend the night together. If a woman gives birth to a child out of wedlock, neither the mother nor the child is looked down upon. Still, marriages are expected to be monogamous.

Linguistically, modern day Jino speak Mandarin, but some cling to the Jino language, which is characterized as Tibeto-Burman. The language does not have a written script.

Notably, tooth painting is one of the Jino cultural practices still in some form of existence today.

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Lhoba (English translation: Southerners; Chinese: 珞巴; pinyin: Luòbā; Standard Tibetan: ལྷོ་པ།) is any of a diverse amalgamation of Sino-Tibetan-speaking tribespeople living in and around Pemako, a region in southeastern Tibet including Mainling, Medog and Zayücounties of Nyingchi and Lhünzê County of Shannan, Tibet.

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Lhobas are the smallest ethnic minority in China.

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Lhoba tribespeople speak at least three mutually unintelligible Tibeto-Burman languages: Idu Mishmi of the Digaro family, Bokar (Adi) of the Eastern Tani branch, and Nah (tagin) of the Western Tani branch.

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Few Lhoba speak the Tibetan language.[citation needed] In the past, when there was no writing, the Lhobas kept track of history through telling their descendants and tying knot codes about their past. Their literature poses a significant influence on their Tibetan counterparts. They are known as "Bokar" in Arunachal Pradesh of northeast India and are found in the Pidi and Monigong circles of Arunachal Pradesh. They trace their origin from a common forefather, Abotani. They follow the genealogy counting from Abotani as Nijum-Jumsi-Siki-Kiyor-Yorkar-Kardung-Duram-Ramdung/Ramgu/Ramgo. All Bokar groups have originated from Ramdung, Ramgo and Ramgu. Their immediate brothers are Galo, Ramo, Libo/Pailibo and Tagin.

The Lhoba engage in barter trade with the Tibetans, trading goods like animal hides, musk, bear paws, dye(locally knowns as tamen or botanically known as Rubia cordifolia) and captured game for farm tools, salt, wool, clothing, grain and tea from Tibetan traders. As a result of this constant trading, they have been increasingly influenced by the Tibetans in their dress. Many Lhobas have converted to Tibetan Buddhism in recent years as they traded with Buddhist monasteries, frequently blending it with their indigenous animist beliefs, which traditionally have deep roots in the tiger.[clarification needed] Others, remain animistic, especially those in Arunachal Pradesh, who follow Donyi-Poloism; the pilgrimage centre of their community lies at Atho-Popu the Dibang valley.[citation needed] The stories about immigration are told along the banks of twelve rivers in the Dibang valley, the clustered area known as Cheithu-Huluni. The Yidu traditionally believe in a supreme god named "Inni".

Festivals such as Reh are celebrated to appease the mold deities, who are traditionally believed to control the peace and prosperity of the people. Celebration with great fanfare and the performance of priest dances marks the end of the festival.

There are four funeral variants among the Yidu Lhoba (Idu Mishmi), and people of different social status would choose to conduct any of the variants. In all variants, an Igu priest would recite mourning songs for the dead. Mithuns are sacrificed in the Yah variant of the funeral, which lasts for three to four days.

Lhoba boys are trained to hunt at an early age. Women have low status in society and have no inheritance rights from their husbands or fathers.

The Lhoba enjoy a subtropical/warm temperate climate.

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Today there are about 4000 Lhoba people in China but many Lhoba people also live in northeast India, Bhutan and Myanmar.

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Linen clothes are common.
The womenfolk generally wore linen or cotton tunics with sleeves, which are buttoned on the left and long skirts. The young girls often wear aprons over their tunics. They like to wear necklaces strung with colored plastic beads. Some wear head or chest ornaments with strings of coral, agates, shells and silver coins. They wear big copper earrings that hang to the shoulder.

The menfolk often put on linen sleeved tunics over shorts, and almost every man wears a string of coral on his left ear and hangs a machete from the left side of his waist. When they go out, they often carry machetes, bows, and arrow bags made from animal felt. They wear black turbans wrapped around their head, though they tend to keep ear-length haircuts.

