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Romulus killed his brother Remus to rule the city of Rome and name himself after it. This was the start to the city of Rome. In its early years it thrived from trade mostly from its convenient location. Since they were close by to the Greek colonies they had something to model off of. They borrowed the Greeks’ literacy, religion, and architecture.

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Hear the dramatic story of Romulus and Remus and the founding of Rome Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Abxyz/Dreamstime.com

Almost 3,000 years ago the Roman Empire was born here in central Italy, on this site by the River Tiber, nestling among seven hills. A dramatic story is said to have taken place here all those years ago, between twin brothers called Romulus and Remus.

It had been predicted that the two brothers would become mighty leaders. But they were the victims of an evil plot. Their power-crazed great uncle ordered that the babies should be drowned. Yet, miraculously, they were washed up on the banks of the Tiber. A she-wolf took it upon herself to care for the twins, suckling them and thus giving them the strength to survive. The she-wolf remains the symbol of the Roman Empire to this day, an empire which over the next centuries was to exert its influence across the known world - primarily through expansionist wars.

But the empire experienced its first war - a conflict between the brothers Romulus and Remus - at the very founding of its capital. In a fit of pique, Remus leaps across the provisional city wall which his brother has erected. Romulus cannot tolerate this act of provocation and slays his own brother. The founder of Rome thus made one thing clear from the start: anyone attempting to breach the fortifications of Rome would be severely punished. "Those who violate the laws of Rome will meet the same fate as my brother," he proclaimed.

Thus is founded a city that goes on to become the center of the ancient world. Many wars follow - against the Etruscans, Celts, Greeks, Germanic tribes - and Rome triumphs every time for many hundreds of years. Eight hundred years after the founding of Rome, the Roman Empire rules the known world, from Portugal to Arabia. Many different people live within the borders of the empire, probably the world's first multi-ethnic state. And the Eternal City, itself a metropolis of millions, lies at the heart of this mighty empire.

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Almost 3,000 years ago the Roman Empire was born here in central Italy, on this site by the River Tiber, nestling among seven hills. A dramatic story is said to have taken place here all those years ago, between twin brothers called Romulus and Remus.

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620 B.C.E. The possible date of the creation of the city of Ostia.

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620 B.C.E. The possible date of the creation of the city of Ostia.

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The city of Ostia was important to Rome because it was the port of Rome. This was where ships would dock and unload cargo which would then be sent up to Rome.

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Ostia (or Ostia Antica) lies 15 km from the city of Rome for which it served as the city's principal port and harbour throughout antiquity. The name derives from 'os' or 'ostium' which means 'mouth' and refers to the city's location at the mouth of the river Tiber. Although originally situated at the mouth of the river, because of silting, it is now some 3 km east of the present river mouth although still located on the south bank of the Tiber.

Early History

Ostia began its existence as a small settlement of native peoples in, perhaps, the 14th century BCE and was established in order to exploit the salt marshes to the immediate east. Roman tradition has it that Ostia was founded as a colony, Rome's first, by its fourth king, Ancus Marcius in the late 7th century BCE, a date supported by Livy who suggests a founding date around 620 BCE.

The strategic importance of Ostia for the defence of the Tiber mouth became apparent early on and it was fortified (the date is controversial, most probably in the mid 4th century BCE) with a military camp or castrum. This consolidated an advantageous position in Rome's continuing conflicts with pirates and with its neighbours and it played a major resupply role in the wars against Carthage. This castrum exerted a major influence on the subsequent layout of the city and the remains of its wall may be seen, inter alia (among other things), bordering the Piazza dei Lari to the east.

The Decumanus Maximus road divides the city north and south with the zones Regio I and Regio II to its north (and bordering the Tiber) and Regio IV and Regio V to its south. At the western border of the castrum the Decumanus Maximus encountered the old via della Foce road ('road of the mouth' also called the via Laurentina) which strikes it at an oblique angle running from northwest to southeast. The Decumanus for that reason was carried off not directly to the west but to the southwest. This creates a wedge-shaped section extending from the intersection of the Decumanus Maximus and the via Laurentina westward. This wedge is Regio III. In addition to the five regions there are two outlying constructions; an 'Imperial Palace' about 200 m distant to the west which is conceptually part of Regio I and the 'Porta Marina' or Sea Gate complex which is assigned to Regio III.

