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Fashion industry

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Where, why and what can be done

Around 260 million children are in employment around the world, according to the International Labour Organisation (pdf). Of them, the ILO estimates that 170 million are engaged in child labour, defined by the UN as "work for which the child is either too young - work done below the required minimum age - or work which, because of its detrimental nature or conditions, is altogether considered unacceptable for children and is prohibited".

Child labour is forbidden by law in most countries but continues to be rife in some of the poorest parts of the world.

The ILO estimates that 170 million are engaged in child labour, with many making textiles and garments to satisfy the demand of consumers in Europe, the US, and beyond

The situation is improving. ILO estimates suggest child labour declined by 30% between 2000 and 2012, but still 11% of the world's children are in situations that deprive them of their right to go to school without interference from work.

Many of these child labourers work within the fashion supply chain, making the textiles and garments to satisfy the demand of consumers in Europe, the US, and beyond.

Why does it exist?

Where is it happening?

The countries highlighted above were identified by SOMO as particularly notorious for child labour in the textile and garment industry

Children work at all stages of the supply chain in the fashion industry: from the production of cotton seeds in Benin, harvesting in Uzbekistan, yarn spinning in India, right through to the different phases of putting garments together in factories across Bangladesh.

In the cotton industry, children are employed to transfer pollen from one plant to another. They are subjected to long working hours, exposure to pesticides and they are often paid below the minimum wage. In developing countries where cotton is one of the main crops, children are enlisted to help harvest the delicate crop and reports suggest (pdf) they work long hours sowing cotton in the spring, followed by weeding through the summer months.

An estimated 170 million children are engaged in child labour, or 11% of the global population of children, according to the International Labour Organisation

At the next step of the chain, in the yarn and spinning mills, child labour is rampant. The SOMO report (pdf) found that 60% of workers at the mills it investigated in India were under-18 when they started working there; the youngest workers were 15 when they joined.

Children also work in the "cut-make-trim" stage, when clothes are put together. SOMO says: "In garment factories, children perform diverse and often arduous tasks such as dyeing, sewing buttons, cutting and trimming threads, folding, moving and packing garments. In small workshops and home sites, children are put to work on intricate tasks such as embroidering, sequinning and smocking (making pleats)."

What are the challenges?

One of the biggest challenges in tackling child labour in the fashion supply chain is the complex supply chain for each garment. Even when brands have strict guidelines in place for suppliers, work often gets sub-contracted to other factories that the buyer may not even know about.

Ovaa says: "Companies that sell their products in Europe and the US have no clue where the textiles come from. Maybe they know their first supplier and there are codes of conduct in place, but further down the chain in the lower tiers it is very difficult to understand where the cotton comes from."

Tackling child labour is further complicated by the fact it is just a symptom of larger problems. Where there is extreme poverty, there will be children willing to work cheaply and susceptible to being tricked into dangerous or badly paid work.

Lotte Schuurman at the Fair Wear Foundation says if parents have no education they will end up in low-paid work; their children will be forced to work, they will miss out on their education, and they too will end up in low-paid work as adults. "You need to get out of that vicious circle of poverty to decline child labour," she says.

What can businesses do?

Credits:

Writer Josephine Moulds
Commissioning editor Jenny Purt
Art direction and design Tim Shearring and Ian Richardson
Video and map photography Kimberly Hoang
Map embroidery Jessica Thompson
Images Getty Images, Panos, Gallery Stock
Producer Daniel Turner

About this site

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Child labour in the fashion supply chain

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The Ugly Face of Beauty: Is Child Labour the Foundation for your Makeup? (RT Documentary)

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A Palestinian child labourer at the Israeli settlement of Kalya on the Dead Sea.

A succession of laws on child labour, the so-called Factory Acts, were passed in the UK in the 19th century. Children younger than 9 were not allowed to work, those aged 9-16 could work 12 hours per day per the Cotton Mills Act. In 1856, the law permitted child labour past age 9, for 60 hours per week, night or day. In 1901, the permissible child labour age was raised to 12.[1][2]

Child labour is the exploitation of children through any form of work that deprives them of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful. Such exploitation is prohibited by legislation worldwide, although these laws do not consider all work by children as child labour; exceptions include work by child artists, family duties, supervised training, and some forms of work undertaken by Amish children, as well as by indigenous children in the Americas.

Child labour has existed to varying extents throughout history. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many children aged 5-14 from poorer families worked in Western nations and their colonies alike. These children mainly worked in agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining, and services such as news boys - some worked night shifts lasting 12 hours. With the rise of household income, availability of schools and passage of child labour laws, the incidence rates of child labour fell.

As of 2023, in the world's poorest countries, around one in five children are engaged in child labour, the highest number of whom live in sub-saharan Africa, where more than one in four children are so engaged. This represents a decline in child labour over the preceding half decade. In 2017, four African nations ( Mali, Benin, Chad and Guinea-Bissau) witnessed over 50 per cent of children aged 5-14 working. Worldwide agriculture is the largest employer of child labour. The vast majority of child labour is found in rural settings and informal urban economies; children are predominantly employed by their parents, rather than factories. Poverty and lack of schools are considered the primary cause of child labour. UNICEF notes that "boys and girls are equally likely to be involved in child labour", but in different roles, girls being substantially more likely to perform unpaid household labour.

Globally the incidence of child labour decreased from 25% to 10% between 1960 and 2003, according to the World Bank. Nevertheless, the total number of child labourers remains high, with UNICEF and ILO acknowledging an estimated 168 million children aged 5-17 worldwide were involved in child labour in 2013.

Child labour in preindustrial societies

Child labour forms an intrinsic part of pre-industrial economies. In pre-industrial societies, there is rarely a concept of childhood in the modern sense. Children often begin to actively participate in activities such as child rearing, hunting and farming as soon as they are competent. In many societies, children as young as 13 are seen as adults and engage in the same activities as adults.

The work of children was important in pre-industrial societies, as children needed to provide their labour for their survival and that of their group. Pre-industrial societies were characterised by low productivity and short life expectancy; preventing children from participating in productive work would be more harmful to their welfare and that of their group in the long run. In pre-industrial societies, there was little need for children to attend school. This is especially the case in non-literate societies. Most pre-industrial skill and knowledge were amenable to being passed down through direct mentoring or apprenticing by competent adults.

Child labourers, Macon, Georgia, 1909

Children working in home-based assembly operations in United States (1923).

Two girls protesting child labour (by calling it child slavery) in the 1909 New York City Labor Day parade.

Arthur Rothstein, Child Labor, Cranberry Bog, 1939. Brooklyn Museum

Industrial Revolution

With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the late 18th century, there was a rapid increase in the industrial exploitation of labour, including child labour. Industrial cities such as Birmingham, Manchester, and Liverpool rapidly grew from small villages into large cities and improving child mortality rates. These cities drew in the population that was rapidly growing due to increased agricultural output. This process was replicated in other industrialising countries.

The Victorian era in particular became notorious for the conditions under which children were employed. Children as young as four were employed in production factories and mines working long hours in dangerous, often fatal, working conditions. In coal mines, children would crawl through tunnels too narrow and low for adults. Children also worked as errand boys, crossing sweepers, shoe blacks, or selling matches, flowers and other cheap goods. Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades, such as building or as domestic servants (there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid-18th century). Working hours were long: builders worked 64 hours a week in the summer and 52 hours in winter, while servants worked 80-hour weeks.