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The Evenks (also spelled Ewenki or Evenki based on their endonym Ewenkī)

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The Evenks or Ewenki are sometimes conjectured to be connected to the Shiwei people who inhabited the Greater Khingan Range in the 5th to 9th centuries, although the native land of the majority of Evenki people is in the vast regions of Siberia between Lake Baikal and the Amur River. The Ewenki language forms the northern branch of the Manchu-Tungusic language group and is closely related to Even and Negidal in Siberia. By 1600 the Evenks or Ewenki of the Lena and Yenisey river valleys were successful reindeer herders. By contrast the Solons (ancestors of the Evenkis in China) and the Khamnigans (Ewenkis of Transbaikalia) had picked up horse breeding and the Mongolian deel from the Mongols. The Solons nomadized along the Amur River. They were closely related to the Daur people. To the west the Khamnigan were another group of horse-breeding Evenks in the Transbaikalia area. Also in the Amur valley a body of Siberian Evenki-speaking people were called Orochen by the Manchus.

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According to the China Statistical Yearbook-2021, the total population of Evenki in China is 34617

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The Evenks wore a characteristic garb "adapted to the cold but rather dry climate of the Central Siberia and to a life of mobility…they wore brief garments of soft reindeer or elk skin around their hips, along with leggings and moccasins, or else long supple boots reaching to the thigh". They also wore a deerskin coat that did not close in front but was instead covered with an apron-like cloth. Some Evenkis decorated their clothing with fringes or embroidery. The Evenki traditional costume always consisted of these elements: a loincloth made of animal hide, leggings, and boots of varying lengths. Facial tattooing was also very common.

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More than 30,000 Cona Monba in China.

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Tibetan Buddhism

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-Baoan
Both the Muslim Bonans in Gansu and their Buddhist cousins in Qinghai (officially classified as Monguor) have historically spoken the Baoan, a Mongolia language
Its language belongs to the Mongolian branch of the Altaic language family and is close to that of the Tu and Dongxiang ethnic minorities. Due to long years of contacts and exchanges with the neighboring Han and Hui people, the Bonan people have borrowed quite a number of words from the Han language. The Han language is accepted as the common written language among the Bonans.
There are 11 vowels in the Bonan language, as well as many compound vowels, and there are 26 consonants, 5 of which are unstable.

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The Bonan is one of China's smallest ethnic minorities, with only 16,505 people.

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The Bonan minority have taken shape after many years of interchanges during the Yuan and Ming (1271-1644) periods between Islamic Mongolians who settled down as garrison troops in Qinghai's Tongren County, and the neighboring Hui, Han, Tibetan and Tu people. The Bonans used to live in three major villages in the Baoan region, situated along the banks of the Longwu River within the boundaries of Tongren County.

During the early years of the reign of Qing Emperor Tongzhi (1862-1874), they fled from the oppression of the feudal serf owners of the local Lamaist Longwu Monastery. After staying for a few years in Xunhua, they moved on into Gansu Province and finally settled down at the foot of Jishi Mountain in Dahejia and Liuji, Linxia County. Incidentally, they again formed themselves into three villages – Dadun, Ganmei and Gaoli – which they referred to as the "tripartite village of Baoan" in remembrance of their roots.Dahejia in western Linxia County is the place where the Bonans mainly concentrated. The area is thickly wooded and enjoys a moderate temperature supported by plenty of water and lush grass, which make it suitable for farming and stockbreeding.

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The Bonan people are mostly Muslims and are divided into two different sects – the Old and the New.

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Their traditional dress includes elements of Tibetan, Hui and Dongxiang clothing. Married Bonan women wear black veils, while unmarried women wear green veils. Women wear more colorful dress, including trousers with colored cuffs. Bonan men typically wear black or white skullcaps and white or dark blue jackets. Fur-lined jackets are used during the winter

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The economy of the Bonan consists of farming (mainly wheat and rye), raising livestock, selling local handicrafts, and working in the lumber industry.The Bonan knives are famous all over China due to their beauty and sturdiness ,which their manufacture and sale are the important part for the local economy.

