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Good language teaching goes beyond words. Language teachers expose their students to spoken and written texts right from the start of their learning. Spoken texts include oral stories, interviews, dialogues, monologues (e.g. a welcome to country speech, a presentation to the class), phone conversations, discussions, role plays, or any other piece of spoken language.

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Context definition, the parts of a written or spoken statement that precede or follow a specific word or passage, usually influencing its meaning or effect: You have misinterpreted my remark because you took it out of context. See more.

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Despite this, there are striking analogies between the philosophical responses to the problem of underdetermination in the two contexts.

Purely indefinite readings appear to be more exceptional, yet in some contexts they provide a plausible interpretation of a given gerund construction.

Both representations are valid and may be used in different contexts.

These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.

context

These are words often used in combination with context.

Click on a collocation to see more examples of it.

appropriate context

Patients responded positively to advice when in an appropriate context and by a health professional with whom they had developed a relationship and rapport.

architectural context

Devices of reflection and re-scaling are extracted from an architectural context and employed with quirky irreverence in this exhibition of models, drawings and ready-mades.

These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.

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CONTEXT definition: 1. the situation within which something exists or happens, and that can help explain it: 2. the.... Learn more.

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Definition of Context

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Definition of Context

Context is the background, environment, setting, framework, or surroundings of events or occurrences. Simply, context means circumstances forming a background of an event, idea, or statement, in such a way as to enable readers to understand the narrative or a literary piece. It is necessary for writing to provide information, new concepts, and words to develop thoughts.

Whenever writers use a quote or a fact from some source, it becomes necessary to provide their readers some information about the source, to give context to its use. This piece of information is called context. Context illuminates the meaning and relevance of the text and maybe something cultural, historical, social, or political.

Difference Between Content and Context

Content is a written text, while context is a place or situation. Although a text is not a context, content could present context within it. For example, if there occurs a statement in a certain text, it is content in its own right but it is also the context of that statement. It would show what comes next and what comes before that specific statement. Hence, it presents the context that is the place, situation or even atmosphere.

Rhetorical Context: Purpose, Author, and Audience

Although the context in literature is something different, it is different in rhetoric, too. In literary writings, it is just the situation where some statement or characters or events take place. However, in rhetoric, it is not just the text, it is also the purpose of the writing, its author and its audience that matter the most. They make up the context of that rhetorical piece. The reason is that rhetoric is specifically intended to be used for a specific purpose and by a specific person, or it loses its real purpose as well as its effectiveness.

Use of Context in Sentences

1. This story was written in the 19th century after the end of the Civil War. (The context mentions - when)

2. Gandhi studied law in South Africa before returning to India and starting the Freedom Movement. (The context mentions - where)

3. Harry Potter was published in 1997 by Bloomsbury, United Kingdom. (The context mentions when and where)

4. Ivan heard 'Bonjour' as soon as he landed at the airport and saw the tower's top on the way to the exit. (The context mentions a setting and the character is abroad)

5. The English Tommies with their weapons entered the buildings to secure the area. (The context mentions the time period of WW1, when soldiers were called 'Tommies')

Examples of Context in Literature

Example #1: A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

Dickens begins his novel, A Tale of Two Cities, in 1770, by describing the release of Doctor Manette from Bastille, before taking the story to 1793 and early 1794. In this time span, the narrative covers a broad story. In a larger view, this novel begins in 1757, while its final scene looks forward to the situation in post-revolutionary Paris.

This story has a historical context, which Dickens has organized around various events that occurred during the French Revolution. He has drawn historical features from major events, including the fall of Bastille, the September Massacres, and the Reign of Terror. This backdrop is the story's context.

Example #2: Animal Farm by George Orwell

George Orwell felt disillusioned by Soviet Communism and its revolution during his time. In the phenomenal novel, Animal Farm, Orwell has expressed himself by using satire through the allegorical characters of Old Major and Boxer; relating them to the Russian Revolution and its characters. Orwell uses animals to explain the history and context of Soviet Communism, some of which relate to party leaders. For instance, the pig Napoleon represents Joseph Stalin, and Snowball represents Leon Trotsky. In fact, Orwell uses this fable for political and aesthetic reasons, following the Russian Revolution as its context.