Child labour played an important role in the Industrial Revolution from its outset, often brought about by economic hardship. The children of the poor were expected to contribute to their family income. In 19th-century Great Britain, one-third of poor families were without a breadwinner, as a result of death or abandonment, obliging many children to work from a young age. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children. A high number of children also worked as prostitutes. The author Charles Dickens worked at the age of 12 in a blacking factory, with his family in debtor's prison.

Child wages were often low, the wages were as little as 10-20% of an adult male's wage. Karl Marx was an outspoken opponent of child labour, saying British industries "could but live by sucking blood, and children's blood too", and that U.S. capital was financed by the "capitalized blood of children". Letitia Elizabeth Landon castigated child labour in her 1835 poem The Factory, portions of which she pointedly included in her 18th Birthday Tribute to Princess Victoria in 1837.

Throughout the second half of the 19th century, child labour began to decline in industrialised societies due to regulation and economic factors because of the Growth of trade unions. The regulation of child labour began from the earliest days of the Industrial Revolution. The first act to regulate child labour in Britain was passed in 1803. As early as 1802 and 1819 Factory Acts were passed to regulate the working hours of workhouse children in factories and cotton mills to 12 hours per day. These acts were largely ineffective and after radical agitation, by for example the "Short Time Committees" in 1831, a Royal Commission recommended in 1833 that children aged 11-18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9-11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine were no longer permitted to work. This act however only applied to the textile industry, and further agitation led to another act in 1847 limiting both adults and children to 10-hour working days. Lord Shaftesbury was an outspoken advocate of regulating child labour.

As technology improved and proliferated, there was a greater need for educated employees. This saw an increase in schooling, with the eventual introduction of compulsory schooling. Improved technology, automation and further legislation significantly reduced child labour particularly in western Europe and the U.S.

Early 20th century

An estimated 1.7 million children under the age of fifteen were employed in American industry by 1900.

In 1910, over 2 million children in the same age group were employed in the United States. This included children who rolled cigarettes, engaged in factory work, worked as bobbin doffers in textile mills, worked in coal mines and were employed in canneries. Lewis Hine's photographs of child labourers in the 1910s powerfully evoked the plight of working children in the American south. Hine took these photographs between 1908 and 1917 as the staff photographer for the National Child Labor Committee.

Household enterprises

Factories and mines were not the only places where child labour was prevalent in the early 20th century. Home-based manufacturing across the United States and Europe employed children as well. Governments and reformers argued that labour in factories must be regulated and the state had an obligation to provide welfare for poor. Legislation that followed had the effect of moving work out of factories into urban homes. Families and women, in particular, preferred it because it allowed them to generate income while taking care of household duties.

Home-based manufacturing operations were active year-round. Families willingly deployed their children in these income generating home enterprises. In many cases, men worked from home. In France, over 58% of garment workers operated out of their homes; in Germany, the number of full-time home operations nearly doubled between 1882 and 1907; and in the United States, millions of families operated out of home seven days a week, year round to produce garments, shoes, artificial flowers, feathers, match boxes, toys, umbrellas and other products. Children aged 5-14 worked alongside the parents. Home-based operations and child labour in Australia, Britain, Austria and other parts of the world was common. Rural areas similarly saw families deploying their children in agriculture. In 1946, Frieda S. Miller - then Director of the United States Department of Labor - told the International Labour Organization (ILO) that these home-based operations offered "low wages, long hours, child labour, unhealthy and insanitary working conditions".

21st century

Map for child labour worldwide in the 10-14 age group, in 2003, per World Bank data.[47] The data is incomplete, as many countries do not collect or report child labour data (coloured gray). The colour code is as follows: yellow (<10% of children working), green (10-20%), orange (20-30%), red (30-40%) and black (>40%). Some nations such as Guinea-Bissau, Mali and Ethiopia have more than half of all children aged 5-14 at work to help provide for their families.[48]

Contrary to popular belief, most child labourers are employed by their parents rather than in manufacturing or formal economy. Children who work for pay or in-kind compensation are usually found in rural settings as opposed to urban centres. Less than 3% of child labour aged 5-14 across the world work outside their household, or away from their parents.

Child labour accounts for 22% of the workforce in Asia, 32% in Africa, 17% in Latin America, 1% in the US, Canada, Europe and other wealthy nations. The proportion of child labourers varies greatly among countries and even regions inside those countries. Africa has the highest percentage of children aged 5-17 employed as child labour, and a total of over 65 million. Asia, with its larger population, has the largest number of children employed as child labour at about 114 million. Latin America and the Caribbean region have lower overall population density, but at 14 million child labourers has high incidence rates too.

In 2014, the U.S. Department of Labor issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor, where China was attributed 12 goods the majority of which were produced by both underage children and indentured labourers. The report listed electronics, garments, toys, and coal, among other goods.

The Maplecroft Child Labour Index 2012 survey reports that 76 countries pose extreme child labour complicity risks for companies operating worldwide. The ten highest risk countries in 2012, ranked in decreasing order, were: Myanmar, North Korea, Somalia, Sudan, DR Congo, Zimbabwe, Afghanistan, Burundi, Pakistan and Ethiopia. Of the major growth economies, Maplecroft ranked Philippines 25th riskiest, India 27th, China 36th, Vietnam 37th, Indonesia 46th, and Brazil 54th, all of them rated to involve extreme risks of child labour uncertainties, to corporations seeking to invest in developing world and import products from emerging markets.

Agriculture deploys 70% of the world's child labour.[15] Above, child worker on a rice farm in Vietnam.

The ILO suggests that poverty is the greatest single cause behind child labour. For impoverished households, income from a child's work is usually crucial for his or her own survival or for that of the household. Income from working children, even if small, may be between 25 and 40% of the household income. Other scholars such as Harsch on African child labour, and Edmonds and Pavcnik on global child labour have reached the same conclusion.

Cultural factors

Macroeconomics

Working children out of school vs hours worked by children[69]

Colonial empires

Systematic use of child labour was commonplace in the colonies of European powers between 1650 and 1950. In Africa, colonial administrators encouraged traditional kin-ordered modes of production, that is hiring a household for work not just the adults. Millions of children worked in colonial agricultural plantations, mines and domestic service industries. Sophisticated schemes were promulgated where children in these colonies between the ages of 5 and 14 were hired as an apprentice without pay in exchange for learning a craft. A system of Pauper Apprenticeship came into practice in the 19th century where the colonial master neither needed the native parents' nor child's approval to assign a child to labour, away from parents, at a distant farm owned by a different colonial master. Other schemes included 'earn-and-learn' programs where children would work and thereby learn. Britain for example passed a law, the so-called Masters and Servants Act of 1899, followed by Tax and Pass Law, to encourage child labour in colonies particularly in Africa. These laws offered the native people the legal ownership to some of the native land in exchange for making labour of wife and children available to colonial government's needs such as in farms and as picannins.

Beyond laws, new taxes were imposed on colonies. One of these taxes was the Head Tax in the British and French colonial empires. The tax was imposed on everyone older than 8 years, in some colonies. To pay these taxes and cover living expenses, children in colonial households had to work.

In southeast Asian colonies, such as Hong Kong, child labour such as the (妹仔), was rationalised as a cultural tradition and ignored by British authorities. The Dutch East India Company officials rationalised their child labour abuses with, "it is a way to save these children from a worse fate." Christian mission schools in regions stretching from Zambia to Nigeria too required work from children, and in exchange provided religious education, not secular education. Elsewhere, the Canadian Dominion Statutes in form of so-called Breaches of Contract Act, stipulated jail terms for uncooperative child workers.

Proposals to regulate child labour began as early as 1786.