Republican Period

The evidence for the city of Ostia during the Republican period consists of scattered literary fragments. Following the establishment of the castrum, by the 3rd century BCE Ostia was primarily a naval base; in 278 BCE it received a fleet sent from Carthage to assist the Romans against Pyrrhus and it was the port of departure in 217 BCE for supplies to assist the army fighting Hannibal in Spain. In 204 BCE the ship bearing the image of Cybele arrived in Ostia where it was welcomed by a large crowd of nobles and other notables. It was a target during the civil war of the 1st century BCE and was pillaged by Marius. In 67 CE Ostia played an important role in the effort to control the Cilician pirates who actually attacked the port and destroyed most of the Roman fleet meant for their suppression.

Imperial Period

Larger vessels could not navigate the Tiber mouth and so, before the harbour was built, lighters needed to be employed to bring cargo ashore.

The importance of Ostia as a port city increased dramatically after Claudius undertook to build two great moles at Portus, about 3 km northwest of Ostia. This major undertaking (begun in 42 CE) took about 20 years to complete, the new port finally being dedicated under Nero in 64 CE (but it seems to have been in use as early as 62 CE). The growth of Ostia into a major urban centre begins at this time; at its height the population is 50,000-70,000 people. Up until that time the anchorage in the mouth of the Tiber was uncertain, the coast also being a lee shore and dangerous. Larger vessels could not navigate the Tiber mouth and so, before the harbour was built, lighters needed to be employed to bring cargo ashore. Claudius' new port alleviated all of these factors which had provided a natural check on the growth of the city. Now Ostia became a port town in earnest; the residence of workers at the port as well as of the negotiators who arranged trans-shipment of cargoes upstream. This development coincided with the period in which the grain shipments from Egypt (the Annonaria) were reaching their full extent and these enormous annual shipments of grain added impetus to the growth of the city.

Under Trajan an ambitious expansion to the Portus complex was completed in the years 106-113 CE. This took the form of a large hexagonal harbour just to the east of, and connected to, Claudius' outer harbour. After this time the grain fleet from Egypt was brought to Portus and not to Puteoli as it had been until that time.

Notable Buildings & Structures

The Capitolium ( Hadrian) is a temple located at the north end of the forum. It consists of a structure in marble-clad brick sitting on a high podium and is approached from the south by a wide set of marble steps. The whole measures 35 x 17 m and was, perhaps, 20 m in height. It forms the southern limit of the Cardo which it blocks, this end of the Cardo having been transformed into the Forum. It was dedicated to the Capitoline triad of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.

The theatre of Ostia (excavated in 1880-1881 CE and extensively restored) is located to the north side of the Decumanus Maximus and east of the forum. It was initially built by Marcus Agrippa between 18 and 12 BCE. In its first incarnation it was smaller; the cavea was 63 m in diameter and there were 21 rows of seats divided into two sections. It was rebuilt and enlarged (largely in brick) under Emperor Commodus (completed under Septimius Severus). The diameter of the cavea was enlarged to 88 m across so that the potential seating increased from 3,000 to about 6,000 persons. In order to support this increased size the outer ring extended partially over the Decumanus Maximus and so, in order not to impede the flow of traffic, this outer ring was designed as a series of open arches. At the end of the 4th century CE the theatre was restored and changes were made that allowed the orchestra to be flooded for aquatic displays.

The Piazzale delle Corporazioni - in reality a porticus post scaenam (entrance) for the theatre - is on an axis with the theatre. It was first laid out in the time of Augustus; its size at that time was 107 x 78 m and it was enclosed with a wall. In Hadrian's time it was raised about 40 cm. and it was doubled in size. Some time in the 2nd century CE (perhaps under Septimius Severus) partition walls were added which resulted in the creation of some 60 smaller spaces. These dividing walls were built after the famous mosaics. Aside from its architectural interest the significance of the Piazzale lies precisely in these much-admired mosaics. Here we have pictorial testimony to the economic life of the city: the shippers and trans-shippers of grain, wild animals, ivory; the manufacturers and sellers of cordage and other nautical supplies.