Example #3: Dr. Faustus by Christopher Marlowe

Historical context of Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus is religious, as it hints at cultural changes taking place during Marlowe's time. In 16th century Europe, there was a conflict between Roman Catholicism and the Protestant English Church. During this entire period, Calvinism was popular within the English churches; however, it was controversial. According to Calvinistic doctrine, the status of the people was predestined as saved or damned. Scholars and readers have debated on the stance that Marlowe's play takes regarding the Calvinist doctrine, in whether Faustus is predestined to hell or not. The Renaissance period provides context for this play by Marlowe.

Example #4: Oedipus Rex by Sophocles

There is a popular saying that stories indicate the values and cultures of the societies in which their authors live. In Oedipus Rex, Sophocles presents his protagonist, Oedipus, struggling to implement his will against the destiny set forth by the Greek gods. During this process, Sophocles reveals the Greek values of the period during which he wrote the play.

He has illustrated the context of this play through the words and actions of Oedipus and other characters; as their Greek ideals concerning their governance, fate, and human relationships with the gods. These were some of the more popular themes of that era, and so form the context of the Oedipus Rex.

Example #5: Lord of the Flies by William Golding

"While stranded on a deserted island, a group of boys believe there is a dangerous creature lurking in the underbrush; Simon is the first to identify this menace, suggesting to the boys that 'maybe,' he said hesitantly, 'maybe there is a beast'."

This excerpt provides an excellent example of context, as it narrates an incident involving a group of young men on a deserted island. The context describes why they were afraid, giving a clear picture of the situation and setting.

Function

Context is all about providing a background or picture of the situation, and of who is involved. Context is an essential part of a literary text, which helps to engage the audience. If writers ignore context, they may overlook a critical aspect of the story's intent. Without context, readers may not see the true picture of a literary work. Context helps readers understand the cultural, social, philosophical, and political ideas and movements prevalent in society at the time of the writing.

Synonyms of Context

Context does not have an equivalent, it has several synonyms that could replace it in different contexts. For example, conditions, factors, surroundings, state of affairs, environment, situation, background, milieu, mood, ambiance, subject, text, theme, or topic.

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Context - Examples and Definition of Context

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Context definition with examples of Context in literature. Context is the background, environment, or setting in a literary work.

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Despite this, there are striking analogies between the philosophical responses to the problem of underdetermination in the two contexts.

Purely indefinite readings appear to be more exceptional, yet in some contexts they provide a plausible interpretation of a given gerund construction.

Both representations are valid and may be used in different contexts.

These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.

context

These are words often used in combination with context.

Click on a collocation to see more examples of it.

appropriate context

Patients responded positively to advice when in an appropriate context and by a health professional with whom they had developed a relationship and rapport.

architectural context

Devices of reflection and re-scaling are extracted from an architectural context and employed with quirky irreverence in this exhibition of models, drawings and ready-mades.

These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.

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CONTEXT definition: 1. the situation within which something exists or happens, and that can help explain it: 2. the.... Learn more.

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The Role of context (Discourse Analysis)

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The Role of the context in interpretation Discourse Analysis Lecture 6

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...the historical context in which Chaucer wrote.

This is the context in which the President must decide his policy.

The context of a word, sentence, or text consists of the words, sentences, or text before and after it which help to make its meaning clear.

Without a context, I would have assumed it was written by a man.

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Context definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary

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the historical context in which Chaucer wrote. This is the context in which the President must decide his policy. The context of a word, sentence, or text consists of the words, sentences, or text before and after it which help to make its meaning clear.

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the parts of a discourse that surround a word or passage and can throw light on its meaning; the interrelated conditions in which something exists or occurs : environment, setting... See the full definition

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Context

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the parts of a discourse that surround a word or passage and can throw light on its meaning; the interrelated conditions in which something exists or occurs : environment, setting... See the full definition

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Abstract

For discourse analysts, the notion of context is a key factor that differentiates approaches to data analysis. While most approaches involve a micro-level analysis of stretches of text or talk, it is the "breadth of contexts in which utterances are considered" (Gordon, 2009, p. 192) that varies among approaches. What precisely constitutes context (i.e., whether it is limited to the locally produced utterances or is extended to include the world outside of the text or talk), and how much (or how little) context should be considered in the analysis has generated some hearty debates (see Billig, 1999a, 1999b; Schegloff, 1997; Tracy, 2010). The aim of this forum is neither to rehash these debates nor to argue in favor of one perspective over another. Instead, this forum will further broaden the already broadly defined notion of context by viewing it from multiple dimensions.