Children working at a young age has been a consistent theme throughout Africa. Many children began first working in the home to help their parents run the family farm. Children in Africa today are often forced into exploitative labour due to family debt and other financial factors, leading to ongoing poverty. Other types of domestic child labour include working in commercial plantations, begging, and other sales such as boot shining. In total, there is an estimated five million children who are currently working in the field of agriculture which steadily increases during the time of harvest. Along with 30% of children who are picking coffee, there are an estimated 25,000 school age children who work year round.

What industries children work in depends on whether they grew up in a rural area or an urban area. Children who were born in urban areas often found themselves working for street vendors, washing cars, helping in construction sites, weaving clothing, and sometimes even working as exotic dancers. While children who grew up in rural areas would work on farms doing physical labour, working with animals, and selling crops. Many children can also be found working in hazardous environments, with some using bare hands, stones and hammers to take apart CRT-based televisions and computer monitors. Of all the child workers, the most serious cases involved street children and trafficked children due to the physical and emotional abuse they endured by their employers. To address the issue of child labour, the United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the Child Act was implemented in 1959. Yet due to poverty, lack of education and ignorance, the legal actions were not/are not wholly enforced or accepted in Africa.

Other legal factors that have been implemented to end and reduce child labour includes the global response that came into force in 1979 by the declaration of the International Year of the Child. Along with the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations, these two declarations worked on many levels to eliminate child labour. Although many actions have been taken to end this epidemic, child labour in Africa is still an issue today due to the unclear definition of adolescence and how much time is needed for children to engage in activities that are crucial for their development. Another issue that often comes into play is the link between what constitutes as child labour within the household due to the cultural acceptance of children helping run the family business. In the end, there is a consistent challenge for the national government to strengthen its grip politically on child labour, and to increase education and awareness on the issue of children working below the legal age limit. With children playing an important role in the African economy, child labour still plays an important role for many in the 20th century.

From European settlement in 1788, child convicts were occasionally sent to Australia where they were made to work. Child labour was not as excessive in Australia as in Britain. With a low population, agricultural productivity was higher and families did not face starvation as in established industrialised countries. Australia also did not have significant industry until the later part of the 20th century, when child labour laws and compulsory schooling had developed under the influence of Britain. From the 1870s, child labour was restricted by compulsory schooling.

Child labour has been a consistent struggle for children in Brazil ever since Portuguese colonization in the region began in 1500. Work that many children took part in was not always visible, legal, or paid. Free or slave labour was a common occurrence for many youths and was a part of their everyday lives as they grew into adulthood. Yet due to there being no clear definition of how to classify what a child or youth is, there has been little historical documentation of child labour during the colonial period. Due to this lack of documentation, it is hard to determine just how many children were used for what kinds of work before the nineteenth century. The first documentation of child labour in Brazil occurred during the time of indigenous societies and slave labour where it was found that children were forcibly working on tasks that exceeded their emotional and physical limits. Armando Dias, for example, died in November 1913 whilst still very young, a victim of an electric shock when entering the textile industry where he worked. Boys and girls were victims of industrial accidents on a daily basis.

In Brazil, the minimum working age has been identified as fourteen due to constitutional amendments that passed in 1934, 1937, and 1946. Yet due to a change in the dictatorship by the military in the 1980s, the minimum age restriction was reduced to twelve but was reviewed due to reports of dangerous and hazardous working conditions in 1988. This led to the minimum age being raised once again to 14. Another set of restrictions was passed in 1998 that restricted the kinds of work youth could partake in, such as work that was considered hazardous like running construction equipment, or certain kinds of factory work. Although many steps were taken to reduce the risk and occurrence of child labour, there is still a high number of children and adolescents working under the age of fourteen in Brazil. It was not until recently in the 1980s that it was discovered that almost nine million children in Brazil were working illegally and not partaking in traditional childhood activities that help to develop important life experiences.

Brazilian census data (PNAD, 1999) indicate that 2.55 million 10- to 14-year-olds were illegally holding jobs. They were joined by 3.7 million 15- to 17-year-olds and about 375,000 5- to 9-year-olds. Due to the raised age restriction of 14, at least half of the recorded young workers had been employed illegally, which led to many not being protected by important labour laws. Although substantial time has passed since the time of regulated child labour, there are still many children working illegally in Brazil. Many children are used by drug cartels to sell and carry drugs, guns, and other illegal substances because of their perception of innocence. This type of work that youth are taking part in is very dangerous due to the physical and psychological implications that come with these jobs. Yet despite the hazards that come with working with drug dealers, there has been an increase in this area of employment throughout the country.

Many factors played a role in Britain's long-term economic growth, such as the industrial revolution in the late 1700s and the prominent presence of child labour during the industrial age. Children who worked at an early age were often not forced; but did so because they needed to help their family survive financially. Due to poor employment opportunities for many parents, sending their children to work on farms and in factories was a way to help feed and support the family. Child labour first started to occur in England when household businesses were turned into local labour markets that mass-produced the once homemade goods. Because children often helped produce the goods out of their homes, working in a factory to make those same goods was a simple change for many of these youths. Although there are many counts of children under the age of ten working for factories, the majority of children workers were between the ages of ten and fourteen.

Another factor that influenced child labour was the demographic changes that occurred in the eighteenth century. By the end of the eighteenth century, 20 per cent of the population was made up of children between the ages of 5 and 14. Due to this substantial shift in available workers, and the development of the industrial revolution, children began to work earlier in life in companies outside of the home. Yet, even though there was an increase of child labour in factories such as cotton textiles, there were large numbers of children working in the field of agriculture and domestic production.

With such a high percentage of children working, the rising of illiteracy, and the lack of a formal education became a widespread issue for many children who worked to provide for their families. Due to this problematic trend, many parents developed a change of opinion when deciding whether or not to send their children to work. Other factors that lead to the decline of child labour included financial changes in the economy, changes in the development of technology, raised wages, and continuous regulations on factory legislation.

Significant levels of child labour appear to be found in Cambodia. In 1998, ILO estimated that 24.1% of children in Cambodia aged between 10 and 14 were economically active. Many of these children work long hours and Cambodia Human Development Report 2000 reported that approximately 65,000 children between the ages of 5 and 13 worked 25 hours a week and did not attend school. There are also many initiative and policies put in place to decrease the prevalence of child labour such as the United States generalized system of preferences, the U.S.-Cambodia textile agreement, ILO Garment Sector Working Conditions Improvement Project, and ChildWise Tourism.

An Ecuadorean study published in 2006 found child labour to be one of the main environmental problems affecting children's health. It reported that over 800,000 children are working in Ecuador, where they are exposed to heavy metals and toxic chemicals and are subject to mental and physical stress and the insecurity caused by being at risk of work-related accidents. Minors performing agricultural work along with their parents help apply pesticides without wearing protective equipment.

On 23 June 1757, the English East India Company defeated Siraj-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Bengal, in the Battle of Plassey. The British thus became masters of east India (Bengal, Bihar, Orissa) - a prosperous region with a flourishing agriculture, industry and trade. This led to many children being forced into labour due to the increasing need of cheap labour to produce large numbers of goods. Many multinationals often employed children because that they can be recruited for less pay, and have more endurance to utilise in factory environments. Another reason many Indian children were hired was because they lack knowledge of their basic rights, they did not cause trouble or complain, and they were often more trustworthy. The innocence that comes with childhood was utilised to make a profit by many and was encouraged by the need for family income.