The Horrea

The horrea (sing. horreum), while architecturally nothing more than large warehouses, were central to Rome's need to feed itself and they deserve the careful attention of anyone concerned with the life of Rome. There were, perhaps, 20 significant warehouses in the city. The majority were dedicated primarily to the storage of grain but many kinds of valuable goods entered through Ostia and were certainly stored in such warehouses as the Epagathiana.

The Grandi Horrea began under Claudius and their function clearly correspond to the grain shipments which would be hosted by his new harbour. It was enlarged almost immediately under Nero. It consisted of a large rectangle of 78 by 91 m lined with storage cells. In the centre another double row of cells increased storage space. As early as Nero's time a second floor was being constructed on the east side. The storage capacity of the ground floor alone has been estimated at 5.660 to 6.960 metric tons of grain. It has been estimated that 150,000 tons (20 million modii) of grain were required each year to feed the Roman people. If we estimate the storage capacity of this horreum (ground floor alone) at approximately 5,500 metric tons of grain then we reach a figure which is about 4% of the lowest estimated requirement of grain for Rome in any one year (about 150,000 metric tons). So this single warehouse was an important component in the grain supply system for Rome and must have been turned over several times during the year as its contents were transferred to lighter ships which worked their way up the Tiber to Rome.

Horrea Epagathiana was a large warehouse owned by two freedmen, Epagathus and Epaphroditus. It was built in the mid-2nd century CE and it is possible, due to the many locks found, that this warehouse was intended for the storage of valuables. The Piccolo Mercato, despite its name, was a very large warehouse for, most probably, the storing of grain. Finally, the Horrea Antoniniani was a large warehouse fronting on what was then the Tiber bank; almost certainly imperial and its primary use was for storing grain. It has only been partially excavated.

Temples

The Temple of Rome and Augustus was built early in the reign of Tiberius, shortly after 14 CE. Located at the south end of the forum, only the substructure remains. Its dimensions are 80 x 45 ft (24.4 x 13.7 m). Nothing is visible today except a series of small corridors and chambers mostly in opus reticulatum (diamond-shaped bricks).

The Temple of Heracles is located in the Area of the Republican Temples and dates from about 225 to 150 BCE. Heracles (or Hercules) was, perhaps, worshipped here as the god of War by the military commanders stationed here. The statue to be found on the platform is of C. Cartilius Poplicola, a member of the prominent Ostian family and whose father may, in fact, have been responsible for the temple's construction.

The Tempio Rotondo is a large round temple with a rectangular forecourt. Nothing much remains either of the temple or its forecourt but both its size and central location make it one of the more significant temples in the city. Its round form suggests parallels to the Pantheon in Rome; like that temple it may have been dedicated to all the gods but the finding of large portrait heads of the Emperors in other parts of Ostia suggests that it was dedicated to the deified emperors.

Baths

There are significant baths in the city and amongst the best known are the Baths of Neptune. These large baths are positioned east of the theatre and cover an area about 67 m². The currently visible remains are from the 2nd century CE and were financed by Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. It is of classical Roman bath construction and is most notable for its extensive black and white mosaics featuring Nilotic and oceanic scenes of tritons, hippocampi, and dolphins. Also of interest is the small mosaic of Christian symbols, laid after 250 CE.

Mithraea

There are 17 (including one in the Imperial Palace) identified mithraea at the site - places for the worship of the Mystery religion Mithraism. Most are evenly scattered throughout the city. Amongst the most notable mithraea in Ostia is the Mitreo delle Terme del Mitra. This mithraeum is installed in a corridor beneath the so-called Baths of Mithras. The walls are lined with long podia and the statue of the tauroctony (now in the Museo Ostiense but replaced in situ by a copy), depicting Mithras killing a bull, is dramatically lit from above by a skylight.

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Ostia (or Ostia Antica) lies 15 km from the city of Rome for which it served as the city's principal port and harbour throughout antiquity. The name derives from 'os' or 'ostium' which means 'mouth' and refers to the city's location at the mouth of the river Tiber.

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509 B.C.E. The start of the Roman Republic.

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509 B.C.E. The start of the Roman Republic.

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Lucius Junius Brutus was the one to establish the Roman Republic. The Romans needed a government rather than one seizing all the power. Although practically not everyone had power. The great families (the patricians) were the ones seizing the power.

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In the late 6th century BCE, the small city-state of Rome overthrew the shackles of monarchy and created a republican government that, in theory if not always in practice, represented the wishes of…

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494 B.C.E. The plebeians protested for a part in seizing power.

