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Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī develops a theory of evolution with organisms gaining differences through adapting to their environments. He suggests that organisms which gain beneficial new features quicker have advantages over others and are more variable.

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Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), develops the modern hierarchical classification system.

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James Burnett, Lord Monboddo (1767-1792) suggests that humans descended from primates and that creatures can transform their characteristics in response to the environment over long time intervals.

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The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits.

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Gregor Mendel publishes Experiments in Plant Hybridisation, establishing some basic laws of the genetic inheritance of discrete traits. Mendel’s paper remained obscure for about 35 years, but in 1900 it was rediscovered.

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James Mark Baldwin

suggests that adaptation can arise and evolve from plasticity without invoking inheritance of acquired characters.  A concept later known as the Baldwin Effect.

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Ernst Mayr

Ernst Mayr publishes Systematics and the Origin of Species in which he presents his influential ‘biological species concept’.

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Mary Jane West-Eberhard publishes Developmental Plasticity and Evolution, which focuses on the role of environmentally generated variation in evolution and speciation.