A sign at a construction site in Bangalore:
"Child labor prohibited"

A variety of Indian social scientists as well as the non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have done extensive research on the numeric figures of child labour found in India and determined that India contributes to one-third of Asia's child labour and one-fourth of the world's child labour. Due to many children being illegally employed, the Indian government began to take extensive actions to reduce the number of children working, and to focus on the importance of facilitating the proper growth and development of children. International influences help to encourage legal actions to be taken in India, such as the Geneva Declaration of the Right of Children Act was passed in 1924. This act was followed by The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 to which incorporated the basic human rights and needs of children for proper progression and growth in their younger years. These international acts encouraged major changes to the workforce in India which occurred in 1986 when the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was put into place. This act prohibited hiring children younger than the age of 14, and from working in hazardous conditions.

Due to the increase of regulations and legal restrictions on child labour, there has been a 64 per cent decline in child labour from 1993 to 2005. Although this is a great decrease in the country of India, there is still high numbers of children working in the rural areas of India. With 85 per cent of the child labour occurring in rural areas, and 15 per cent occurring in urban areas, there are still substantial areas of concern in the country of India.

India has legislation since 1986 which allows work by children in non-hazardous industry. In 2013, the Punjab and Haryana High Court gave a landmark order that directed that there shall be a total ban on the employment of children up to the age of 14 years, be it hazardous or non-hazardous industries. However, the Court ruled that a child can work with his or her family in family based trades/occupations, for the purpose of learning a new trade/craftsmanship or vocation.

In Isfahan province, the Iranian Department of State Welfare ( behzisti) keeps a database of the scanned retina irises of a number of working street kids, and have put "child friendly" measures in place to support them, reduce the social harm from their presence, and improve their quality of life.

Only Tehran as of June 2023 has seventy thousand working children they also collect recycles.

As of July 2023 %15 of children are child labour, 8% do not have a residence. 10 per cent of children are not in school.

In post-colonial Ireland, the rate of child exploitation was extremely high as children were used as farm labourers once they were able to walk, these children were never paid for the labour that they carried out on the family farm. Children were wanted and desired in Ireland for the use of their labour on the family farm. Irish parents felt that it was the children's duty to carry out chores on the family farm.

Though banned in modern Japan, shonenko (child labourers) were a feature of the Imperial era until its end in 1945. During World War II labour recruiting efforts targeted youths from Taiwan (Formosa), then a Japanese territory, with promises of educational opportunity. Though the target of 25,000 recruits was never reached, over 8,400 Taiwanese youths aged 12 to 14 relocated to Japan to help manufacture the Mitsubishi J2M Raiden aircraft.

The Netherlands

Soviet Union and successor states

Although formally banned since 1922, child labour was widespread in the Soviet Union, mostly in the form of mandatory, unpaid work by schoolchildren on Saturdays and holidays. The students were used as a cheap, unqualified workforce on kolhoz (collective farms) as well as in industry and forestry. The practice was formally called "work education".

From the 1950s on, the students were also used for unpaid work at schools, where they cleaned and performed repairs. This practice has continued in the Russian Federation, where up to 21 days of the summer holidays is sometimes set aside for school works. By law, this is only allowed as part of specialised occupational training and with the students' and parents' permission, but those provisions are widely ignored. In 2012 there was an accident near the city of Nalchik where a car killed several pupils cleaning up a highway shoulder during their "holiday work", as well as their teacher, who was supervising them.

Out of former Soviet Union republics Uzbekistan continued and expanded the program of child labour on industrial scale to increase profits on the main source of Islam Karimov's income, cotton harvesting. In September, when school normally starts, the classes are suspended and children are sent to cotton fields for work, where they are assigned daily quotas of 20 to 60 kg of raw cotton they have to collect. This process is repeated in spring, when collected cotton needs to be hoed and weeded. In 2006 it is estimated that 2.7 million children were forced to work this way.

Switzerland

As in many other countries, child labour in Switzerland affected among the so-called Kaminfegerkinder ("chimney sweep children") and children working p.e. in spinning mills, factories and in agriculture in 19th-century Switzerland, but also to the 1960s so-called Verdingkinder (literally: "contract children" or "indentured child laborers") were children who were taken from their parents, often due to poverty or moral reasons - usually mothers being unmarried, very poor citizens, of Gypsy- Yeniche origin, so-called Kinder der Landstrasse, etc. - and sent to live with new families, often poor farmers who needed cheap labour.

There were even Verdingkinder auctions where children were handed over to the farmer asking the least money from the authorities, thus securing cheap labour for his farm and relieving the authority from the financial burden of looking after the children. In the 1930s 20% of all agricultural labourers in the Canton of Bern were children below the age of 15. Swiss municipality guardianship authorities acted so, commonly tolerated by federal authorities, to the 1960s, not all of them of course, but usually communities affected of low taxes in some Swiss cantons Swiss historian Marco Leuenberger investigated, that in 1930 there were some 35,000 indentured children, and between 1920 and 1970 more than 100,000 are believed to have been placed with families or homes. 10,000 Verdingkinder are still alive. Therefore, the so-called Wiedergutmachungsinitiative was started in April 2014. In April 2014 the collection of targeted at least authenticated 100,000 signatures of Swiss citizens has started, and still have to be collected to October 2015.

United States

Missouri Governor Joseph W. Folk inspecting child laborers in 1906 in an image drawn by journalist Marguerite Martyn

Child labour laws in the United States are found at the federal and state levels. The most sweeping federal law that restricts the employment and abuse of child workers is the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Child labour provisions under FLSA are designed to protect the educational opportunities of youth and prohibit their employment in jobs that are detrimental to their health and safety. FLSA restricts the hours that youth under 16 years of age can work and lists hazardous occupations too dangerous for young workers to perform.

Under the FLSA, for non-agricultural jobs, children under 14 may not be employed, children between 14 and 16 may be employed in allowed occupations during limited hours, and children between 16 and 17 may be employed for unlimited hours in non-hazardous occupations. A number of exceptions to these rules exist, such as for employment by parents, newspaper delivery, and child actors. The regulations for agricultural employment are generally less strict.

Individual states have a wide range of restrictions on labor by minors, often requiring work permits for minors who are still enrolled in high school, limiting the times and hours that minors can work by age and imposing additional safety regulations.

Child labour laws and initiatives

...Parties recognise the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.

Under Article 1 of the 1990 Convention, a child is defined as "every human being below the age of eighteen years unless, under the law applicable to the child, a majority is attained earlier." Article 28 of this Convention requires States to, "make primary education compulsory and available free to all."

195 countries are party to the convention; only two nations have not ratified the treaty, Somalia and the United States.

In 1999, ILO helped lead the Worst Forms Convention 182 (C182), which has so far been signed upon and domestically ratified by 151 countries including the United States. This international law prohibits worst forms of child labour, defined as all forms of slavery and slavery-like practices, such as child trafficking, debt bondage, and forced labour, including forced recruitment of children into armed conflict. The law also prohibits the use of a child for prostitution or the production of pornography, child labour in illicit activities such as drug production and trafficking; and in hazardous work. Both the Worst Forms Convention (C182) and the Minimum Age Convention (C138) are examples of international labour standards implemented through the ILO that deal with child labour.

In addition to setting the international law, the United Nations initiated International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in 1992. This initiative aims to progressively eliminate child labour through strengthening national capacities to address some of the causes of child labour. Amongst the key initiative is the so-called time-bounded programme countries, where child labour is most prevalent and schooling opportunities lacking. The initiative seeks to achieve amongst other things, universal primary school availability. The IPEC has expanded to at least the following target countries: Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Democratic Republic of Congo, El Salvador, Nepal, Tanzania, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Philippines, Senegal, South Africa and Turkey.