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494 B.C.E. The plebeians protested for a part in seizing power.

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Since the patricians had all of the power, the plebeians who were not a part of the great families, but were just as rich, did not think it was fair for them to not get a say in the Roman Republic. The plebeians all stood outside of Rome and refused to leave until they got representation. This fortunately worked and got an assembly named the Concilium Plebis (The Council of the Plebs).

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In what year did the Roman Empire come to an end? How many hills was Rome built on? From Julius Caesar to the city-state's legendary founders, test your knowledge of ancient Rome in this quiz.

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plebeian | Definition, History, & Examples

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Plebeian, member of the general citizenry in ancient Rome as opposed to the privileged patrician class. The distinction was probably originally based on the wealth and influence of certain families who organized themselves into patrician clans under the early republic, during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.

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366 B.C.E. The first plebeian consul elected.

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366 B.C.E. The first plebeian consul elected.

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This was a big thing for the plebeians as all of the consuls before were patricians. This lead to a law being created a year later which stated that at least one of the consuls must be plebeian.

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312 B.C.E The first aqueduct was built, Aqua Appia

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312 B.C.E The first aqueduct was built, Aqua Appia

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This was the first aqueduct built in Rome which will then be followed by many other aqueducts which will  be built much greater and better. The romans were known for creating these amazing aqueducts along with roads, bridges, and tunnels.

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205 - 184 B.C.E. Plautus writes  his comedy plays

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205 - 184 B.C.E. Plautus writes  his comedy plays

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Plautus' plays are the earliest surviving plays that were known to be more outrageous than an ordinary comedy. His comedies helped give us information about roman society at the time the plays were made.

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Titus Maccius Plautus, better known simply as Plautus (actually a nickname meaning 'flatfoot'), was, between c. 205 and 184 BCE, a Roman writer of comedy plays, specifically the fabulae palliatae, which had a Greek-themed storyline. His plays are the earliest complete surviving works from Latin theatre and they are noted for adding even more outrageous comedy to traditional comic plays. Plautus is also celebrated as a developer of characterisation and a master of verbal acrobatics. Finally, the plays are a rich and valuable source of information regarding contemporary Roman society.

Biographical Details

Details of Plautus' life are sketchy and unreliable; even his name may be simply a collection of nicknames attributed to a particular playwright. Plautus is said to have been born in Sarsina, Umbria. Ancient sources, now largely discredited as pure invention, tell of his early career in theatre when he worked as a stagehand, his bankruptcy from spurious business ventures, and his time working in a mill to make ends meet.

Plautus' Complete Works

Twenty complete plays by Plautus survive along with around 100 lines of Vidularia (The Suitcase) and fragments from several others. This body of work was first attributed to Plautus by the 1st century BCE Roman scholar Varro and the titles are:
Early works:

Cistellaria (The Casket Comedy)

Miles Gloriosus (The Swaggering Soldier)

Stichus (200 BCE)

Pseudolus (191 BCE)

Later works:

Bacchides (The Bacchis Sisters)

Casina

Persa (The Persian)

Trinummus (Threepence)

Truculentus (The Ferocious Fellow)

Date/period unknown:

Amphitruo

Asinaria (The Comedy of Asses)

Aulularia (The Pot of Gold)

Captivi (The Prisoners)

Curculio (The Weevil)

Epidicus

Menaechmi (The Menaechmus Brothers)

Mercator (The Businessman)

Mostellaria (The Haunted House)

Poenulus (The Punic Chappie)

Rudens (The Rope)

Influences & Style

These works are adaptations of 4th century BCE Greek New Comedy (and perhaps also Middle Comedy) plays with some Latin Comedy additions such as mime and bawdy jokes. The earlier Greek plays already had stock characters and Plautus freely expanded the roles of such staple characters as the cunning slave, the cook, and the parasite, giving them memorable character names into the bargain - for example, Chrysalus (Goldfinger) from Bacchides.

Plautus frequently uses wordplay, alliteration and puns to deliver a series of devastating linguistical acrobatics.

