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Roman army battled when it had to, but was often more of a guarding, occupying force (Isaac 1990). Christian vulnerability to Roman attacks ended with Constantine, who "converted" religions. The redistribution of imperial power coupled with military reform did much to extend the life of an increasingly uncontrollable empire, but in the end it foundered. The new capital of Rome, Constantinople, remained intact with Constantine's foundation until it fell in AD 1453 to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet. A key element in the transformation of the Roman World involved the 7th-century AD Islamic incursions into the Mediterranean region, ultimately monumentalized in the Moorish architecture of southern Spain.

Human cultural development:
Social inequality was very strong with the act of harming those who didn't follow certain religion. Under Roman rule, the Mediterranean was never categorized in a single, uniform culture and never by a single language. While beneficial in growth and popularity, it proved to be difficult to control which led to it's eventual demise.

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
514-516

Picture:
http://cdn3.historyextra.com/sites/default/files/imagecache/623px_wide/NYH%20149366.jpg

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Rome grew on the river of Tiber that ran to the Mediterranean port Ostia; and centered around seven hills that provided protection from external threats, such as pirates. One of the most enduring symbols of authority in Rome, known as fasces, or in modern terms as "fascism". The community of Rome expanded through a series of wars and friendly annexations and alliances (Cornell 1995). Gradually a mosaic of peoples- such as Italic tribes, Etruscan city-states, Greek colonies- came under Roman control. Roman values and honors were rewarded through political and social authority as well as extreme wealth that highly appreciated.

Human cultural development:
Apart from processes of outright conquest or annexation,the Mediterranean region was alos bound together by links of colonization, trade and exchange, religious diffusion, and artistic influence. Statuses were evident and cultural traditions rose during this time. Wealth was greatly valued with fueled inequality.

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
503-505

Picture:
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-WzWC1vPfCmU/Tvu1W3wrCrI/AAAAAAAAAFQ/Lgk3aydDrqY/s1600/b-404576-Roman_Empire.gif

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Carthage Carthaginian Empire:  330-146 BC

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Carthage Carthaginian Empire:  330-146 BC

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Carthage is a Phoenician colony that brought many aspects of Levantine practice to North Africa, the gods of the city included Baal Hammon, Melkart, Astarte, and Tanit; deities honored in some cases by the ritual of child sacrifice. Carthaginians were known to be different by Rome due to their different, even barbaric, in religious practices. The agriculture supporting the capital was very fertile and Carthaginian exports included carpets, purple dyes, jewelry, timber, and hides. Increasing tension between Roman territory and Carthaginian territory resulted in Punic Wars that raged in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. Entire populations slaughtered or enslaved, buildings razed, vast majority of records destroyed, and the territory being converted into the new province of Africa.

Human cultural development:
The rise of war played major role in the lives of individuals living during this time. Evidence of maritime orientation has been discovered, one for commerce, one for warships; proof that late technology was being built on and improving drastically. Imports came from all over the Mediterranean, and influences of Egypt and Greece showed in the city's artistic and architectural styles.

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
503

Picture:
http://www.livius.org/site/assets/files/16189/carthage_ivory_sphinx_bm.664x0-is-pid1225.jpg

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By the middle of the 1st millennium BC, the peninsula of Italy was composted of roughly three mosaic local cultures; The Greek colonies, lying chiefly to the south; the Etruscan cities of west-central Italy, north of Rome; and an assemblage of Italic people, such as the Samnites and the Umbrians. The Etruscan's can be labeled mysterious over debates on their origins, language, and lack of their own written histories; some 10,000 Etruscan documents survive but remain difficult to fully translate. The region of Etruria, known geologically as "Erturia Mineraria", possesses an abundance of metal ores, notably copper and iron, as well as other mineral resources. Systematic mining of metalliferous sulphides began in Etruscan times, a network of narrow and cramped shafts has been traced. Etruscan tomb paintings, with bright and vivid colors, are justly famous, especially those at the cemetery of Tarquinia.