Exceptions granted

In 2004, the United States passed an amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. The amendment allows certain children aged 14-18 to work in or outside a business where machinery is used to process wood. The law aims to respect the religious and cultural needs of the Amish community of the United States. The Amish believe that one effective way to educate children is on the job. The new law allows Amish children the ability to work with their families, once they are past eighth grade in school.

More laws vs. more freedom

Very often, however, these state laws were not enforced... Federal legislation was passed in 1916 and again in 1919, but both laws were declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Although the number of child workers declined dramatically during the 1920s and 1930s, it was not until the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1938 that federal regulation of child labor finally became a reality.

-  Smithsonian, on child labour in early 20th century United States

Scholars disagree on the best legal course forward to address child labour. Some suggest the need for laws that place a blanket ban on any work by children less than 18 years old. Others suggest the current international laws are enough, and the need for more engaging approach to achieve the ultimate goals.

Some scholars suggest any labour by children aged 18 years or less is wrong since this encourages illiteracy, inhumane work and lower investment in human capital. These activists claim that child labor also leads to poor labour standards for adults, depresses the wages of adults in developing countries as well as the developed countries, and dooms the third world economies to low-skill jobs only capable of producing poor quality cheap exports. More children that work in poor countries, the fewer and worse-paid are the jobs for adults in these countries. In other words, there are moral and economic reasons that justify a blanket ban on labour from children aged 18 years or less, everywhere in the world.

Other scholars suggest that these arguments are flawed and ignore history, and that more laws will do more harm than good. According to them, child labour is merely the symptom of poverty. If laws ban all lawful work that enables the poor to survive, informal economy, illicit operations and underground businesses will thrive. These will increase abuse of the children. In poor countries with very high incidence rates of child labour - such as Ethiopia, Chad, Niger and Nepal - schools are not available, and the few schools that exist offer poor quality education or are unaffordable. The alternatives for children who currently work, claim these studies, are worse: grinding subsistence farming, militia or prostitution. Child labour is not a choice, it is a necessity, the only option for survival. It is currently the least undesirable of a set of very bad choices. Traidcraft Exchange and Homeworkers Worldwide argue that attempts to elimimate child labour without addressing the level of adult earnings may lead to children being engaged in labour in "less visible and more hazardous occupations".

The Incredible Bread Machine, a book published by "World Research, Inc." in 1974, stated:

Child labour was a particular target of early reformers. William Cooke Tatlor wrote at the time about these reformers who, witnessing children at work in the factories, thought to themselves: 'How much more delightful would have been the gambol of the free limbs on the hillside; the sight of the green mead with its spangles of buttercups and daisies; the song of the bird and the humming bee...' But for many of these children the factory system meant quite literally the only chance for survival. Today we overlook the fact that death from starvation and exposure was a common fate before the Industrial Revolution, for the pre-capitalist economy was barely able to support the population. Yes, children were working. Formerly they would have starved. It was only as goods were produced in greater abundance at a lower cost that men could support their families without sending their children to work. It was not the reformer or the politician that ended the grim necessity for child labour; it was capitalism.

Cocoa production

In 1998, UNICEF reported that Ivory Coast farmers used enslaved children - many from surrounding countries. In late 2000 a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa - the main ingredient in chocolate - in West Africa. Other media followed by reporting widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa. In 2001, the US State Department estimated there were 15,000 child slaves cocoa, cotton and coffee farms in the Ivory Coast, and the Chocolate Manufacturers Association acknowledged that child slavery is used in the cocoa harvest.

Malian migrants have long worked on cocoa farms in the Ivory Coast, but in 2000 cocoa prices had dropped to a 10-year low and some farmers stopped paying their employees. The Malian counsel had to rescue some boys who had not been paid for five years and who were beaten if they tried to run away. Malian officials believed that 15,000 children, some as young as 11 years old, were working in the Ivory Coast in 2001. These children were often from poor families or the slums and were sold to work in other countries. Parents were told the children would find work and send money home, but once the children left home, they often worked in conditions resembling slavery. In other cases, children begging for food were lured from bus stations and sold as slaves. In 2002, the Ivory Coast had 12,000 children with no relatives nearby, which suggested they were trafficked, likely from neighboring Mali, Burkina Faso and Togo.

The cocoa industry was accused of profiting from child slavery and trafficking. The European Cocoa Association dismissed these accusations as "false and excessive" and the industry said the reports were not representative of all areas. Later the industry acknowledged the working conditions for children were unsatisfactory and children's rights were sometimes violated and acknowledged the claims could not be ignored. In a BBC interview, the ambassador for Ivory Coast to the United Kingdom called these reports of widespread use of slave child labour by 700,000 cocoa farmers as absurd and inaccurate.

In 2001, a voluntary agreement called the Harkin-Engel Protocol, was accepted by the international cocoa and chocolate industry to eliminate the worst forms of child labour, as defined by ILO's Convention 182, in West Africa. This agreement created a foundation named International Cocoa Initiative in 2002. The foundation claims it has, as of 2011, active programs in 290 cocoa growing communities in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, reaching a total population of 689,000 people to help eliminate the worst forms of child labour in cocoa industry. Other organisations claim progress has been made, but the protocol's 2005 deadlines have not yet been met.

Mining in Africa

In 2008, Bloomberg claimed child labour in copper and cobalt mines that supplied Chinese companies in Congo. The children are creuseurs, that is they dig the ore by hand, carry sacks of ores on their backs, and these are then purchased by these companies. Over 60 of Katanga's 75 processing plants are owned by Chinese companies and 90 per cent of the region's minerals go to China. An African NGO report claimed 80,000 child labourers under the age of 15, or about 40% of all miners, were supplying ore to Chinese companies in this African region. Amnesty International alleged in 2016 that some cobalt sold by Congo Dongfang Mining was produced by child labour, and that it was being used in lithium-ion batteries powering electric cars and mobile devices worldwide.

Small-scale artisanal mining of gold is another source of dangerous child labour in poor rural areas in certain parts of the world. This form of mining uses labour-intensive and low-tech methods. It is informal sector of the economy. Human Rights Watch group estimates that about 12 per cent of global gold production comes from artisanal mines. In west Africa, in countries such as Mali - the third largest exporter of gold in Africa - between 20,000 and 40,000 children work in artisanal mining. Locally known as orpaillage, children as young as six years old work with their families. These children and families suffer chronic exposure to toxic chemicals including mercury, and do hazardous work such as digging shafts and working underground, pulling up, carrying and crushing the ore. The poor work practices harm the long-term health of children, as well as release hundreds of tons of mercury every year into local rivers, ground water and lakes. Gold is important to the economy of Mali and Ghana. For Mali, it is the second largest earner of its export revenue. For many poor families with children, it is the primary and sometimes the only source of income.

Meatpacking

In early August 2008, Iowa Labour Commissioner David Neil announced that his department had found that Agriprocessors, a kosher meatpacking company in Postville which had recently been raided by Immigration and Customs Enforcement, had employed 57 minors, some as young as 14, in violation of state law prohibiting anyone under 18 from working in a meatpacking plant. Neil announced that he was turning the case over to the state Attorney General for prosecution, claiming that his department's inquiry had discovered "egregious violations of virtually every aspect of Iowa's child labour laws." Agriprocessors claimed that it was at a loss to understand the allegations. Agriprocessors' CEO went to trial on these charges in state court on 4 May 2010. After a five-week trial he was found not guilty of all 57 charges of child labour violations by the Black Hawk County District Court jury in Waterloo, Iowa, on 7 June 2010.

