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Studio 54 was a nightclub in Manhattan, New York. It welcomed everyone of all races and sexual preferences; this was a safe place for people to express themselves.
It was common to be dancing amongst celebrities but everyone was treated equally.
It was shut down due to a raid and the owners Steve Rubell & Ian Shrager being arrested for skimming money. Plus the fact that many illegal activities went on behind the scenes.
That being said it gained a reputation for being the place to be and classed as the best night club of the 20th century.
Its aesthetics and social side of the club was revolutionary; this is why its had a long lasting impact on design, fashion, music and art culture
https://www.artandobject.com/articles/artistic-and-cultural-legacy-studio-54

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“My name is Hercule Poirot and I am probably the greatest detective in the world.”

Hercule Poirot

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In 1926, Vogue published an illustration of the Little Black Dress. It was simple and accessible to women of all classes. It was becoming even more popular during the Great Depression, it was affordable and simple. Later in the war textiles and fabrics were rationed, the little black dress still being the most popular choice amongst women. This impacted society because it was the dress that was seen as a significant moment of liberation.

https://www.marieclaire.co.uk/fashion/little-black-dress-524293

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 NHS in 1961 for married women only - this lasted until 1967 - and is now taken by 3.5 million women in Britain between the ages of 16 and 49. The pill comes in 32 different forms and worldwide is taken by around 100 million women. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2007/sep/12/health.medicineandhealth#:~:text=It%20was%20introduced%20in%20the,by%20around%2

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 NHS in 1961 for married women only - this lasted until 1967 - and is now taken by 3.5 million women in Britain between the ages of 16 and 49. The pill comes in 32 different forms and worldwide is taken by around 100 million women. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2007/sep/12/health.medicineandhealth#:~:text=It%20was%20introduced%20in%20the,by%20around%2

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The contraceptive pill is often described as one of the most significant medical advances of the 20th century.

Inextricably linked to the swinging 60s, free love and women's liberation, the pill, a combination of the hormones oestrogen and progestin, was developed in the US in the 1950s by the American biologist Dr Gregory Pincus.

It was approved for release in 1960 and take-up was swift: within two years it was being used by 1.2 million American women.

It was introduced in the UK on the NHS in 1961 for married women only - this lasted until 1967 - and is now taken by 3.5 million women in Britain between the ages of 16 and 49.

The pill comes in 32 different forms and worldwide is taken by around 100 million women.

Health scares have dogged the pill from the beginning, with reports in the US shortly after it was launched linking its use with blood clots, strokes, heart attacks and diabetes.

But the number of women taking it continued to rise, even after reports in the 1970s showed that smoking and the pill together increased the risk of blood clots. The number of users began to dip in the early 1980s due to scares about its safety, as research suggested possible links between pill use and breast cancer, strokes, heart attacks and blood clots.

One study showed a 125% increase in the risk of breast cancer for women who used hormonal contraceptives for four years or more before having a full-term pregnancy, and a series of studies in the 1990s appeared to confirm the risk.

Some of the concerns were linked to hormone levels in the pill, which have now been lowered.

A health scare in the UK in 1995 over thrombosis caused a drop in usage, and an increase in pregnancies and abortions. However, in 2000, a report in the British Medical Journal said the scare was unfounded.

On the positive side, the pill has been shown to protect against cancer of the ovaries and the womb lining, and against pelvic inflammatory disease, a major cause of infertility in women.

It can make periods more regular, but is not recommended for women over 35 who smoke heavily, the obese, or those with high blood pressure, a history of heart disease, blood clots or other specific illnesses such as breast cancer.

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The contraceptive pill is often described as one of the most significant medical advances of the 20th century. Inextricably linked to the swinging 60s, free love and women's liberation, the pill, a combination of the hormones oestrogen and progestin, was developed in the US in the 1950s by the American biologist Dr Gregory Pincus.

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Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) is the first full-length animated feature (83 minutes in length) in color and with sound, one of Disney's greatest films.

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It was the first commercially successful film of its kind and a technically brilliant, innovative example of Disney animation. It was the first film with an official soundtrack and the first film to release a motion picture soundtrack album.

The film released in 1937, it was seen as a triumph in film, cinema, and animation, taking the skills and potential of an animated film to a level never seen before. In fact, esteemed film director Sergei Eisenstien called it the best film ever made. A team of 250 animators worked on the film alone. The animation style is traditional hand-drawn animation, and the film was noted for its realistic expressions, movements and the personification of the characters.

