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It can be concluded that the Caribbean identity has been shaped by any factors, some of which have been discussed in this padlet. Individual identities, as well as that of groups, have also been shaped by these factors. The Caribbean Identity, as well as the identity of Caribbean people, as individuals and as groups, continue to be molded today.
We are divided by water, however we are together by culture, this notion should be further advertised and spread throughout the Caribbean. As only then we can truly come together.

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Caribbean Civilization is truly a revisionist course; it allows an individual to take a look at the history of the region, through new lenses, with a different perspective. Through which an individual gains a better understanding and appreciation for the Caribbean. As a Caribbean national, I can vouch that this course has exceeded my expectations and has opened my eyes to many new perspectives, ideas and concepts.

The course was delivered via an online medium this semester, and provided an opportunity for students across all campuses to interact. It also accommodated those who could not make it to a physical space to meet for class, for both lecture and tutorials, as there were online tutorials provided.

As a final year student, on the brink of graduating, this course was quite refreshing, as it was not the traditional classroom setting, and was rather interesting. The way the course was delivered was far from boring, both lectures and tutorials were rather informative and fun. The one on one at tutorials were appreciated, it added further to what was thought during the lectures.

As a former high school history student, the course held my attention all the way through. History was a course in high school that I really took an interest in, even though when I took it, it was not for academic reasons and just for personal interest. I felt as though I connected with the course. Caribbean Civilization was an amazing experience, even though I did believe the rumors of it being a History course, that further amplified my interest in the course.

The course has shaped me in becoming a better student, citizen, woman and member of the Caribbean. I have learnt to appreciate our past as Caribbean people, as it has shaped us to be who we are today. It also displays consequences and results for actions we have taken, as well as taken us through a journey of introspection.

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The phrase 'Caribbean Identity' does not have a set definition, and when attempting to define it, one may encounter a few problems.  One’s history is vital in the formation of one’s sense of identity. Per Hoare (2002), identity refers to a sense of who one is as a person and as a contributor to society. Per Erik Erikson (1968), identity provides one with a sense of well-being, a sense of being at home in one’s body, a sense of direction in one’s life and a sense of mattering to those who count. Thus, one’s past provides insight necessary to answer the question, ‘Who are you?’. Apart from this, it provides a guide to actions and understandings, as well as, it provides a sense of familiarity with the past; one’s origins and roots.

The Caribbean region, is defined by its unique, similar history. Thus, in order to understand the Caribbean Identity, one must understand, the history of the Caribbean, and how these events influenced the formation of the Caribbean Identity.  The major factors that influence the formation of the Caribbean Identity are cultural, and ethnic diversity. The formation of the Caribbean Identity is also based on the acceptance of the Caribbean as one, as a national community. This is done by the first stage of group development known as forming. The focus here is on the similarities with each other, for example, religion is a commonality, which can promote bonding and coming together through shared ideas and views. This allows for the formation of the Caribbean identity and national community.

As Caribbean people, through the process socialization,  use the various agents and institution to organization themselves, these institutions allow for individual and group identity formation. On an individual level, Caribbean people go through double consciousness. This is a concept introduced by W.E.B. Du Bois, in his book The Souls of the Black Folk (1903), which says that an individual feels that they have more than one social identity, which makes it difficult to develop a sense of self.  The relates to Caribbean people, because they come from such large varied diasporas. For example, East Indians in the Caribbean (West Indian), do they identity with their 'motherland' India, or the Caribbean country in which they reside. Simply, Caribbean people who migrate to the United States of America, do they identity as Caribbean or American.

Each of the areas discussed in these posts, have contributed in some way to the formation of the Caribbean Identity today.  Firstly, the native population, some although extinct, have existing today their religion, artifacts, and some descendants, that still practice their culture, which is passed from one generation to the next. Even the Europeans have contributed to the development of the Caribbean Identity, in terms of the culture, in areas like politics. Major contribution present today were made by the Africans, who came from different tribes, mainly form West Africa, the Indians and the Chinese. The institutions of slavery and immigration have left a legacy that contribute to Caribbean Identity.