The plots of Plautus' plays are also stretched to implausibility so as to heighten their comedy. Confusions of identity and misunderstandings between characters are frequently employed for comedic purposes. Many plays are set in a world which is reversed from the norm, as in the Roman Saturnalia festival where, for a brief time, slaves became masters and vice-versa. Hence, in Plautus' plays, very often, the cunning slave character comes to the aid of a young lover and both get the better of the old master. In addition, the plays often have an ambiguous morality where lovers are unsuitably matched and such characters as prostitutes are not negatively portrayed.

Plautus employs a full range of language from colloquial phrases to technical terms and he frequently uses wordplay, alliteration and puns to deliver a series of devastating linguistical acrobatics. The plays have a great variety of both metre and music too, especially in the cantica segments - operatic arias and duets. Plautus also frequently reminds the audience that they are watching a play (metatheatre) to squeeze even more comedy from his scenes, using such tricks as signalling to the audience exactly how the play is progressing and reminding them that the story is set far away in Greece.

Plautus' Legacy

Plautus' plays continued to be popular after his death and they were performed in Rome for another century or so. His works were also read, studied, and copied for centuries after that. The oldest manuscript of a Plautus play dates back to the 6th century CE and the reappearance of previously lost manuscripts made Plautus once more popular during the Renaissance. The plays were performed in theatres again and, along with Terence, Plautus is credited with influencing the evolution of European comic theatre and inspiring such playwrights as Shakespeare and Molière with his rich characterisations. For example, the former writer's Comedy of Errors shares many plot and character details with Plautus' Menaechmi.

Below is a selection of extracts from Plautus' plays:

Peniculus: Gods confound who first invented public meetings, that device for wasting the time of people who have no time to waste. There ought to be a corps of idle men enrolled for that sort of business. ( The Menaechmus Brothers, lines 420-472)

Pseudolus: The best laid plans of a hundred skilled men can be knocked sideways by one single goddess, the Lady Luck. It's a fact; it's only being on good terms with Dame Fortune that makes a man successful and gives him the reputation of being a clever fellow. ( Pseudolus, lines 641-693)

Euclio: The first thing that occurs to me, Megadorus, is that you are a rich man, a man of influence, and I'm a poor man, poorest of the poor. And the second thing that occurs to me is that for me to make you my son-in- law would be like yoking an ox with an ass; you'd be the ox and I'd be the ass. Unable to pull my share of the load, I, the ass, would be left sprawling in the mud, and you, the ox, would take no more notice of me than if I had never been born. I should be out of your class, and my class would disown me; if there were a question of divorce or anything like that, my footing in either stable would be very - unstable. The asses would be at me with their teeth, and the bulls with their horns. It's asking for trouble for an ass to promote himself to the bull-pen. ( The Pot of Gold, lines 213-256)

Playwrights no longer use the pen

To improve the minds of decent men.

If we have pleased, not wearied you,

If you think virtue worth reward,

Kind friends, you all know what to do...

Just let us know it - and applaud.

( The Prisoners, epilogue)

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Titus Maccius Plautus, better known simply as Plautus (actually a nickname meaning 'flatfoot'), was, between c. 205 and 184 BCE, a Roman writer of comedy plays, specifically the fabulae palliatae, which had a Greek-themed storyline. His plays are the earliest complete surviving works from Latin theatre and they are noted for adding even more outrageous comedy to traditional comic plays.

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The roman amphitheatre in Pompeii is the oldest surviving Roman amphitheatre called the spectacula. It was made so ordinary people could watch spectacles as gladiator games, mock naval battles, wild animal hunts, and public executions. Roman architecture was kind of an art form for them and took time to make these great buildings.

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An amphitheatre was a structure built throughout the Roman empire where ordinary people could watch such spectacles as gladiator games, mock naval battles, wild animal hunts, and public executions. Usually oval in form, the largest examples could seat tens of thousands of people, and they became a focal point of Roman society and the lucrative entertainment business. Amphitheatres are one of the best surviving examples of ancient Roman architecture, and many are still in use today, hosting events ranging from gladiator re-enactments to opera concerts.