Human cultural development:
Little is known of the Etruscan's political and religious views, making it difficult to decipher the culture entirely. A discovery of a history rich in minerals and precious metals introduces the the methods of mining used to extract certain resources.

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
491-493

Picture:
http://i1-news.softpedia-static.com/images/news2/Where-Did-the-Etruscans-Come-2.jpg

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The Phoenicians were principally based along the coast of modern Lebanon; many of the movement of peoples, goods, and ideas developed was paralleled by the activity of the Phoenicians. It has been acknowledged that the Greek alphabet was borrowed from a Phoenician model in the 8th-century BC and was past west to Etruria and Rome (Powell 1992). many of the architectural influences can be seen in Greek sanctuaries as well. Phoenician exploration of the central and western Mediterranean began in 1st millennium BC and by the 8th century BC, had established colonial foundations in Spain (Gadir, Ibiza), North Africa (Carthage, Utica) and Sicily (Moyta).

Human cultural development:
Cultural influence was strongly expelled from the Phoenicians who heavily impacted the architectural, language/alphabet, and art aspects of latter the great Roman Empire. There was great socio-economical strength and expression through advanced alphabets and communication.

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
490

Picture:
http://phoenicianresearch.weebly.com/uploads/1/7/3/5/17357749/4243070.jpg?237

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During the succeeding Archaic Period was one of the more influential of all political formations, the Greek polis, or city-state. The polis was an autonomous unit that embraced both a central, urban settlement in its rural hinterland. Increase in grave numbers of a complete population, not just the elite, suggests the emergence of citizen ideal. Reconfiguration of domestic, urban, and mortuary space, as well as changes in military organization also occured during this "age of experiment". The history of Archaic and Classical (480-338 BC) Greece becomes to a great extent the history of these cities. The Classical Period was born around 480 BC, post Archaic Period, and from post-Persian war enthusiasm.

Human cultural development:
creating political and military alliances led by the more powerful city. Greek-influenced city-states would ultimately be over establish over a vast range, stretching from the western Mediterranean to the eastern reaches of the Black Sea. Introduction of the citizen status brought unity unlike ever before, where influences still remain in modern day practices. The people shared ties through economical, political, and religious ways and claimed status as citizens.

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
486-488

Picture:
http://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/greek1.jpg

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Material traces of the Greek Dark Age (c. 1000-750 BC), as its name suggests, are few and relatively impoverished; a sharp drop in population from the Late Bronze Age appears to be clear. Internal facts are considered instead of focusing on the collapse of the ruling state authorities. Many topics revolving the Dark Ages remain controversial as various theories have been developed. An example of a topic of controversy includes the interpretation of the large (c. 50 m, or 165 ft, long) shrine or temple known as the Toumba and the purpose of its construction along with remains of human burials and horse sacrifices.

Human cultural development:
The Dark Ages emphasizes the deterioration of western Europe and the fall of the Roman Empire, particularly focusing on the cultural, economic, and demographic of the Middle Ages.

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
483-485

Picture:
http://www.mixanitouxronou.gr/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%B1.jpg

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Greece: Mycenae                               1500-1000 BC

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Greece: Mycenae                               1500-1000 BC

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Minoan Crete passed into a new regional power in the Aegean, known as the Mycenaean society of mainland Greece. Peloponnese in southern Greece has been associated since Classical times and before with Agamemnon king. The sites' walls were made using Cyclopean masonry and is famously known for the megaron: a three-roomed rectangular structure with a columned porch leading to an antechamber. Mycenaean had a range of tombs from plain rock-cut chamber tombs to highly elaborate, monumental tholos (or "beehive") tombs.

Human cultural development:
Temples and shrines proved the strong influence of Greek mythology and religious practices within the city. The socio-political stratification of Mycenaean society is visible in its architecture. Mycenaean engineers advanced skills that led to construction of the Cyclopean masonry of the citadels, road networks around Mycenae, bridges, dams, port installations, and drainage projects.