This edition of the forum comprises six commentaries on the role of context in discourse analysis by members of Dr. Hansun Zhang Waring's Spring 2010 Doctoral Seminar in Applied Linguistics at Teachers College, Columbia University. These contributions span a breadth of contexts, from a family dinnertime conversation to a classroom setting, and each contributor presents a distinct perspective on how and how much context figures into analysis.

In the first commentary, Junko Takahashi examines the role of cultural context in understanding compliments and compliment responses in Japanese conversation. Next, Drew Fagan discusses the importance of considering multiple domains of teacher knowledge as context so as to enrich analysis of language classrooms. Catherine DiFelice Box employs the notion of procedural consequentiality to demonstrate how context unfolds within the discourse of a classroom interaction. Sarah Creider utilizes both conversation analysis and Goffman's (1974) theories of frames and footing to reveal the multiple layers of context in a single turn of teacher talk. Rebekah Johnson and Donna DelPrete analyze a family dinnertime conversation to show how context features in family discourse. Finally, Tara Tarpey merges conversation analysis and ethnography in the analysis of an interaction between a tutor and a tutee in a writing center.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Dr. Hansun Zhang Waring for her invaluable comments on each piece in this forum. We are also grateful to Adrienne Wai Man Lew, the Managing Editor, for her supervision and constructive advice. Finally, we thank the participants in all of our data excerpts, without whom these pieces would not be possible.
REFERENCES
Billig, M. (1999a). Whose terms? Whose ordinariness? Rhetoric and ideology in conversation analysis. Discourse & Society, 10, 543-558.

Billig, M. (1999b). Conversation analysis and the claims of naivety. Discourse & Society, 10, 572-576.

Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis. Lebanon, NH: Northeastern University Press.

Gordon, C. (2009). Making meanings, creating family: Intertextuality and framing in family interaction. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schegloff, E. A. (1997). Whose text? Whose context? Discourse & Society, 8, 165-87.

Tracy, K. (2010). Analyzing context: Framing the discussion. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 31, 1-28.
COMMENTARIES
Culture as Context

Junko Takahashi

Teacher Knowledge as Context

Drew S. Fagan

Classroom as Context: Procedural Consequentiality in a Secondary English Classroom

Catherine DiFelice Box

Layered Contexts

Sarah Creider

Family as Context

Rebekah Johnson and Donna DelPrete

The Institution as Context

Tara E. Tarpey

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Text and Context: The Role of Context in Discourse Analysis

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
For discourse analysts, the notion of context is a key factor that differentiates approaches to data analysis. While most approaches involve a micro-level analysis of stretches of text or talk, it is the "breadth of contexts in which utterances are considered" (Gordon, 2009, p. 192) that varies among approaches.

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Context

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Abstract

For discourse analysts, the notion of context is a key factor that differentiates approaches to data analysis. While most approaches involve a micro-level analysis of stretches of text or talk, it is the "breadth of contexts in which utterances are considered" (Gordon, 2009, p. 192) that varies among approaches. What precisely constitutes context (i.e., whether it is limited to the locally produced utterances or is extended to include the world outside of the text or talk), and how much (or how little) context should be considered in the analysis has generated some hearty debates (see Billig, 1999a, 1999b; Schegloff, 1997; Tracy, 2010). The aim of this forum is neither to rehash these debates nor to argue in favor of one perspective over another. Instead, this forum will further broaden the already broadly defined notion of context by viewing it from multiple dimensions.

This edition of the forum comprises six commentaries on the role of context in discourse analysis by members of Dr. Hansun Zhang Waring's Spring 2010 Doctoral Seminar in Applied Linguistics at Teachers College, Columbia University. These contributions span a breadth of contexts, from a family dinnertime conversation to a classroom setting, and each contributor presents a distinct perspective on how and how much context figures into analysis.