Architectural Features

The fully enclosed amphitheatre was a particular favourite of the Romans and evolved from the two-sided stadiums and semicircular theatres of ancient Greece. The date and location of the first true amphitheatre are unknown, but the tradition of gladiator fights had roots in the Etruscan and Osco-Samnite cultures. The earliest securely dated amphitheatre is that of Pompeii, built c. 75 BCE and known as the spectacula. Early structures took advantage of rock and earth hillsides to build the banks of wooden seating on, but by the 1st century BCE free-standing stone versions were being constructed. Amphitheatres of all sizes were built across the empire as Roman culture swept in the path of its army. Indeed, army camps often had their own dedicated arena, usually built using timber and used for training as well as entertainments. Amphitheatres were made oval or elliptical so that the action would not remain stuck in one corner and to offer a good view from any seat in the house.

The Colosseum, officially opened in 80 CE and known to the Romans as the Flavian Amphitheatre, is the largest and most famous example with a capacity of at least 50,000 spectators. Dwarfing all other buildings in the city, it was 45 metres high and measured 189 x 156 metres across. It had up to 80 entrances, and the sanded arena itself measured a massive 87.5 m by 54.8 m. On the upper storey platform, sailors were employed to manage the large awning ( velarium) which protected the spectators from rain or provided shade on hot days.

The Colosseum's design became famous as it was placed on coins so that even people who had never been in person knew of Rome's greatest temple to entertainment. The design was copied throughout the empire: a highly decorative exterior, multiple entrances, seating ( cavea) set over a network of barrel vaults, a wall protecting spectators from the action of the arena (sometimes with nets added), and underground rooms below the arena floor to hide people, animals, and props until they were needed in the spectacles. There was also an extensive drainage system, a feature seen at other arenas such as Verona's amphitheatre where it still functions and has greatly contributed to the excellent preservation of the monument.

The Arena of Verona measures 152 x 123 metres and was third biggest after the Colosseum and Capua. It is another excellent example of the features involved in a Roman amphitheatre. It was constructed in the 1st century CE, using a cement and rubble mix known as opus caementicum, brick, and stone blocks set in square pillars to create an external façade of three levels of 72 arches, each spanning 2 metres and creating a total height of over 30 metres. The lowest arches lead directly to an interior corridor 4.4 metres wide, which runs around the Arena. From this corridor, steps lead upwards at regular intervals and on four different levels to form vomitoria (exits), which give access to the interior cavea. Inside, the seats were arranged in four elliptic rings giving a total of 44 rows of seating.

The Romans built over 200 amphitheatres across the empire, most of them in the west as in the east very often existing Greek theatres and stadiums were converted/employed for public spectacles. Other well-preserved arenas besides the Colosseum and the Arena of Verona which can be visited today include Arles, Burnum, Capua, El Djem, Frejus, Nimes, Leptis Magna, Pergamon, Pompeii, Pula, Salona, Tarragona, and Uthina.

If there was one thing the Roman people loved it was spectacle & the chance to see the weird & wonderful shows which assaulted the senses & ratcheted up the emotions.

The Events

If there was one thing the Roman people loved it was spectacle and the chance to escape reality for a few hours and gawk at the weird and wonderful public shows which assaulted the senses and ratcheted up the emotions. Roman rulers knew this well, and so to increase their popularity and prestige with the people, they put on lavish and truly spectacular shows, which cost fortunes and lasted all day for several days. The whole live entertainment industry thus became a huge source of employment, from horse trainers to animal trappers, musicians to sand rakers.

To modern eyes, the bloody spectacles put on by the Romans can cause revulsion, but perhaps we should consider that the sometimes shocking events of these spectacles were a form of escapism, just as cinema and computer games are today, rather than representative of social norms and barometers of accepted behaviour in the Roman world. Perhaps the shockingly different world of Roman spectacle, in fact, helped reinforce social norms rather than acted as a subversion of them.

Emperor Augustus established rules so that slaves and free persons, children and adults, rich and poor, soldiers and civilians, single and married men were all seated separately, as were men from women. Naturally, the front row with more comfortable seats in amphitheatres was reserved for the local senatorial class. Tickets were probably free to most forms of spectacle, as organisers, whether city magistrates given the responsibility of providing public civic events, super-rich citizens, or the emperors who would later monopolise control of spectacles, were all keen to display their generosity rather than use the events as a source of revenue.
Gladiator Fights
In the bloody events of the arena, none came more graphic than the one-on-one gladiator fights. Qualities such as courage, fear, technical skill, celebrity, and, of course, life and death itself, engaged audiences like no other entertainment, and no doubt one of the great appeals of gladiator events, as with modern professional sport, was the potential for upsets and underdogs to win the day.