A 2007 report claimed some GAP products had been produced by child labourers. GAP acknowledged the problem and announced it is pulling the products from its shelves. The report found that GAP had rigorous social audit systems since 2004 to eliminate child labour in its supply chain. However, the report concluded that the system was being abused by unscrupulous subcontractors.

GAP's policy, the report claimed, is that if it discovers child labour was used by its supplier in its branded clothes, the contractor must remove the child from the workplace, provide them with access to schooling and a wage, and guarantee the opportunity of work on reaching a legal working age.

In 2007, The New York Times reported that GAP, after the child labour discovery, created a $200,000 grant to improve working conditions in the supplier community. GAP created strong relationships with developing countries to help prevent child labor and find solutions; GAP would conduct interviews and reach out to their 100,000 employees worldwide to get insight into how they feel about GAP's work environments. This survey concluded with a 68 per cent response rate, and 77 per cent of respondents considered GAP a great environment to work in. GAP's corporate responsibility has allowed them to strengthen their stockholder relationships and be known as one of the fast fashion industry's best companies, with a great image representing a responsible firm.

In December 2009, campaigners in the UK called on two leading high street retailers to stop selling clothes made with cotton which may have been picked by children. Anti-Slavery International and the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) accused H&M and Zara of using cotton suppliers in Bangladesh. It is also suspected that many of their raw materials originates from Uzbekistan, where children aged 10 are forced to work in the fields. The activists were calling to ban the use of Uzbek cotton and implement a "track and trace" systems to guarantee an ethical responsible source of the material.

Silk weaving

A 2003 Human Rights Watch report claimed children as young as five years old were employed and worked for up to 12 hours a day and six to seven days a week in the silk industry. These children, HRW claimed, were bonded child labour in India, easy to find in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

In 2010, a German news investigative report claimed that non-governmental organisations (NGOs) had found up to 10,000 children working in the 1,000 silk factories in 1998. In other locations, thousands of bonded child labourers were present in 1994. After UNICEF and NGOs got involved, the child labour figure dropped drastically after 2005, with the total estimated to be fewer than a thousand child labourers. The report claims the released children were back in school.

In 2008, the BBC reported that the company Primark was using child labour in the manufacture of clothing. In particular, a £4 hand-embroidered shirt was the starting point of a documentary produced by BBC's programme. The programme asks consumers to ask themselves, "Why am I only paying £4 for a hand embroidered top? This item looks handmade. Who made it for such little cost?", in addition to exposing the violent side of the child labour industry in countries where child exploitation is prevalent.

As a result of the BBC report, Royal Television Society awarded it a prize, and Primark took immediate action and fired three Indian suppliers in 2008.

Primark continued to investigate the allegations for three years, concluding that BBC report was a fake. In 2011, following an investigation by the BBC Trust's Editorial Standards Committee, the BBC announced, "Having carefully scrutinised all of the relevant evidence, the committee concluded that, on the balance of probabilities, it was more likely than not that the Bangalore footage was not authentic." BBC subsequently apologised for faking footage, and returned the television award for investigative reporting.

Eliminating child labour

Concerns have often been raised over the buying public's moral complicity in purchasing products assembled or otherwise manufactured in developing countries with child labour. However, others have raised concerns that boycotting products manufactured through child labour may force these children to turn to more dangerous or strenuous professions, such as prostitution or agriculture. For example, a UNICEF study found that after the Child Labor Deterrence Act was introduced in the US, an estimated 50,000 children were dismissed from their garment industry jobs in Bangladesh, leaving many to resort to jobs such as "stone-crushing, street hustling, and prostitution", jobs that are "more hazardous and exploitative than garment production". The study suggests that boycotts are "blunt instruments with long-term consequences, that can actually harm rather than help the children involved."

British historian and socialist E. P. Thompson in The Making of the English Working Class draws a qualitative distinction between child domestic work and participation in the wider (waged) labour market. Further, the usefulness of the experience of the industrial revolution in making predictions about current trends has been disputed. Social historian Hugh Cunningham, author of Children and Childhood in Western Society Since 1500, notes that:

Fifty years ago it might have been assumed that, just as child labour had declined in the developed world in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, so it would also, in a trickle-down fashion, in the rest of the world. Its failure to do that, and its re-emergence in the developed world, raise questions about its role in any economy, whether national or global.

According to Thomas DeGregori, an economics professor at the University of Houston, in an article published by the Cato Institute, a libertarian think-tank operating in Washington D.C., "it is clear that technological and economic change are vital ingredients in getting children out of the workplace and into schools. Then they can grow to become productive adults and live longer, healthier lives. However, in poor countries like Bangladesh, working children are essential for survival in many families, as they were in our own heritage until the late 19th century. So, while the struggle to end child labour is necessary, getting there often requires taking different routes-and, sadly, there are many political obstacles.

From 2008 to 2013, the ILO operated a program through IPEC entitled "Combating Abusive Child Labour (CACL-II)". The project, funded by the European Union, contributed to the Government of Pakistan by providing alternative opportunities for vocational training and education to children withdrawn from the worst forms of child labour.

Periodically, governments, employers' and workers' organisations have met in global conference to assess progress and remaining obstacles and to agree measures to eliminate the worst forms of child labour by 2016: first in Oslo (1997), followed by: The Hague (2010); Brasilia, 8-10 October 2013; Buenos Aires, 14-16 November 2017; and most recently Durban, South Africa, 15-20 May 2022.

Between 2000 and 2012, progress was made against child labor but the elimination of its worst forms was not accomplished. Under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda, UN Member States, employers' and workers' organizations, and civil society organizations are required to work together to eliminate child labor by 2025, forced labor, modern slavery and human trafficking by 2030. Thus, the ILO established Alliance 8.7 as a global partnership.

In January 2021, the ILO published the Child Labour Global Estimates 2020 in collaboration with UNICEF. According to the report child labor decreased by 38% from 246 million in 2000 million to 152 million in 2016. Due to COVID-19 pandemic the number of children in child labor increased by 9 million.

Statistics

Economically Active Children

Economically Active Children (%)

Child Labour

Child Labour (%)

Children in Hazardous Work

Children in Hazardous Work (%)

Child labour

Child labour(%)

Children in hazardous work

Children in hazardous work (%)

Potential positives

International conventions and other instruments:

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2. ^ Larsen, P.B. Indigenous and tribal children: assessing child labour and education challenges. International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), International Labour Office.

3. ^ Hugh Cunningham; Pier Paolo Viazzo, eds. (1996). Child Labour in Historical Perspective: 1800-1985 (PDF). UNICEF. ISBN 978-88-85401-27-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2015.

4. ^ Eric V. Edmonds; Nina Pavcnik (Winter 2005). "Child Labour in the Global Economy" (PDF). Journal of Economic Perspectives. 19 (1): 199-220. doi:10.1257/0895330053147895.

5. Norberg, Johan (2007), ^ Världens välfärd (Stockholm: Government Offices of Sweden), p. 58

6. Thompson, E. P. (1968). The Making of the English Working Class. Penguin. pp. 366-367.

7. Jane Humphries, ^ Childhood And Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution (2010) p. 33

8. ^ Pal, Jadab Kumar; Chakraborty, Sonali; Tewari, Hare Ram; Chandra, Vinod (March 2016). "The working hours of unpaid child workers in the handloom industry in India". International Social Science Journal. 66 (219-220): 197-204. doi:10.1111/issj.12121. ISSN 0020-8701.