The risk-taking film made use of the multi-plane camera (first used in Disney's own animated, Oscar-winning Silly Symphonies short, The Old Mill (1937)) to create an illusion of depth. It introduced human characters (the jealous Queen, the Huntsman, the Prince, and Snow White herself) modeled on live actors, and used larger painted cels and drawing boards. It took almost four years and an astronomical (at the time). It was released for its premiere during the Christmas season of 1937. Disney put his future on the line, borrowing most of the $1.5 million that he used to make the film.

Snow White premiered in Hollywood on December 21, 1937, earning a standing ovation from the star-studded crowd. When it was released to the public the following February, the film quickly grossed $8 million, a staggering sum during the Great Depression and the most made by any film up to that time.

Its single nomination was for Best Score. For the film's remarkable achievement, Walt Disney was awarded with an Honorary Oscar - the film was "recognized as a significant screen innovation which has charmed millions and pioneered a great new entertainment field for the motion picture cartoon."

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The Rocky Horror Show is a stage musical which started it all, created by Richard O'Brien (writer of the book, music, and lyrics). It first opened in London on June 19th, 1973 at the Royal Court Theatre Upstairs, a tiny 60-seat venue. This has a big cult following https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20200618-the-rocky-horror-picture-show-the-film-thats-saved-lives

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The Rocky Horror Show is a stage musical which started it all, created by Richard O'Brien (writer of the book, music, and lyrics). It first opened in London on June 19th, 1973 at the Royal Court Theatre Upstairs, a tiny 60-seat venue. This has a big cult following https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20200618-the-rocky-horror-picture-show-the-film-thats-saved-lives

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A flop when it was released in 1975, The Rocky Horror Picture Show has since gained a fervent global fan following. Larushka Ivan-Zadeh explores its unique appeal.

Every Saturday night since 1977, cross-gendered disciples in corsets and ripped fishnets have congregated to chant and sing along to The Rocky Horror Picture Show as if attending some gloriously kinky midnight mass.

It's the ultimate cult movie. The first. The biggest. The one cult movie to rule them all. For more than 40 years, The Rocky Horror Picture Show has defined what we mean by a 'cult' movie, though few can ever hope to match its phenomenal level of ritualised worship. A box office flop so ker-splatty it was pulled from the few screens showing it back in 1975, only to be lovingly resurrected by a devout fanbase. It has since grossed over $170 million worldwide and holds the record for the longest continually running movie release of all time.

Yet Rocky's cult supremacy is now in jeopardy. With Covid-19 shutting cinemas, how can acolytes keep the faith? Enter Larry Viezel, president of The Rocky Horror Picture Show Official Fan Club - a responsibility he takes very seriously. For him, this is about more than a fun, cheeky night out in your underwear. "For a lot of people, Rocky Horror is like their home, it's their connection to everybody - all their friends," Viezel tells me via Zoom from New York. "I know of a lot of people whose lives were saved by this movie. Especially for those in the LGBT community, it's a place where they could be themselves and find people who were their family. I don't want to give that up. I want people to still have a place to be."

His Facebook fansite has already hosted 'The Rocky Horror Experience - the Live Lockdown Edition!' and is packed with fan-created content such as a weekly 'Zoomy Horror Quarantine Show' where participants dress up and re-enact the entire movie over Zoom, a living room Time Warp dance-off, and 'Don't-cha Touch-a, Touch-a Touch Me', a hymn to isolation frustration sung by a drag queen barbershop quartet.

Plans are optimistically proceeding for the film's 45th birthday party in St Louis later this year. "I can't wait til we can all do the Time Warp together again," says Viezel.

It's this off-the-scale level of audience partici...("Say it!")...pation, that first led to Rocky Horror being dubbed a cult. And what makes it endure. The seeds were right there from the start.

A camp twist on sci-fi B-movies, The Rocky Horror Picture Show first sprang to life in 1973 as a musical play in the tiny capacity studio above London's Royal Court Theatre. Tis there, so mythology has it, that David Bowie's first wife, Angie, gave the first audience participation 'call-back' when she yelled "No, don't do it!" as creator Richard O'Brien's Riff-Raff threatened to zap Tim Curry's Dr Frank-N-Furter with a laser gun.

An instant hit, the play transferred first to the West End and then to Los Angeles. A movie spin-off was a no-brainer. That critics hated it is not, it seems, entirely true. As the US film critic Roger Ebert astutely pointed out in his original, 2 ½ star rated 1976 review: "The Rocky Horror Picture Show would be more fun, I suspect, if it weren't a picture show. It belongs on a stage, with the performers and audience joining in a collective send-up."