In the first commentary, Junko Takahashi examines the role of cultural context in understanding compliments and compliment responses in Japanese conversation. Next, Drew Fagan discusses the importance of considering multiple domains of teacher knowledge as context so as to enrich analysis of language classrooms. Catherine DiFelice Box employs the notion of procedural consequentiality to demonstrate how context unfolds within the discourse of a classroom interaction. Sarah Creider utilizes both conversation analysis and Goffman's (1974) theories of frames and footing to reveal the multiple layers of context in a single turn of teacher talk. Rebekah Johnson and Donna DelPrete analyze a family dinnertime conversation to show how context features in family discourse. Finally, Tara Tarpey merges conversation analysis and ethnography in the analysis of an interaction between a tutor and a tutee in a writing center.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Dr. Hansun Zhang Waring for her invaluable comments on each piece in this forum. We are also grateful to Adrienne Wai Man Lew, the Managing Editor, for her supervision and constructive advice. Finally, we thank the participants in all of our data excerpts, without whom these pieces would not be possible.
REFERENCES
Billig, M. (1999a). Whose terms? Whose ordinariness? Rhetoric and ideology in conversation analysis. Discourse & Society, 10, 543-558.

Billig, M. (1999b). Conversation analysis and the claims of naivety. Discourse & Society, 10, 572-576.

Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis. Lebanon, NH: Northeastern University Press.

Gordon, C. (2009). Making meanings, creating family: Intertextuality and framing in family interaction. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schegloff, E. A. (1997). Whose text? Whose context? Discourse & Society, 8, 165-87.

Tracy, K. (2010). Analyzing context: Framing the discussion. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 31, 1-28.
COMMENTARIES
Culture as Context

Junko Takahashi

Teacher Knowledge as Context

Drew S. Fagan

Classroom as Context: Procedural Consequentiality in a Secondary English Classroom

Catherine DiFelice Box

Layered Contexts

Sarah Creider

Family as Context

Rebekah Johnson and Donna DelPrete

The Institution as Context

Tara E. Tarpey

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Text and Context: The Role of Context in Discourse Analysis

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
For discourse analysts, the notion of context is a key factor that differentiates approaches to data analysis. While most approaches involve a micro-level analysis of stretches of text or talk, it is the "breadth of contexts in which utterances are considered" (Gordon, 2009, p. 192) that varies among approaches.

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the parts of a discourse that surround a word or passage and can throw light on its meaning; the interrelated conditions in which something exists or occurs : environment, setting... See the full definition

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Context

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Definition of Context

Context is the background, environment, setting, framework, or surroundings of events or occurrences. Simply, context means circumstances forming a background of an event, idea, or statement, in such a way as to enable readers to understand the narrative or a literary piece. It is necessary for writing to provide information, new concepts, and words to develop thoughts.

Whenever writers use a quote or a fact from some source, it becomes necessary to provide their readers some information about the source, to give context to its use. This piece of information is called context. Context illuminates the meaning and relevance of the text and maybe something cultural, historical, social, or political.

Difference Between Content and Context

Content is a written text, while context is a place or situation. Although a text is not a context, content could present context within it. For example, if there occurs a statement in a certain text, it is content in its own right but it is also the context of that statement. It would show what comes next and what comes before that specific statement. Hence, it presents the context that is the place, situation or even atmosphere.

Rhetorical Context: Purpose, Author, and Audience

Although the context in literature is something different, it is different in rhetoric, too. In literary writings, it is just the situation where some statement or characters or events take place. However, in rhetoric, it is not just the text, it is also the purpose of the writing, its author and its audience that matter the most. They make up the context of that rhetorical piece. The reason is that rhetoric is specifically intended to be used for a specific purpose and by a specific person, or it loses its real purpose as well as its effectiveness.