In Rome, city magistrates had to put on a gladiator show ( munera) as the price for winning office, and cities across the empire offered to host local contests to show their solidarity with the ways of Rome and to celebrate notable events such as an imperial visit or an emperor's birthday. Gladiator fights became hugely popular, and those who went on a winning streak became living legends, darlings of the crowds who even had their own fan clubs.
Wild Animal Hunts
Besides gladiator contests, Roman arenas hosted events using exotic animals ( venationes) captured from far-flung parts of the empire such as rhinos, panthers, and giraffes. These were made to fight each other or humans. Animals were frequently chained together, often a duo of carnivore and herbivore, and cajoled into fighting each other by the animal handlers ( bestiarii). Certain animals acquired names and gained fame in their own right as did their human 'hunters' ( venatores). During these events, the underground mechanisms were employed to have animals appear unexpectedly in the arena, which was often landscaped with rocks and trees to resemble exotic locations and heighten the realism.
Mock Naval Battles
Shows in the arena often accompanied the lavish festivities held during a Roman triumph, and one of the most popular events was to audaciously restage real naval battles ( naumachiae), naturally, in as lifelike and deadly fashion as possible. Julius Caesar commemorated the Alexandrian war by staging a huge battle between Egyptian and Phoenician ships while Augustus staged one to celebrate his victory over Mark Anthony at Actium. Nero went one better and flooded an entire amphitheatre to host his naval battle show. These events became so popular the later emperors did not need the excuse of a military victory to wow the public with epic mythologically-themed sea battles. The manoeuvres and choreography of these events were invented but the fighting was real, and so condemned prisoners and prisoners of war gave their lives to achieve ultimate realism for the baying crowd.
Public Executions
Arenas also hosted the execution of criminals - usually during the lunchtime lull - which was achieved in imaginatively gruesome ways like setting wild animals on the condemned ( damnatio ad bestias) or making them fight well-armed and well-trained gladiators or even each other. Other more theatrical methods included burning at the stake or crucifixion, often with the prisoner dressed up as a character from mythology to give a little extra colour to the occasion. The spectators were not passive viewers as sometimes an execution was cancelled if the crowd demanded it.

Decline & Reuse

Eventually, gladiator contests, at odds with the new Christian-minded Empire, declined under the later emperors and finally came to an end in 404 CE. The spectacle of criminals fighting animals went on for another century, but gradually the amphitheatres crumbled into disuse and suffered varying degrees of reuse and abuse. The tale of the Colosseum is a common fate: made into a fortress in the 12th century CE, damaged by an earthquake in the 13th century CE, and used as a public quarry by Pope Alexander VI. Still, the Colosseum and many other surviving Roman arenas remain today magnificent monuments and enduring testimony to both the skills and the vices of the Roman world. Many amphitheatres are actually still in use and still host large crowds for all manner of cultural events such as the world-famous summer opera season in Verona, mock gladiator fights in Tarragona, and rock concerts at Arles.

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An amphitheatre was a structure built throughout the Roman empire where ordinary people could watch such spectacles as gladiator games, mock naval battles, wild animal hunts, and public executions. Usually oval in form, the largest examples could seat tens of thousands of people, and they became a focal point of Roman society and the lucrative entertainment business.

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81 - 96 C.E. Construction of the Colosseum in Rome is completed

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81 - 96 C.E. Construction of the Colosseum in Rome is completed

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This was probably the greatest building the romans have ever built. This was known to be the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built. The construction begun under the reign of Vespasian in 72 C.E. The area where the Colosseum was built was originally Emperor Nero's Golden House. The colosseum was begun by Vespasian to restore Rome's glory. The construction of the colosseum was continued by Titus, Vespasian's son. Then finished in the reign of the other son Domitian.

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Table of Contents

1. Origins of the Colosseum

2. Building of the&nbsp;Colosseum&nbsp;

3. The Colosseum: A Grand Amphitheater

4. The Colosseum Over the Centuries

Located just east of the Roman Forum, the massive stone amphitheater known as the Colosseum was commissioned around A.D. 70-72 by Emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty as a gift to the Roman people. In A.D. 80, Vespasian's son Titus opened the Colosseum-officially known as the Flavian Amphitheater-with 100 days of games, including gladiatorial combats and wild animal fights. After four centuries of active use, the magnificent arena fell into neglect, and up until the 18th century it was used as a source of building materials. Though two-thirds of the original Colosseum has been destroyed over time, the amphitheater remains a popular tourist destination, as well as an iconic symbol of Rome and its long, tumultuous history.