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
483-485

Picture:
http://www.ancient.eu/uploads/images/136.jpg?v=1485680489

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Minoan Crete: The Palace Period 2000-1490 BC

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Minoan Crete: The Palace Period 2000-1490 BC

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The First Palace period (c. 2000-1700 BC) can be dated the rise of complexes at Knossos and Mallia in the north and Phaistos. Following destructive earthquakes, the remodeled version was known as the Second Palace period (c. 1700-1490 BC) and joined by others, such as Kato Zakros. The palaces had defensive walls, open-air central courts with sometimes a secondary court, residential quarters, and various spaces for entertainment and ritual performance. Various systems of seals and sealings, and two forms of script emerged. Scripts such as Linear B tablets were made using leaf-shaped tablets formed by clay.

Human cultural development:
Minoan civilization lacked equality among the people resulting in hierarchy organized by strengthened ideologies, cosmologies, and rituals. The city was ruled under authoritarian figures and influenced as such. The belief structures of Minoan ritual and religious culture play a major role in linking the island's communities through strong religious imagery and ritual practice.  Social and political formations in Crete- during the First Palace period can be seen as "heterarchically" organized polities lacking homogeneity and held together more by ideologies, cosmologies, and ritual by political authority (Driessen et al. 2002).

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
480-482

Picture:
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pl_XWMx76J0/VR6BtlplQqI/AAAAAAAAA38/5v1GF5v4sMQ/s1600/reconstruction%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bpalace%2Bof%2Bknossos%2C%2Bfrom%2Bhttpearth-chronicles.runews2013-09-23-51570.jpg

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Early Bronze Age: Aegean           4000-2000 BC    

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Early Bronze Age: Aegean           4000-2000 BC    

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Sir Arthur Evans (Evans 1921-35) was the first excavator of the palace at Knossos on Crete and creator of the label Minoan for the Cretan Bronze Age. On Crete itself during the long centuries of the Early Minoan or "Prepalatial" period, c. 3500-2000 BC. An important development unique to Crete was indication of contact with Egypt. remnants of Egyptian scarabs, stone vessels, ivory, lapis lazuli, and other precious stones found, hint that emerging Cretan elite used exotic imports to help establish identity based on associations with foreign powers. Cycladic marble figurines and pottery are found in forms that occur most commonly in Troy. The sculpted white figures made in the Cycladic proved to hold culture context and deep value in the world of artists which led to illicit excavation and looting on a massive scale.

Human Cultural Development:
evidence of emerging social complexity is slight, from  domestic contexts. The Early Bronze Age introduced the beginnings of a writing system that included hieroglyphs (Egypt) and script (Mesopotamia) as an extended means of communication. The name was inspired by the increased wide spread use of man-made bronze which suggested increased production technological skills .

Sources:
Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
477-479

Picture:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&ved=0ahUKEwjdx5CYlavUAhUV_WMKHSPzAboQjBwIBA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcdn1.animhut.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2010%2F09%2F99.jpg&psig=AFQjCNEjrZUmFcI9HnXtTUvu4ub2wMW-Ow&ust=1496905333624680

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Martin, Thomas R. " An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to Alexander." The Early Greek Dark Age and Revival in the Near East. June 05, 2017.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0009%3Achapter%3D3

Nelson, Lynn H. "Rome at its Height The Roman Empire." Rome at its Height| Roman Empire | Lectures in Medieval HistoryEmeritus Professor, Medieval History, KU. June 05, 2017.
http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/roman_empire.html

Scarre, Christopher. "Chapter 13: The Mediterranean World," The human past: world prehistory & the development of human societies. 3rd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2013.

Tartaron, Thomas. "Aegean Prehistory as World Archaeology: Recent Trends in the Archaeology of Bronze Age Greece." Journal Of Archaeological Research 16, no. 2 (June 2008): 83-161. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost June 7, 2017.
http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/ehost/detail/detail?sid=57c9fa52-b0c8-462c-83b9-b1e172dd6dac%40sessionmgr103&vid=0&hid=121&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=30015337&db=a9h