In terms of agriculture, food, religion, festivals, language, sports, dance, culture, music, innovation, achievements, folklore, traditions and simply the way of life, these are the ways in which these institutions have contributed to the Caribbean identity formation. Caribbean people identify with each other within and outside of these areas, despite differences in location and ethnicity. Many of these traditions and culture are observed today and have been carried on through the years.  All of these historical events is what makes the Caribbean, the Caribbean, it allows for a sense of identity.

Despite, the fact that some may argue that Caribbean people are different from each other, and these differences hold more weight in the argument against the reality of a Caribbean Identity, a Caribbean Identity does exist.

Divided by water, together by Culture. August 6th, 2012.

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It is rightly said that it only takes a spark to get a fire going, and that is what happened, to end the vile system of slavery. Along with the sparks of the Haitian Revolution (which started due to the French Revolution), the fire for freedom flamed along with British anti-slavery, humanitarian movements, slavery came to an end. It would later be postulated by individuals, such as Dr. Eric Williams, that slavery was no longer profitable for the British, thus slavery and slave trade came to an end, not due to humanitarian efforts.

Caribbean enslavement, came to an end, finally, in 1838. Britain was now in a predicament, as the need for labour on the plantation was at an all time high, and plantation owners were experiencing a labour shortage. Despite the various by the planters to tie the newly freed Africans to the plantation, they were unsuccessful.

Born out of this was the solution of immigrant labour. According to Look Lai (1993), between 1830s and 1917, in the West Indies, there were 536, 310 immigrants. Immigrants came from places such as the United States of America, Africa, Europe, China and India.

This post will focus on Indian Indentureship in the Caribbean. Recruits were sought by 'travelling agents', who were crown officers, responsible for recruit selection and ensuring all relevant paperwork were filled out and recruits understood the terms of the agreement they were stepping into. Furthermore, a' Protector of Emigrants' was appointed by the Governor General of India, to ensure ships were up to standard to transport the immigrants and the immigrants were embarking on this journey of their own free will.

According to Weller (1968), after a local magistrate was convinced that recruits were voluntarily entering into and fully understood this contract, particulars were filled, a medical examination was done to ensure the recruits were fit and then they were sent to the depot to wait. At the depot they were clothed, fed, and housed until their departure to the Caribbean.

A total of 429,623 Indian immigrants migrated to the Caribbean between 1838-1917, making them one of the largest groups of immigrants. The Immigration Ordinance of 1854, documented the main terms of the indentureship scheme.  Upon their arrival into the colonies immigrants were almost immediately exiled to the estates.  They were entitled to a return passage, if they wanted, after the completion of 10 years residence , half of which must be indentured. Planters through various legal means, tried to restrict the movements of these East Indian immigrants. They had to carry an official pass to leave the plantation and immigrants who completed half of their time they had to serve, had to carry around documents to prove they were actually free.

Immigrants' wages ranged from an all time low, in some territories, of 6p, to 25c per day, the cost of rations for food were deduction from their wages.  Higher wages could not be demanded. Living conditions of these labourers, were very similar to that of the previously enslaved, no or little improvements were made to the accommodations for the immigrants. They were prone to disease and little medical attention were allotted to them, also, water was inadequately supplied and their was very little privacy

It can be seen from this that planters did not see a difference in the labour supply, they were simply looking for a replacement. Although, measures and terms of the agreement were different from that of the institution of slavery, immigrants were unfairly treated. These systems of immigrant labour, further contributed to demographic diversity in the Caribbean, and ultimately, to the Caribbean's identity today

Group of Indentured labourers, 1890

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Encomienda is a word of Spanish origin meaning "commission." It denotes a system that was utilised by the Spanish in the New World to reward her conquistadors (those who voyaged). These conquistadors were presented as a reward, lands occupied by the natives, whom they had conquered. The natives then became encomendado (meaning "commended" or "entrusted") and were expected to pay tribute and to work in the fields or mines for them. The encomienda system came close to slavery and proved to be disastrous to the natives and led to the dislocation of the political organization and the social dismemberment of the  natives. Mistreated by their supposed protectors and exposed to European diseases (such as smallpox, and measles) to which they had no immunity, the Indians died in large numbers. As the population declined the Spanish government made regulations to do away with the system.