Origins of the Colosseum

Even after the decadent Roman emperor Nero took his own life in A.D. 68, his misrule and excesses fueled a series of civil wars. No fewer than four emperors took the throne in the tumultuous year after Nero's death; the fourth, Vespasian, would end up ruling for 10 years (A.D. 69-79). The Flavian emperors, as Vespasian and his sons Titus (79-81) and Domitian (81-96) were known, attempted to tone down the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare.

Around 70-72, Vespasian returned to the Roman people the lush land near the center of the city, where Nero had built an enormous palace for himself after a great fire ripped through Rome in A.D. 64. On the site of that Golden Palace, he decreed, would be built a new amphitheater where the public could enjoy gladiatorial combats and other forms of entertainment.

Did you know? Archaeologists believe that the Colosseum contained both drinking fountains and latrines.

Building of the Colosseum

After nearly a decade of construction-a relatively quick time period for a project of such a grand scale-Titus officially dedicated the Colosseum in A.D. 80 with a festival including 100 days of games. A well-loved ruler, Titus had earned his people's devotion with his handling of recovery efforts after the infamous eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The final stages of construction of the Colosseum were completed under the reign of Titus' brother and successor, Domitian.

The Colosseum: A Grand Amphitheater

Measuring some 620 by 513 feet (190 by 155 meters), the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in the Roman world. Unlike many earlier amphitheaters, which had been dug into hillsides to provide adequate support, the Colosseum was a freestanding structure made of stone and concrete. The distinctive exterior had three stories of arched entrances-a total of around 80-supported by semi-circular columns. Each story contained columns of a different order (or style): At the bottom were columns of the relatively simple Doric order, followed by Ionic and topped by the ornate Corinthian order. Located just near the main entrance to the Colosseum was the Arch of Constantine, built in A.D. 315 in honor of Constantine I's victory over Maxentius at Pons Milvius.

Inside, the Colosseum had seating for more than 50,000 spectators, who may have been arranged according to social ranking but were most likely packed into the space like sardines in a can (judging by evidence from the seating at other Roman amphitheaters). Awnings were unfurled from the top story in order to protect the audience from the hot Roman sun as they watched gladiatorial combats, hunts, wild animal fights and possibly even larger combats such as mock naval engagements (for which the arena was said to be flooded with water) put on at great expense. The vast majority of the combatants who fought in front of Colosseum audiences in Ancient Rome were men (though there were some female gladiators). Gladiators were generally enslaved peoples, condemned criminals or prisoners of war.

The Colosseum Over the Centuries

The Colosseum saw some four centuries of active use, until the struggles of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual change in public tastes put an end to gladiatorial combats and other large public entertainments by the 6th century A.D. Even by that time, the arena had suffered damaged due to natural phenomena such as lightning and earthquakes.

In the centuries to come, the Colosseum was abandoned completely, and used as a quarry for numerous building projects, including the cathedrals of St. Peter and St. John Lateran, the Palazzo Venezia and defense fortifications along the Tiber River. Beginning in the 18th century, however, various popes sought to conserve the arena as a sacred Christian site, though it is in fact uncertain whether early Christian martyrs met their fate in the Colosseum, as has been speculated.

By the 20th century, a combination of weather, natural disasters, neglect and vandalism had destroyed nearly two-thirds of the original Colosseum, including all of the arena's marble seats and its decorative elements. Restoration efforts began in the 1990s, and have proceeded over the years, as the Colosseum continues to be a leading attraction for tourists from all over the world.

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Colosseum - Dates, Facts & Location | HISTORY

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Built in 70 A.D., Rome's Colosseum has been the site of celebrations, sporting events and bloodshed. Today, the amphitheater is a major tourist attraction, playing host to 3.9 million visitors each year.

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Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia Foundation, 2020.

https://www.ancient.eu/.

Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/.

History. A&E Television Networks, 2020. https://www.history.com/.