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The Yugur are a small ethnic group of around 15,000 living in western China’s Gansu province. Most Yugur live in Gansu province’s Sunan Yugur Autonomous County, home of the Xiaritala Grasslands and the rainbow-like, Danxia-landform mountains – a result of 24 million years of sandstone and mineral deposits forming colorful layers of rock. In fact, Sunan County lies just west of the Zhangye National Geopark, where visitors can look out on the unique landforms that stretch as far as the eye can see.There are two primary subgroups of Yugur: namely the Turkic-speaking Yugur and the Mongolic-speaking Yugur. The Turkic Yugur tend to live in the western part of Sunan County, while the Mongolic Yugur stick to the east

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The name Yugur stems from the term “Yellow Uyghur” and refers to the common origins of both the Yugur and the Uyghur.

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The western Yugur speak a language known as Yaohu’er, which is Turkic. The eastern Yugur speak a language called Enge’er, which is Mongolic and very similar to the Mongolian spoke in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Today, many Yugur, particularly those among the younger generations, also speak Mandarin and use it for intercommunication.A very small number of the Yugur reportedly speak Tibetan. Yaohu’er has preserved many archaisms of Old Uyghur.The remaining Yugurs of the Autonomous County lost their respective Yugur language and speak Chinese.

Both Yugur languages are now unwritten, although the Old Uyghur alphabet was in use in some Yugur communities until end of 19th century.

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The traditional religion of the Yugur is Tibetan Buddhism, which used to be practised alongside shamanism

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The Yugur costume has a unique style. Yugur men usually wear a high-collared
long gown, a red-blue waistband with a sword, flint and small Buddha, and high
boots. The women also wear a high-collared long gown, generally in green or
blue, with a red, green and blue belt, overlain with a bright waistcoat. In the
winter, men and women wear a hat made of fox-skin; in summer and autumn they
wear a flat, embroidered white felt hat with a cylindrical top.

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With very limited contact with the outside world and with limited resources, the clothing material was virtually entirely animal hide.

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The Oroqen is now among China's most highly educated ethnic groups. 23.3% of the ethnic group received college education, only less than Russian Chinese, Chinese Tatars and Nanais. 19.2% received only primary school education or less, after Koreans, Russian Chinese and Nanais

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Until the early 1950s the main religion of the nomadic Oroqen was shamanism. In the summer of 1952 cadres of the Chinese Communist Party coerced the leaders of the Oroqen to give up their "superstitions" and abandon any religious practices. These tribal leaders, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu) and Zhao Li Ben, were also powerful shamans. The special community ritual to "send away the spirits" and beg them not to return was held over three nights in Baiyinna and in Shibazhan

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The De'ang ethnic minority has a population of 15,462. Most De'ang people live in Dehong Dai-Jingpo Autonomous Preference and in Lincang Preference in Yunnan Province. Some are also scattered in Baoshan, Simao, Luxi, Zhenkang and other counties in Yunnan.

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De’ ang people have their own language but most of them can also speak Chinese and language of Dai and Jingpo because De’ ang have no written script.

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The De'angs are Hinayana Buddhists.
Most villages have a temple. The monks live on the offerings of their followers. Their daily needs are provided by the villagers in turn. Being Buddhists, the De'angs in some localities do not kill living creatures. In the past, to avoid killing living creatures, the De'angs did not raise pigs or chickens, and only a rooster was kept in each village to herald the break of day.

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Caihua Festival (the Flower Picking Festival).
It is mainly celebrated in Luxi County on Qingming day (April 5th).
Water Splashing Festival
It falls on the seventh day after the Qingming Festival. People wash the dust off Buddhist statues with "water dragons". They also splash water at each other as an expression of good wishes. Then, they form a long line behind elephant-foot drums and throng to the waters beside springs and rivers, celebrating the New Year by chasing and splashing water at each other.

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Grown-up girl has to wear several or dozens of waist hoops around the waist between her black corset and little skirt. Although most hoops are woven with vine stripes, there are also hoops whose back part is made with spiral silver wires. Hoops of different sizes are mostly painted colors such as red, black or green, and some are carved with various design patterns, or covered with a silver or aluminum wrapper.