After the encomienda system, came the more intense, inhumane, system of enslavement, introduced by the Portuguese and then followed by the other European nations.  The West African Chiefs traded their people for goods, however, they were not clear as to the characteristics of chattel slavery. As slavery existed in Africa but in the domestic form, thus traders thought that these enslaved were being sold into that type of slavery. They were unaware of the horrors that awaited them in the New World. However, their main concern for traders were increase in economic and political power. Ships were overcrowded, enslaved experienced many problems, such as diseases for which they were not immune to, punishments and deplorable living conditions. During the middle passage, many enslaved died, some due to the miseries they experienced, and others committed suicide. Those who survived were then, shaved, oiled and auction on the shores of the colonies.

Advertisements like those below were published, to bring in buyers to these auctions. Enslaved Africans were treated like property, were overworked and severely punished, to say the least. They had no rights before law and many atrocities could be done to them without any protest. Often they would run away from plantations, in order to escape. However, some owners would proclaim them dead and collect compensation for their loss of property. Thus there was little care for their lives, as the trade flourished without hindrance, there was an endless supply of enslaved people. The reality of the enslavement, specifically on sugar plantations, in the Caribbean, in places like Barbados and Jamaica, was total mental and physical destruction. There was social de-personification of the enslaved; they were made to feel less than human. However, total de-personification of the enslaved did not occur. Thankfully, they were not totally dominated and rebelled and revolted against the atrocities happening to them, and were helped by many humanitarian groups and were freed.

Georgia Gazette, 1764

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Europe's interest in the Caribbean (New World) peaked in the later half of the 15th century, as a result of the Renaissance as well as developing trades routes to Asia. The nations interested in exploration, were known as seafaring nations, such as Portugal, France, England, Spain and the Netherlands. The rationale behind these voyages were two fold; religious (the spread of Christianity) and because of the nautical devices, such as astrolobes, maps, compasses, and telescopes, that were born out of the Renaissance. The motivating factors behind these voyages were the 3 Gs; God, Gold and Glory. There are a few theories in support of the expansion to the new world, such bullionism, mercantilism and colonialism, which are linked to these motives.

Bullionism is the belief that the amount of Gold owned by a nation, determined its level of wealth. Thus, it was beneficial to these nations to acquire vasts amounts of Gold. These voyages, aided these nation in their search for Gold, to add to the wealth of theses nations. Thus, allowing for future voyages, as well as bragging rights, glory, prestige, strength and prosperity over other nations. This would also open up much valued trade routes and international trade between nations and place nations in a favourable trading position. However, nations who fail to acquire bullion, would run the risk of low wealth, no glory, and the chance for other nations to acquire the bullion.

Spices were also as valuable as gold to these nations, they were used for multiple reason, such as medicinal, culinary and hygienic. Spices were found in islands of the Caribbean. Essentially, when explorers landed on an island, the island would be claimed for their nation, for example, Columbus' proclamation of Hispaniola as Spanish.
Mercantilism was a major economic theory in Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries, it is a set of economic ideas about how a country can get rich. There are four basic rules of mercantilism. Firstly, a country becomes rich and powerful by collecting as much precious metals as possible (bullionism). Secondly, by increasing the number of colonies it has. Thirdly, raw materials would come from these colonies, while the mother country would produce the final good, which was more valuable. Lastly, by exporting more than importing. All of these rules, increased gold and glory for these nations.

Colonialism facilitated the wealth in European nations. The more colonies possessed, the more wealthy the nation would be; it would prosper. More colonies meant more gold and increased varied raw material. For example, in the English colonies of St. Kitts and Barbados, there were raw materials such as tobacco and cotton, and the Spanish had cocoa in Trinidad. To work in the colonies the other countries needed labour, preferably cheap. Under the Spanish there was the encomienda and then came enslavement under the Portuguese (which will be further discussed in another entry)

Out of colonialism, the Triangular Trade was born.
Ships, known as slavers, left Britain, to West Africa carrying products like cloth, guns, ironware and alcohol. On the coast of West African, these products would then be exchanged for men, women and children who had been captured by slave traders or bought from African chiefs, to be sent to the Caribbean as slaves. Note that slavery was existent in Africa, however it did not take the form of chattel slavery and was not as cruel and inhumane.
These enslaved Africans would be packed 'like books on a shelf', on these ships, to make their way to the New World. The journey to the New World from West Africa was known as the middle passage, and was a very horrific experience, where many enslaved died and even committed suicide.
Upon the shores if the New World, they were oiled and made to look well and auctioned as property to plantation owners. Raw materials were taken back to England and the journey would begin again. This trade facilitated the diversity that was taking place in the Caribbean, namely in terms of ethnic and cultural diversity. Demographic diversity; cultural and ethnic diversity, are core ideas in the course Caribbean Civilization, and pertinent to the formation of the Caribbean Identity.