And so it came to pass. Midnight showings of the movie began at the Waverly Theatre in New York City on 1 April, 1976. In a time and place where gay rights was just finding a voice in the wake of the Stonewall riots, the Waverly attracted a congregation of groovy outcasts, weirdoes and rejects. An audience hungry to celebrate a story of sexual awakening where gender fluidity and pan-sexualism are joyfully celebrated; where a straight, white, conventionally attractive young couple called Brad and Janet (Barry Bostwick and Susan Sarandon), both virgins until their wedding night, are considered the freaks; and where a 'sweet transvestite from Transylvania' (a thrillingly charismatic Tim Curry) dressed in stack heels, suspenders, full make-up and little else, waltzes off with the movie.

The Rocky Horror Picture Show's challenge to 'don't dream it, be it' was taken to heart by audiences

Above all, The Rocky Horror Picture Show's challenge to 'don't dream it, be it' was taken to heart by audiences. Decades before Secret Cinema was even a twinkle, Rocky Horror fans created an immersive movie-going experience by returning, week after week, in costume as their favourite characters, armed with props such as water pistols to effect 'rain', rice to throw in the church scene, toast to throw when Frank proposes 'a toast' etc. At one New Orleans cinema, a fan dressed as 'Eddie' (played by Meatloaf in the movie) would drive his motorbike down the aisle during Eddie's intro 'Hot Patootie'. Cinemas tried to ban the food throwing - it was a nightmare to hoover up, particularly the hurled hotdogs - but it was all intended to merge viewer reality with the on-screen action.

What makes it all the more remarkable is that this started in a pre-internet era. Today it takes just seconds to click on 'The Virgin's Guide To Rocky Horror' on the timewarp.org website and find the requirements of dress, etiquette, dance moves and chant-along script; back then, the participation grew almost mystically. The high priest of Rocky Horror fandom is Sal Piro, a former schoolteacher. He's related how, in the late 70s, he'd make a quip at a New York screening one weekend, then fly to LA the next and hear it shouted back at the screen there.

As a teenager, my own Rocky Horror hymn sheet was Say It! The Rocky Horror Picture Show Audience Participation Album. Recorded live on Halloween 1983, it contains the entire audio of the film along with the callbacks MC-ed by Piro and performed by New York's 8th Street Players. Sat alone in my 90s London bedroom, I wore out my double cassette by obsessively rewinding to learn each callback - and watching the movie again now, more than 20 years on, I still hear these ghostly ripostes in my head.

Let's be honest, they're far from Wildean. 'Buy an umbrella, you cheap bitch' was reportedly the original enshrined line still hollered as Sarandon's character puts a newspaper over her head during a thunderstorm. People shout 'where's your neck?' to Charles Gray's narrator. The script, however, is not prescriptive. Anyone's allowed to call out anything, and if it goes down well with the crowd, it gets incorporated the next week.

Responses are, as you'll have noted, often rude. I ask Viezel if, given modern sensitivities around 'slut-shaming', people still yell out 'slut' whenever Susan Sarandon's Janet appears on screen? "People do, though I've seen response to that," he says. "It's a little of its time." Other attitudes have shifted too. What viewers once found liberating, can now, ironically, be found the opposite by a new generation. For example, Frank's rousing anthem of self-realisation ('I'm a sweet transvestite - from Transsexual Transylvania') is currently considered offensive by some transgender viewers. But when was Rocky Horror meant to be PC?

"People are like ultimately what Frank did with Brad and Janet was rape," says Viezel, referring to the bedroom raid sequence where a disguised Frank takes both Janet then Brad's virginities. "But let's put that into perspective. Before that, Frank murders and cannibalises Eddie. In fact he not only eats someone, he then forces other people to eat people." Frank's flip from antagonist to vulnerable hero is in fact the movie's most compelling element. As Viezel puts it, "For years everyone's idolised Frank-N-Furter, but he's not meant to be this perfect role model."

For all the murder and sexual carry-on, Rocky Horror actually feels pretty tame by today's standards. I've heard of 9-year-olds enjoying it. Has Rocky lost that subversive, cult, punk edge? You would certainly conclude that after watching The Rocky Horror Picture Show: Let's Do the Time Warp Again, a 2016 made-for-TV remake from High School Musical director Kenny Ortega starring Laverne Cox as Frank-N-Furter and Nickelodeon starlet Victoria Justice as Janet. It feels safe, glossy, and politically correct. Duncan James, formerly of the boy band Blue, led the UK stage cast in Rocky Horror's most recent staging. You can buy a huge variety of Rocky Horror costumes online and in high street party shops. It all seems too mainstream to be the stuff of 'cult' at all.