Use of Context in Sentences

1. This story was written in the 19th century after the end of the Civil War. (The context mentions - when)

2. Gandhi studied law in South Africa before returning to India and starting the Freedom Movement. (The context mentions - where)

3. Harry Potter was published in 1997 by Bloomsbury, United Kingdom. (The context mentions when and where)

4. Ivan heard 'Bonjour' as soon as he landed at the airport and saw the tower's top on the way to the exit. (The context mentions a setting and the character is abroad)

5. The English Tommies with their weapons entered the buildings to secure the area. (The context mentions the time period of WW1, when soldiers were called 'Tommies')

Examples of Context in Literature

Example #1: A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

Dickens begins his novel, A Tale of Two Cities, in 1770, by describing the release of Doctor Manette from Bastille, before taking the story to 1793 and early 1794. In this time span, the narrative covers a broad story. In a larger view, this novel begins in 1757, while its final scene looks forward to the situation in post-revolutionary Paris.

This story has a historical context, which Dickens has organized around various events that occurred during the French Revolution. He has drawn historical features from major events, including the fall of Bastille, the September Massacres, and the Reign of Terror. This backdrop is the story's context.

Example #2: Animal Farm by George Orwell

George Orwell felt disillusioned by Soviet Communism and its revolution during his time. In the phenomenal novel, Animal Farm, Orwell has expressed himself by using satire through the allegorical characters of Old Major and Boxer; relating them to the Russian Revolution and its characters. Orwell uses animals to explain the history and context of Soviet Communism, some of which relate to party leaders. For instance, the pig Napoleon represents Joseph Stalin, and Snowball represents Leon Trotsky. In fact, Orwell uses this fable for political and aesthetic reasons, following the Russian Revolution as its context.

Example #3: Dr. Faustus by Christopher Marlowe

Historical context of Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus is religious, as it hints at cultural changes taking place during Marlowe's time. In 16th century Europe, there was a conflict between Roman Catholicism and the Protestant English Church. During this entire period, Calvinism was popular within the English churches; however, it was controversial. According to Calvinistic doctrine, the status of the people was predestined as saved or damned. Scholars and readers have debated on the stance that Marlowe's play takes regarding the Calvinist doctrine, in whether Faustus is predestined to hell or not. The Renaissance period provides context for this play by Marlowe.

Example #4: Oedipus Rex by Sophocles

There is a popular saying that stories indicate the values and cultures of the societies in which their authors live. In Oedipus Rex, Sophocles presents his protagonist, Oedipus, struggling to implement his will against the destiny set forth by the Greek gods. During this process, Sophocles reveals the Greek values of the period during which he wrote the play.

He has illustrated the context of this play through the words and actions of Oedipus and other characters; as their Greek ideals concerning their governance, fate, and human relationships with the gods. These were some of the more popular themes of that era, and so form the context of the Oedipus Rex.

Example #5: Lord of the Flies by William Golding

"While stranded on a deserted island, a group of boys believe there is a dangerous creature lurking in the underbrush; Simon is the first to identify this menace, suggesting to the boys that 'maybe,' he said hesitantly, 'maybe there is a beast'."

This excerpt provides an excellent example of context, as it narrates an incident involving a group of young men on a deserted island. The context describes why they were afraid, giving a clear picture of the situation and setting.

Function

Context is all about providing a background or picture of the situation, and of who is involved. Context is an essential part of a literary text, which helps to engage the audience. If writers ignore context, they may overlook a critical aspect of the story's intent. Without context, readers may not see the true picture of a literary work. Context helps readers understand the cultural, social, philosophical, and political ideas and movements prevalent in society at the time of the writing.

Synonyms of Context

Context does not have an equivalent, it has several synonyms that could replace it in different contexts. For example, conditions, factors, surroundings, state of affairs, environment, situation, background, milieu, mood, ambiance, subject, text, theme, or topic.

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Context - Examples and Definition of Context

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Context definition with examples of Context in literature. Context is the background, environment, or setting in a literary work.

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Discourse Analysis

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the parts of a discourse that surround a word or passage and can throw light on its meaning; the interrelated conditions in which something exists or occurs : environment, setting... See the full definition

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Writing@CSU is the home of Colorado State University's open-access learning environment, the Writing Studio. Use this site to write, learn to write, take writing classes, and access resources for writing teachers.

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Definitions

(1) In linguistics, discourse refers to a unit of language longer than a single sentence.