The Triangular Slave Trade, 2009.

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The Triangular Trade: The Abolition of Slavery Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Apr. 2017.

Ayubu, Kani Saburi. "They Came Before Columbus by Dr. Ivan Van Sertima." Black Art Depot Today. N.p., 17 Oct. 2009. Web. 18 Apr. 2017.

Chenqu, Garikai. "Before Columbus: How Africans Brought Civilization to America." Global Research. N.p., 30 Dec. 2015. Web. 17 Apr. 2018.

Columbus, Christopher, Antonio Nebrija, Gonzolo Oviedo, Girolamo Benzoni, and Justin Kerr. "Exploring the Early AmericasColumbus and the Taíno." Columbus and the Taíno - Exploring the Early Americas | Exhibitions - Library of Congress. N.p., 12 Dec. 2007. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

Deighton Gooden, Teacher at Vere Technical High School Follow. "Location Of The Caribbean 6th Form."
LinkedIn SlideShare. N.p., 05 Jan. 2010. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

Deighton Gooden, Teacher at Vere Technical High School Follow. "Definitions of the caribbean." LinkedIn SlideShare. N.p., 31 Oct. 2010. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

"Encomienda." Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic History. Encyclopedia.com, 2000. Web. 18 Apr. 2017.

CoriSquire. "Geological Definition Of The Caribbean." Geological definition of the Caribbean Flashcards - Cram.com. N.p., 01 Feb. 2015. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

"Indian Indentureship." Guyana Times International The Beacon of Truth. N.p., 10 May 2013. Web. 19 Apr. 2017.

Knight, Jamion. "Caribbean Identity and Culture." Scribd. Scribd, n.d. Web. 19 Apr. 2017.

"Leeward Islands Map - Windward Islands Map - Satellite Image." Geology. N.p., 2008. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

Leigh, Devin. "Review of Capitalism and Slavery by Eric Williams." The Lakefront Historian. N.p., 27 Mar. 2016. Web. 19 Apr. 2017.

"Lesser and Greater Antilles / Windward and Leeward Islands - What is What?" Caribbean Travel Blog | RumShopRyan. N.p., 16 Feb. 2010. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

"North America." World Atlas - Maps, Geography, travel. N.p., 19 Sept. 2016. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

Sertima, Ivan Van. They came before Columbus: the African presence in ancient America. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2003. PDF.

"THE BLACK PRESENCE IN AMERICA BEFORE COLUMBUS." Noirg.org. N.p., 14 Mar. 2017. Web. 18 Apr. 2017.

Vargas, Hugo. " The Encomienda in the Caribbean Islands." CARIBBEAN: The Encomienda in the Caribbean Islands. N.p., 23 Aug. 2013. Web. 18 Apr. 2017.

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The Caribbean region has multiple definitions. It can be defined geologically, geographically, historically, and politically,  and can be subdivided into the Greater and Lesser Antilles; as well as the Leeward and Windward Islands.

The geological definition describes the Caribbean in terms of tectonic activity, and is not widely used. The Caribbean falls between the North and South American and the Coco Plates. The defining feature here is the Caribbean plate, which has marked boundaries where it meets other plates. Much of the Caribbean region lies on the Caribbean plate.

The geographic definition of the Caribbean, is often characterized by the Caribbean Basin and is defined as the area washed by the Caribbean Sea. It includes most of the islands of the Lesser and Greater Antilles, as well as the mainland territories of Central America and Northern South America, such as Venezuela and Columbia.
The Greater Antilles are the four largest islands in the northwestern portion of the Caribbean Sea and consist of Cuba, Haiti/Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Jamaica. The Lesser Antilles include the smaller islands of the Caribbean and are divided up into the Windward Islands and Leeward Islands. The Lesser Antilles chain starts in the Virgin Islands and wraps the eastern Caribbean all the way down to Trinidad and Tobago.
The Windward Islands are located on the eastern edge of the Caribbean Sea and form the southeastern boundary between the Caribbean and the Atlantic Ocean. The Windward group includes the islands of Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada. Some geographers include Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago in the Windward Islands.
The Leeward Antilles is a chain of islands in the southern Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela. They include Aruba, Curacao, Bonaire, Isla la Tortuga and Isla la Margarita.