9. "^ Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills Archived 9 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine".

10. ^ Douglas A. Galbi. Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge CB2 1ST.

11. ^ Marx, Karl (1864). Inaugural Address of the International Working Men's Association (Speech).

12. ^ Hugh Cunningham (1996). "Combating Child Labour: The British Experience". In Hugh Cunningham; Pier Paolo Viazzo (eds.). Child Labour in Historical Perspective: 1800-1985 (PDF). UNICEF. pp. 41-53. ISBN 978-88-85401-27-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2015.

13. ^ Freedman, Russell; Hine, Lewis (1994). Kids at work: Lewis Hine and the crusade against child labour. New York: Clarion Books. pp. 54-57. ISBN 978-0395587034.

14. Warren, L., ^ Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography (Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge, 2006), p. 699.

15. ^ "Facts and figures on child labour" (PDF). info.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 17 July 2007.

16. ^ "Tackling child labour: From commitment to action". International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour. ILO. 2012. ISBN 978-92-2-126374-6.

17. ^ Basu, Kaushik; Van, Phan Hoang (1998). "The Economics of Child Labour". American Economic Review. 88 (3): 412-427.

18. ^ D'Avolio, Michele (Spring 2004). "Child Labour and Cultural Relativism: From 19th Century America to 21st Century Nepal". Pace International Law Review. 16 (1).

19. ^ Galbi, Douglas (1997). "Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills" (PDF). Journal of Population Economics. 10 (4): 357-375. doi:10.1007/s001480050048. PMID 12293082. S2CID 5858814.

20. ^ Brown, D. K.; Deardorff, A. V.; Stern, R. M. (2003). "Child Labor: Theory, Evidence, and Policy" (PDF). Child Labour: Theory, Evidence, and Policy (Chapter 3, International Labour Standards: History, Theory, and Policy Options) (PDF). pp. 194-247. doi:10.1002/9780470754818.ch3. ISBN 9781405105552.

21. Bass, Loretta (2004). Child Labour in Sub-Saharan Africa. Lynne Rienner Publications. pp. 30-43. ISBN 978-1588262868.

22. ^ Lord, Jack (2011). "Child labour in the Gold Coast: the economics of work, education and the family in late-colonial Africa, c.1940-57" (PDF). The Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth. 4 (1): 88-115. doi:10.1353/hcy.2011.0005. S2CID 143683964.

23. ^ Guyer, Jane (1980). "Head Tax, Social Structure and Rural Incomes in Cameroun, 1922-1937". Cahiers d'Études Africaines. 20 (79): 305-329. doi:10.3406/cea.1980.2338. hdl:. S2CID 143600106.

24. ^ Hugh Lyttleton Haslewood (1930). Child slavery in Hong Kong: the mui tsai system. Sheldon Press.

25. ^ Yuen, Karen (December 2004). "Theorizing the Chinese: The MUI TSAI controversy and construction of transnational chineseness in Hong Kong and British Malaya" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies. 6 (2): 95-110. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 August 2020.

26. ^ Steve Charnovitz, "Child Labour: What to do?," Journal of Commerce, 15 August 1996.

27. ^ Wells, Don (27 June 2007). "'Best Practice' in the Regulation of International Labor Standards: Lessons of the U.S.-Cambodia Textile Agreement". Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal. 27.

28. ^ Tepelus, Camelia M. (2008). "Social responsibility and innovation on trafficking and child sex tourism: Morphing of practice into sustainable tourism policies?". Tourism and Hospitality Research. 8 (2): 98-115. doi:10.1057/thr.2008.10. JSTOR 23745520. S2CID 153642347.

29. ^ Harari, R.; Harari, H. (1 September 2006). "Children's Environment and Health in Latin America: The Ecuadorian Case". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1076 (1): 660-677. Bibcode:2006NYASA1076..660H. doi:10.1196/annals.1371.082. PMID 17119244. S2CID 39554024.

30. Curtin, Chris and Anthony Varley. 1984. ^ Children and childhood in rural Ireland: a consideration of the ethnographic literature. Culture and ideology in Ireland.

31. United Nations Treaty Collection. Convention on the Rights of the Child Archived 11 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 21 May 2009.

32. (in Dutch) ^ Eenderde van de 12-jarigen heeft bijbaan (RTL News, 14 February 2012)

33. ^ Jean‐Marie Baland and James A. Robinson (August 2000). "Is Child Labour Inefficient?". Journal of Political Economy. 108 (4): 663-679. doi:10.1086/316097. JSTOR 10.1086/316097. S2CID 38990374.

34. ^ Edmonds, Eric (Winter 2005). "Does Child Labour Decline with Improving Economic Status?" (PDF). Journal of Human Resources. 40 (1): 77-99. doi:10.3368/jhr.XL.1.77. S2CID 13971652.

35. ^ David Wolfe; Shazzie (2005). Naked Chocolate: The Astonishing Truth about the World's Greatest Food. North Atlantic Books. p. 98. ISBN 978-1556437311.

36. Hawksley, Humphrey (12 April 2001). "Mali's children in chocolate slavery". BBC News.

37. ^ Chanthavong, Samlanchith (2002). "Chocolate and Slavery: Child Labour in Cote d'Ivoire". TED Case Studies Number 664. American University. Archived from the original on 10 February 2012.

38. "Cocoa farm slavery 'exaggerated'". BBC News. 29 September 2000.

39. ^ "Protocol for the growing and processing of cocoa beans and their derivative products in a manner that complies with ILO Convention 182 concerning the prohibition and immediate action for the elimination of the worst forms of child labour" (PDF). International Cocoa Initiative. 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2008.

40. ^ Karen Ann Monsy (24 February 2012). "The bitter truth". Khaleej Times. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012.

41. ^ Marks, Stephen (2010). "Strengthening the Civil society Perspective: China's African impact" (PDF). Fahamu. pp. 9-15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 January 2011.

42. ^ Arrigo, Elisa (1 January 2013). Barnes, Liz; Lea‐Greenwood, Gaynor (eds.). "Corporate responsibility management in fast fashion companies: the Gap Inc. case". Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management. 17 (2): 175-189. doi:10.1108/JFMM-10-2011-0074. ISSN 1361-2026.

43. ^ "BBC to apologise over 'faked footage' in Panorama report about Primark". The Telegraph. 16 June 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.

44. "Some authors such as conservative Nobel economist Milton Friedman claim that child labour actually decreased during the industrial revolution. He argues that before the industrial revolution almost all children were working in agriculture(...)" ^ Robert A. Schultz (2010). Information Technology and the Ethics of Globalization: Transnational Issues and Implications. IGI Global Snippet. ISBN 978-1-60566-923-6.

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46. ^ For examples see Bourdillon et al pp 1-6, 180-194. Pp 195-200 offer an alternative and more effective approach to protecting working children.

47. ^ Polak, Barbara (2012). "Peasants in the Making: Bamana children at work". In Spittler, Gerd; Bourdillon, M. F. C. (eds.). African Children at Work: Working and Learning in Growing Up for Life. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 87-112. ISBN 978-3-643-90205-4.

48. ^ White, Ben (November 2012). "Agriculture and the Generation Problem: Rural Youth, Employment and the Future of Farming". IDS Bulletin. 43 (6): 9-19. doi:10.1111/j.1759-5436.2012.00375.x.