(2) More broadly, discourse is the use of spoken or written language in a social context.

Discourse studies, says Jan Renkema, refers to "the discipline devoted to the investigation of the relationship between form and function in verbal communication" ( Introduction to Discourse Studies, 2004). Dutch linguist Teun van Dijk, author of The Handbook of Discourse Analysis (1985) and the founder of several journals, is generally regarded as the "founding father" of contemporary discourse studies.

See Examples and Observations below. Also see:

Etymology
From the Latin, "run about"

Examples and Observations

"Discourse in context may consist of only one or two words as in stop or no smoking. Alternatively, a piece of discourse can be hundreds of thousands of words in length, as some novels are. A typical piece of discourse is somewhere between these two extremes."
(Eli Hinkel and Sandra Fotos, New Perspectives on Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002)

"Discourse is the way in which language is used socially to convey broad historical meanings. It is language identified by the social conditions of its use, by who is using it and under what conditions. Language can never be 'neutral' because it bridges our personal and social worlds."
(Frances Henry and Carol Tator, Discourses of Domination. University of Toronto Press, 2002)

Contexts and Topics of Discourse
"Discourse can also be used to refer to particular contexts of language use, and in this sense it becomes similar to concepts like genre or text type. For example, we can conceptualize political discourse (the sort of language used in political contexts) or media discourse (language used in the media). In addition, some writers have conceived of discourse as related to particular topics, such as an environmental discourse or colonial discourse (which may occur in many different genres). Such labels sometimes suggest a particular attitude towards a topic (e.g. people engaging in environmental discourse would generally be expected to be concerned with protecting the environment rather than wasting resources. Related to this, Foucault (1972: 49) defines discourse more ideologically as 'practices which systematically form the objects of which they speak.'"
(Paul Baker and Sibonile Ellece, Key Terms in Discourse Analysis. Continuum, 2011)

Discourse and Text
"'Discourse' is sometimes used in contrast with 'text,' where 'text' refers to actual written or spoken data, and 'discourse' refers to the whole act of communication involving production and comprehension, not necessarily entirely verbal. . . . The study of discourse, then, can involve matters like context, background information or knowledge shared between a speaker and hearer."
(Meriel Bloor and Thomas Bloor, The Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis: an Introduction. Routledge, 2013)

Discourse as a Joint Activity
"[D]iscourse is more than a message between sender and receiver. In fact sender and receiver are metaphors that obfuscate what is really going on in communication. Specific illocutions have to be linked to the message depending on the situation in which discourse takes place. . . . [Psycholinguist Herbert] Clark compares language in use with a business transaction, paddling together in a canoe, playing cards or performing music in an orchestra.

"A central notion in Clark's study is common ground. The joint activity is undertaken to accumulate the common ground of the participants. With common ground is meant the sum of the joint and mutual knowledge, beliefs and suppositions of the participants."
(Jan Renkeme, Introduction to Discourse Studies. John Benjamins, 2004)

Discourse in the Social Sciences
"Within social science, . . . discourse is mainly used to describe verbal reports of individuals. In particular, discourse is analyzed by those who are interested in language and talk and what people are doing with their speech. . . .

"The term discourse is also used to refer to meanings at the more macro level. This approach does not study the individual words spoken by people but the language used to describe aspects of the world, and has tended to be taken by those using a sociological perspective."
(Jane Ogden, Health and the Construction of the Individual. Psychology Press, 2002)

Pronunciation: DIS-kors

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(1) In linguistics, discourse refers to a unit of language longer than a single sentence. (2) More broadly, discourse is the use of spoken or written language in a social context. Discourse studies, says Jan Renkema, refers to "the discipline devoted to the investigation of the relationship between form and function in verbal communication" ( Introduction to Discourse Studies, 2004).

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After eight years as president, Barack Obama has made his farewell address to the nation, saying it was 'the honour of my life to serve you'. In a powerful, and at times emotional, speech, he called on citizens to believe in their own ability to bring about change. The address finished with a reference to his famous 2008 campaign slogan as he told the crowd: 'Yes we can. Yes we did. Yes we can'.