Historically, the Caribbean is defined as the area that saw the impact of European colonization, slavery, indentureship and the plantation system. The common feature in this definition is a shared historical or cultural experience.

Lastly, politically, the Caribbean is defined by three main government systems; Independent States (former colonies, now self governing), Associated States (not independent, but bask in the rights and privileges of the governing minutes) and Colonial Dependencies (governed directly by others but do not enjoy the rights and privileges).

Within this course Caribbean Civilization, the historical focus is narrowed to place special emphasis on the Caribbean. Thus, a historical definition is best suited when looking at the Caribbean and when discussing The Creation of the Caribbean Identity. It also utilizes at time the geographical definition.

"North America." World Atlas - Maps, Geography, travel. N.p., 19 Sept. 2016.

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FOUN 1101- Caribbean Civilization, is not, according to many rumors, a history course. It is in fact, an integrative, revisionist course, looking at an overview of a large historical period, relating to Caribbean people.

When the Caribbean comes to mind, its inception often starts for many at 1492, when Christopher Columbus ‘discovered’ the Caribbean. However, the Caribbean was pre-existing before 1492, but many are unaware of its history.  The history made available to individuals is often from a certain perspective, an Euro-centric perspective, which does not truly represent the Caribbean, or it's people. Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging another's culture or way of life by the standards of one's own. Which often results in the belief by people, that their way of life is superior over other groups. Similarly, Caribbean history, when told, is often affected by ethnocentrism. The Caribbean has its own unique history, which in turn shapes its identity, and the identity of its people, who identify as Caribbean. This padlet, aims to bring awareness of Caribbean history pre-Columbus  and post-Columbus, as well as, how this led to The Creation of the Caribbean Identity.

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As previously mentioned, when Columbus arrived in the Caribbean (The Americas) in 1492, he was greeted by a group inhabitants known as the Neo-Indians, namely the Tainos. History of these people, come mainly from the Spanish, as they were first to record and interpret these native people. However, these records, that we rely on are biased, by ethnocentrism and androcentric (of a viewpoint grounded in a male perspective).  Neo-Indians had fully operational societies, and their villages were rationally established, with ease access to a water source and flat fertile land for agriculture. The first peoples can be categorized as the following: the Paleo-Indians, Meso-Indians, and Neo-Indians.

The Paleo-Indians
Historians acknowledge, that the Caribbean region, had two main settlement patterns, that started at differing times and places. The first of which were the Paleo-Indians, arriving to the region approximately 5,000 B.C. from South and Central America. These Paleo-Indians, settled by the seaside, and were heavily dependent on tools made from stones and shells. They, however, had very limited knowledge on pottery and survived on wild berries, fishing and hunting.

The Meso-Indians
Following the Paleo-Indians, approximately, 500 B.C. were another group of natives known as the Meso-Indians. When compared to the Paleo-Indians, they were more skilled in the areas of pottery and tools making, and their settlements were not constricted to the seaside. They first settled in Trinidad and gradually headed north, up into the Greater Antilles. They arrived from South America, and though small in numbers were existent until the arrival of the Spanish, when they disappeared.

The Neo-Indians
When compared to previous groups, the Neo-Indians' diet was more varied, as they engaged in agricultural cultivation and their settlement patterns were more dominant. They were further subdivided into Salodoid or Salodoid-Barroncoid people, with two distinctly different styles of pottery. As they were more dominant, they contributed and influenced the Caribbean, as a whole and in term of culture and identity, before the arrival of Columbus.