References

ILO Minimum Estimate of Forced Labour in the World. (2005)

The Cost of Coercion ILO 2009

International Labour Office. (2005). A global alliance against forced labour

Operational Indicators of Trafficking in Human Beings 2009 ILO/SAP-FL

Lists of indicators of Trafficking in Human Beings 2009 ILO/SAP-FL

Eradication of forced labour - General Survey concerning the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29), and the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) - ILO 2007

Forced Labour: Definition, Indicators and Measurement 2004 - ILO

Stopping Forced Labour 2001 - ILO

Agbu, Osita (2009). Children and Youth in the Labour Process in Africa. African Books Collective. ISBN 978-2-86978-251-8.

Forster, John (2006) [1872-1874]. Life of Charles Dickens. London: Diderot Publishing. ISBN 978-90-77932-03-2. Archived from the original on 21 September 2015.

Lieten, Kristoffel; Meerkerk, Elise van Nederveen (2011). Child Labour's Global Past, 1650-2000. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-0343-0517-4.

Honeyman, Katrina (2016). Childhood and Child Labour in Industrial England: Diversity and Agency, 1750-1914. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-16792-1.

Further reading

Baland, Jean-Marie and James A. Robinson (2000) 'Is child labour inefficient?' Journal of Political Economy 108, 663-679

Basu, Kaushik, and Homa Zarghamee (2009) 'Is product boycott a good idea for controlling child labour? A theoretical investigation' Journal of Development Economics 88, 217-220

Bhukuth, Augendra. "Defining child labour: a controversial debate" Development in Practice (2008) 18, 385-394

Emerson, Patrick M.; Portela Souza, André (2011). "Is Child Labour Harmful? The Impact of Working Earlier in Life on Adult Earnings". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 59 (2): 345-385. doi:10.1086/657125. hdl:10419/34334. PMID 21174883. S2CID 21994733. uses data from Brazil to show very strong negative effects-boys who work before age 14 earn much less as adults

Humbert, Franziska. The Challenge of Child Labour in International Law (2009)

Humphries, Jane. Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution (2010)

ILO, Investing in every child: An economic Study of the Costs and Benefits of Eliminating Child Labour

Mayer, Gerald. Child Labor in America: History, Policy, and Legislative Issues. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 2013.

Ravallion, Martin, and Quentin Wodon (2000) 'Does child labour displace schooling? Evidence on behavioural responses to an enrollment subsidy' Economic Journal 110, C158-C175

Anderson, Elisabeth (2018). "Policy Entrepreneurs and the Origins of the Regulatory Welfare State: Child Labor Reform in Nineteenth-Century Europe". American Sociological Review. 83 (1): 173-211. doi:10.1177/0003122417753112. comparison France and Germany, with a bibliography of primary and secondary sources

Anderson, Elisabeth (2013). "Ideas in Action: The Politics of Prussian Child Labor Reform, 1817-1839". Theory and Society. 42 (1): 81-119. doi:10.1007/s11186-012-9186-4. S2CID 143867112.

"Child Employing Industries," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 35, Mar. 1910 in JSTOR, articles by experts in 1910

Goldberg, Ellis. Trade, Reputation, and Child Labour in Twentieth-Century Egypt (2004) excerpt and text search

Grier, Beverly. Invisible Hands: Child Labour and the State in Colonial Zimbabwe (2005)

Hindman, Hugh D. Child Labour: An American History (2002)

Humphries, Jane; Horrell, Sara (1995). "'The Exploitation of Little Children': Child Labour and the Family Economy in the Industrial Revolution". Explorations in Economic History. 32 (4): 485-516. doi:10.1006/exeh.1995.1021.

Humphries, Jane. Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution (Cambridge Studies in Economic History) (2011) excerpt and text search

Kirby, Peter. Child Labour in Britain, 1750-1870 (2003) excerpt and text search

Lovejoy, Owen R. "Child labor in the coal mines." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 27.2 (1906): 35-41. online

McGill, Nettie Pauline. The welfare of children in bituminous coal mining communities in West Virginia (US Government Printing Office, 1923) online.

McIntosh, Robert. Boys in the pits: Child labour in coal mines (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2000), Canadian mines

Margaret McMillan (1907), Labour and Childhood, London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Wikidata Q107325671

Meerkerk, E. v. N.; Schmidt, A. (1 March 2008). "Between Wage Labor and Vocation: Child Labor in Dutch Urban Industry, 1600-1800". Journal of Social History. 41 (3): 717-736. doi:10.1353/jsh.2008.0041. hdl:. JSTOR 25096529. S2CID 154737479.

Mofford, Juliet. Child Labour in America (1970)

Tuttle, Carolyn. Hard at Work in Factories And Mines: The Economics of Child Labour During The British Industrial Revolution (1999)

External links

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Child labour is the exploitation of children through any form of work that deprives them of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful.

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Children Today vs. Children in 1900

Sometimes, we take for granted the benefits of modern Western society. For example, children today have it so much better than children did a hundred years ago. Children today have ample time to play. They go to parks with their parents; they play in their rooms with toys; they ride their bikes with friends and siblings; they attend school and learn all kinds of cool things. Sure, school can be challenging sometimes, and sure, they may have to clean their rooms and do a few chores here and there, but overall, children have it pretty good.

This was not the case during the Industrial Revolution and even afterwards. In the early 1900s, children frequently worked in factories. Some children as young as 5 or 6 worked. Many children worked long shifts, sometimes up to 12 hours. They worked under horrible conditions: dangerous fumes, poisonous gases and chemicals, and deadly mechanized equipment. It was not uncommon in the early 20th century to see children with missing limbs: their limbs had been lost working with factory machines. The bottom line here is that child labor was not pretty. Let's dig deeper and learn more about child labor in the early 1900s.

Child Labor and the Industrial Revolution

Let's explore some context very quickly. Child labor was the direct product of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain around the 1750s and took place throughout the next 100 years or so. It spread to the United States where it peaked over the first half of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution was characterized by rapid advances in steam power, iron production, machine tooling, and other industrial technologies. This revolution led to the rise of large factories. Factories were eager to employ women and children because they were willing to work for cheap wages. This was true on both sides of the Atlantic. As time went by, a culture of child labor developed and characterized much of the Industrial Revolution. By the beginning of the 20th century, child labor peaked (particularly in the United States).

Child Labor in Early 20th Century America

Great Britain took a more progressive approach to cracking down on child labor. As a result, it was dealt with earlier. The United States was a different story. By 1900, child labor was more predominant in the American South than in the North. It is believed some 1.7 million children under the age were employed as laborers. The North was more progressive, and had passed stricter laws regulating child labor. Because of this, many factories moved to the South. Children were commonly employed in textile factories, coal mines, glass factories, canneries, and many other types of work environments. Small children were particularly valued because they could fit into small spaces that adults could not. For example, children were used to crawl into tight spaces in coal minces and to get in between large machines in factories. Again, it goes without saying that is was very dangerous.

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Sometimes, we take for granted the benefits of modern Western society. For example, children today have it so much better than children did a hundred years ago. Children today have ample time to play. They go to parks with their parents; they play in their rooms with toys; they ride their bikes with friends and siblings; they attend school and learn all kinds of cool things.

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Featured Teaching Kits

Teacher-approved stories, resources, and worksheets for teaching about real teens who changed the world throughout history, courtesy of Junior Scholastic, the middle school Social Studies classroom magazine

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Real Teenagers in History | Teens Who Made a Difference

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Featured Teaching Kits Teacher-approved stories, resources, and worksheets for teaching about real teens who changed the world throughout history, courtesy of Junior Scholastic, the middle school Social Studies classroom magazine

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Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold economically liberal positions, while economic nationalist and left-wing political parties generally support protectionism,[1][2][3][4] the opposite of free trade.