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Barack Obama says goodbye: 'Yes we did. Yes we can' - video

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After eight years as president, Barack Obama has made his farewell address to the nation, saying it was 'the honour of my life to serve you'. In a powerful, and at times emotional, speech, he called on citizens to believe in their own ability to bring about change.

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Discourse analysis, also called discourse studies, was developed during the 1970s as an academic field. Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways in which language is used between people, both in written texts and spoken contexts.

Discourse Analysis Defined

Whereas other areas of language study might focus on individual parts of language-such as words and phrases (grammar) or the pieces that make up words (linguistics)-discourse analysis looks at a running conversation involving a speaker and listener (or a writer's text and its reader).

In discourse analysis, the context of a conversation is taken into account as well as what's being said. This context may encompass a social and cultural framework, including the location of a speaker at the time of the discourse, as well as nonverbal cues such as body language, and, in the case of textual communication, it may also include images and symbols. "[It's] the study of real language use, by real speakers in real situations," explains Teun A. van Dijk, a noted author and scholar in the field.

Key Takeaways: Discourse Analysis

What Discourse Analysis Does

Misunderstanding relayed information can lead to problems-big or small. Being able to distinguish subtle subtext in order to differentiate between factual reporting and fake news, editorials, or propaganda is crucial to interpreting true meaning and intent. This is the reason that having well-developed skills in the critical analysis of discourse-to be able to "read between the lines" of verbal and/or written communication-is of utmost importance.

Since the establishment of the field, discourse analysis has evolved to include a wide range of topics, from the public versus private use of language to official versus colloquial rhetoric, and from oratory to written and multimedia discourses. The field of study has further branched out to be paired with the fields of psychology, anthropology, and philosophy, thus meshing linguistics with sociology.

"We're also 'asking not just about the rhetoric of politics, but also about the rhetoric of history and the rhetoric of popular culture; not just about the rhetoric of the public sphere but about rhetoric on the street, in the hair salon, or online; not just about the rhetoricity of formal argument but also about the rhetoricity of personal identity."-from "Discourse Analysis and Rhetorical Studies" by Christopher Eisenhart and Barbara Johnstone

Academic Applications of Discourse Analysis

There are many avenues we can study through the lens of discourse analysis including discourse during a political debate, discourse in advertising, television programming/media, interviewing, and storytelling. By looking at the context of language use, not simply the words, we can understand nuanced layers of meaning that are added by the social or institutional aspects at work, such as gender, power imbalance, conflicts, cultural background, and racism.

As a result, discourse analysis can be used to study inequality in society, such as institutional racism, inherent bias in media, and sexism. We can also use it to examine and interpret discussions regarding religious symbols located in public places.

Real-World Applications of Discourse Analysis

Apart from scholarly applications, discourse analysis has some very pragmatic uses as well. Specialists in the field are tasked with helping world leaders understand the true meaning behind communications from their peers. In the field of medicine, it's used to help physicians find ways to ensure they're better understood by people with limited language skills, as well as guiding them in dealings when giving patients a challenging diagnosis.

For example, in one study, transcripts of conversations between doctors and patients were analyzed to determine where misunderstandings had occurred.﻿﻿ In another, women were interviewed about their feelings regarding a diagnosis of breast cancer.﻿﻿ How did it affect their relationships? What was the role of their social support network? How did "positive thinking" come into play?

How Discourse Analysis Differs from Grammar Analysis

Unlike grammar analysis, which focuses on the structure of sentences, discourse analysis focuses on the broad and general use of language within and between particular groups of people. Another important distinction is that while grammarians typically construct the examples they analyze, the analysis of discourse relies on actual writings and speech of the group being studied to determine popular usage.

In terms of textual analysis, grammarians may examine texts in isolation for elements such as the art of persuasion or word choice (diction), but only discourse analysis takes into account the social and cultural context of a given text.

In terms of verbal expression, discourse analysis takes in the colloquial, cultural, and living use of language-including each and every "um," "er," and "you know," as well as slips of the tongue, and awkward pauses. Grammar analysis, on the other hand, relies entirely on sentence structure, word usage, and stylistic choices. This does, of course, often include a cultural ingredient but it's missing the human element of spoken discourse.