However, apart from the native people, there is evidence to suggest that other groups were present in the Caribbean before the arrival of the Spanish in 1492. One such group were the Africans. Dr. Ivan Van Sertima, in his book, They Came before Columbus, deals with and introduces numerous artifacts and evidence of the presence of Africans in the Caribbean, before the coming of Columbus. Additionally it gives evidence of the interaction between the natives and Africans, both physical and cultural. One such artifact, is the Olmec heads found in the Caribbean, namely Mexico. The Olmec civilization, of African origin and dominated by Africans, was found in Mesoamerica and the Mother Culture of Mexico. These heads gave solid indisputable evidence of the presence of African people in the Caribbean. These heads, possessed distinguishing features, synonymous to the appearance of African Negroid.

Van Sertima posited that the Olmecs were the first Mesoamerican civilization to use a written language, sophisticated astronomy, arts and mathematics and their cities greatly influenced the Mayans and subsequent civilizations in the Americas. Michael Coe, once said, that “There is not the slightest doubt that all later civilizations in [Mexico and Central America], rest ultimately on an Olmec base”.  Further evidence to this can e found in the writings of Columbus, and other explorers, where they described meeting people of African Negroid appearance, when they arrived, or even asking the natives about these people.

Thus, giving adequate irrefutable evidence of African presence in the Caribbean before the coming of Columbus, as well as, evidence that the Spanish were not the first to sail to the Americas. Caribbean Civilization gives a holistic approach to the history of the Caribbean, thus includes the Natives, as well as those who ventured before the coming of Columbus.

1940 excavation of a thousand-year-old Olmec site near Veracruz

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"Pre-history" refers to the period in the past before written history began. The past, is learnt through the work of historians; through their knowledge, developments, discoveries, and ever updating work, where the past is brought to the present, for the understanding of all. However, is not ALL history valid?  whether written or not? then why the term "pre-history"?  There are many people that believe in pre-history, however, that is exactly what it is a belief.

What is a civilization? Who is civilized? What is a civilized society, uncivilized society, developing and advanced society? Where does the Caribbean fall in this?

In this course, Caribbean Civilization, the understanding of the term civilization is very important. Generally, the least powerful groups in history are often neglected, when speaking about civilization. A civilization, in its simplest form, can be defined as the society, culture and way of life of an area. The definition of civilization has been modified to encompass many aspects, however one thing remains constant, which is the lenses through which civilization is defined.  Being civilized or uncivilized (barbaric) is a matter of perspective. Ultimately, in eyes of other we can be both civilized and uncivilized, developing and advanced, it is all about who is doing the labelling.

Archaeologist, V. Gordon Childe (1936) in his book Man Makes Himself, identified several elements which he believed were essential for a civilization to exist, which included, human achievements, such as the plow, sailing ships, and so on. Additionally, archaeologist and anthropologist Robert M. Adams, defined a civilization as a society with functionally interrelated sets of social institutions: class stratification based on the ownership and control of production, political and religious hierarchies complementing each other in the central administration of territoriality organized states and lastly, a complex division of labour, with skilled workers, soldiers and officials existing alongside the great mass of peasant producers.

This shows, that the definition of a civilization is a matter of perspective. The Caribbean is often described as uncivilized and developing. Christopher Columbus upon his arrival and interaction with the Neo-Indians, described them as uncivilized and barbaric. However, this was in comparison to the European standards of what civilization is deemed to be. From the definitions, above, the Neo-Indians can in fact be described as civilized. As in the region there were at least 2,000 indigenous languages, a vast amount of various social and cultural models, ranging from simple to very advanced. Groups such as the Aztecs, the Mayas and the Incas, as well as the Neo Indians, had a developed way of life, with religious, societal, economic and political models.

An example (evidence) of ‘civilization’ in the Caribbean, before the arrival of Columbus, is a duho. A duho is a wooden seat, found in Taino civilization, usually occupied by a Taino chief.  The Taino were one of native peoples of the Caribbean. The Taino generally lived in the northern islands including Cuba, Jamaica and the Bahamas, they were farmers who lived in highly-organised societies, divided into nobles and commoners. Thus, providing evidence that, the Neo-Indians, and in turn the Caribbean are civilizations, and should be described as such, and not referred to as uncivilized.

Ceremonial wooden stool ("Duho"). Haiti.Taíno, AD 1000–1500. Carved lignum vitae. Jay I. Kislak Collection, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (054.00.00). ©Justin Kerr, Kerr Associates