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They mainly lived in Russia (Khabarovsk Krai, Primorsky Krai) and China (Heilongjiang). For those who live in China, they mainly live in the Tongjiang, Fuyuan and Raohe counties by the rivers of Songhua, Heilongjiang and Wusuli in China's northeastern Heilongjiang Province.

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Hezhe language, Russian (in Russia), Mandarin Chinese (in China)

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The smallest of China's 55 ethnic groups is the Hezhen nationality. According to the 2010 census there were 12,003 Nanai in Russia and 5,354 in China.

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According to the 1982 census there were 38 Hezhens with university or college education, or 2.55% of the population. There were only 199 illiterates, 15% of the total Hezhen population aged 12 and over, lower than the national average. The enrollment rate of the school-age children was 100% in 1990. Illiteracy among the Hezhen teenagers and adults has been eradicated. In contrast, prior to 1945 there were only 2 Hezhens with even elementary education.

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The Hezhen people used to practice Shamanism.
- make sacrificial offerings to varieties of gods for their blessing
- a man has three souls: “Aoren”, leaves the body at death,  “Harney”, soul of thought and the 3rd soul called “Fayangku”,  incarnated soul.

Hezhes adorn Heaven very much
- worship the God of Fire “Fojia Mama”, and the fire-using god “Dure Marin”, the God of wind, the God of Water and the God of Mountain.
- they may return home safe with a full load when they go out hunting or fishing.

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Fishing industry, Hunting

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The clothing of the Hezhens is almost the same as that of the Hans. The only difference is in the material they use.
- In the past --> fish skin or deer skin.
-->Unmarried girls: one braid
--> Married: two.
-->Bracelets for all women
-->Old women wore earrings.
- Nowadays --> cotton
- The length of the dress is over the knees.
-->loose and short sleeves but has no collar.
-->The dress and trousers arefat, edged with colored cloth, patterns, or copper bells.
- Durable and at the same time resistant to cold weather and water.
- Fur caps and thick boots <-- bear skins and birch bark during winter.

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Wurigong Festival, meaning fun day or sports meeting
--> a new holiday created in 1985.
--> inJune and August, and lasts for three days.
--> Competitive activities such as swimming, boating, net-casting, push-and-pulling, straw fish forking and straw target shooting are held during daytime.
--> At night, people make piles of bonfires by the riverside. They hold banquets where they eat and drink together.
--> After the celebration, they sing and dance hand in hand around the bonfires. Their tuneful folksongs carry far in the evening air.

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agriculture and concurrently in animal husbandry and hunting, and they are good at bamboo rattan ware weaving and wooden bowl making.

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Monba clothing is characterized by bright color, elegant lines and beautiful form.
- Monba men: long hair and two-bead earrings, silver or bronze bracelets and rings, boots with bow and arrows in hands, a “gawu”(guard box) and a long knife called “qiawo” on the waist.
- Monba women: two long pigtails coiled on the head or Monba baronet, with ornaments of red coral, and agate hanging on the neck. Their underwear, called “bubure” in Tibetan language, varies in colour, white their coats, called “gonggu” in their own language, are divided into two kinds according to the length, which are made of red and black of felt. Some of them have a metal Buddha box hanging in front of the chest with an image of Buddha inside.

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Two types: religious holidays and seasonal holidays.
Religious holidays: mainly are “Quke” Festival, “Sagya Dawa” Festival
Seasonal festivals: Monba New Year
“Zhuba” Prayer Festival: between November and December, lasts from three to eighteen days and the major activities include chanting scriptures, exorcisers’ dancing, and performing religion plays.
“Dawang” Buddhist Rally: lasts three days, falls on November 29th on the Tibetan calendar. It lasts from 10 to 15 days. Each and every family cleans their house, butcher livestock and prepare bountiful dinners to entertain their guests. People in their splendid attire make mutual visits to say congratulations, dance with songs, and feast to their hearts’ content.