Additional References

Van Dijk, Teun A. "Handbook of Discourse Analysis Vol. 4: Discourse Analysis in Society." Academic Press. December 1997.

Eisenhart, Christopher; Johnstone, Barbara. "Discourse Analysis and Rhetorical Studies." Rhetoric in Detail: Discourse Analyses of Rhetorical Talk and Text, pp. 3-21. Amsterdam/Philadelphia. 2008

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Observing the Human Use of Language: Discourse Analysis

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Discourse analysis, also called discourse studies, was developed during the 1970s as an academic field. Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways in which language is used between people, both in written texts and spoken contexts.

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In linguistics, the term text refers to:

1. The original words of something written, printed, or spoken, in contrast to a summary or paraphrase.

2. A coherent stretch of language that may be regarded as an object of critical analysis.

Text linguistics refers to a form of discourse analysis-a method of studying written or spoken language-that is concerned with the description and analysis of extended texts (those beyond the level of the single sentence). A text can be any example of written or spoken language, from something as complex as a book or legal document to something as simple as the body of an email or the words on the back of a cereal box.

In the humanities, different fields of study concern themselves with different forms of texts. Literary theorists, for example, focus primarily on literary texts-novels, essays, stories, and poems. Legal scholars focus on legal texts such as laws, contracts, decrees, and regulations. Cultural theorists work with a wide variety of texts, including those that may not typically be the subject of studies, such as advertisements, signage, instruction manuals, and other ephemera.

Text Definition

Traditionally, a text is understood to be a piece of written or spoken material in its primary form (as opposed to a paraphrase or summary). A text is any stretch of language that can be understood in context. It may be as simple as 1-2 words (such as a stop sign) or as complex as a novel. Any sequence of sentences that belong together can be considered a text.

Text refers to content rather than form; for example, if you were talking about the text of "Don Quixote," you would be referring to the words in the book, not the physical book itself. Information related to a text, and often printed alongside it-such as an author's name, the publisher, the date of publication, etc.-is known as paratext.

The idea of what constitutes a text has evolved over time. In recent years, the dynamics of technology-especially social media-have expanded the notion of the text to include symbols such as emoticons and emojis. A sociologist studying teenage communication, for example, might refer to texts that combine traditional language and graphic symbols.

Texts and New Technologies

The concept of the text is not a stable one. It is always changing as the technologies for publishing and disseminating texts evolve. In the past, texts were usually presented as printed matter in bound volumes such as pamphlets or books. Today, however, people are more likely to encounter texts in digital space, where the materials are becoming "more fluid," according to linguists David Barton and Carmen Lee:

" Texts can no longer be thought of as relatively fixed and stable. They are more fluid with the changing affordances of new media. In addition, they are becoming increasingly multimodal and interactive. Links between texts are complex online, and intertextuality is common in online texts as people draw upon and play with other texts available on the web."

An example of such intertextuality can be found in any popular news story. An article in The New York Times, for example, may contain embedded tweets from Twitter, links to outside articles, or links to primary sources such as press releases or other documents. With a text such as this, it is sometimes difficult to describe what exactly is part of the text and what is not. An embedded tweet, for instance, may be essential to understanding the text around it-and therefore part of the text itself-but it is also its own independent text. On social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as blogs and Wikipedia, it is common to find such relationships between texts.

Text Linguistics

Text linguistics is a field of study where texts are treated as communication systems. The analysis deals with stretches of language beyond the single sentence and focuses particularly on context, i.e. information that goes along with what is said and written. Context includes such things as the social relationship between two speakers or correspondents, the place where communication occurs, and non-verbal information such as body language. Linguists use this contextual information to describe the "socio-cultural environment" in which a text exists.

Barton, David, and Carmen Lee. "Language Online: Investigating Digital Texts and Practices." Routledge, 2013.

Carter, Ronald, and Michael McCarthy. "Cambridge Grammar of English." Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Ching, Marvin K. L., et al. "Linguistic Perspectives on Literature." Routledge, 2015.

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In linguistics, the term text refers to: The original words of something written, printed, or spoken, in contrast to a summary or paraphrase. A coherent stretch of language that may be regarded as an object of critical analysis.