The final nail in that cult coffin arguably slammed down in March 2019, when Disney finalised their takeover of 20th Century Fox and thus now own Rocky Horror. "Does this make Tim Curry's Frank a Disney princess?!" joked fans. But Viezel was more concerned. For him it was existential. "Every few years, there's always a worry that Rocky Horror will be taken away," he says. "First it was the sequel, then VHS, then DVD, then Blu-Ray, then the TV remake. But when the Disney thing happened, that's the first time I was really worried. But Disney's been really supportive."

Where Disney removed other cult Fox titles, such as Fight Club, from fan circulation, public screenings of Rocky Horror have been allowed to continue, and home-made merchandise has continued to flourish (within reason). There are also tributes in which a 'shadow cast' mime the actions and lip-synch the lines of their characters while the film is projected on a screen behind them. "To reference the movie, Rocky Horror is the Frankenstein story: Frank couldn't control Rocky - he did what he wanted. This is the same thing," concludes Viezel. "Yes, Disney's out there, but Rocky Horror is its own living breathing monster and he's wreaking havoc. Like the fans do. And that spirit will keep The Rocky Horror Picture Show living forever." Amen to that.

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The Rocky Horror Picture Show: The film that's saved lives

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A flop when it was released in 1975, The Rocky Horror Picture Show has since gained a fervent global fan following. Larushka Ivan-Zadeh explores its unique appeal.

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Diana became the Princess of Wales when she married Charles on 29 July 1981 and there after divorce how her wardrobe reflected how she felt  https://www.vogue.in/whats-new/content/prince-charles-and-princess-diana-tragic-relationship-timeline

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Diana became the Princess of Wales when she married Charles on 29 July 1981 and there after divorce how her wardrobe reflected how she felt  https://www.vogue.in/whats-new/content/prince-charles-and-princess-diana-tragic-relationship-timeline

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In a letter to an unidentified correspondent, Charles writes, "How awful incompatibility is, and how dreadfully destructive it can be for the players in this extraordinary drama. It has all the ingredients of a Greek tragedy...I never thought it would end up like this."

1987-1992: The next few years see Charles and Diana plagued with rumours of marital trouble. In 1987, Diana doesn't join Charles on the family's annual summer trip to Balmoral, leading press headlines to spew a "Royal break." During several public appearances, they seem distant and unhappy. In a 1988 Vanity Fair story, reporter Georgina Howell found this: "She was the love object of everyone in the world except her husband...she was faced in her mid-twenties with something she found chilling to contemplate: a fairy-tale marriage that had cooled into an arrangement."

The end: Tell-alls, travels, and turmoil

May 1992: Andrew Morton publishes Diana: Her True Story, a blistering tell-all of the collapse of the Wales' marriage, Charles's affair with Camilla Parker Bowles, and Diana's own mental health struggles. Secretly, the princess had cooperated with the book, providing Morton with audio recordings.

November 1992: Prince Charles and Princess Diana go on an official trip to South Korea together. They look so miserable that the British press calls them " the Glums."

December 1992: Prime Minister John Major announces to the House of Commons that the Prince and Princess of Wales are separating. "This decision has been reached amicably and they will both continue to participate fully in the upbringing of their children," he reads from a Buckingham Palace statement. Neither Charles nor Diana make a comment. Instead, Charles attends a business luncheon and Diana visits a clinic in northeast England.

The palace tells reporters that no third party was involved in the decision, all despite tabloid reports and Morton's book.

The drama throws the monarchy into deep turmoil. "The news of the separation comes at a time when the credibility of the monarchy is at a modern low-point as a result of persistent reports alluding to the marital scandals and wealthy lifestyle of some members of the royal family," the New York Times commented on the announcement.

In a 1995 interview with the BBC, Diana said that she felt "deep, deep, profound sadness" about their decision. "We had struggled to keep it going, but obviously we'd both run out of steam."

August 1996: After coming to an agreement in July, Prince Charles and Princess Diana's divorce is finalised in August. Diana receives a significant financial settlement, but is stripped of her "Her Royal Highness" status. Tragically, her new, liberated post-royal life is cut short after a fatal car crash in Paris a year later.

This article originally appeared on

Also read:
100+ pictures that give you a closer look at Diana, Princess Of Wales's life in style 50 of the most fabulous hats worn by Diana, Princess Of Wales

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A timeline of Prince Charles and Princess Diana's tumultuous, tragic relationship

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In a letter to an unidentified correspondent, Charles writes, "How awful incompatibility is, and how dreadfully destructive it can be for the players in this extraordinary drama. It has all the ingredients of a Greek tragedy...I never thought it would end up like this."

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The Suffragette leader Charlotte Marsh poses for the photographer Christina Broom, before a male crowd assembled for a rally at Hyde Park in June 1910.

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Emmeline Pankhurst, her daughters Christabel, Sylvia and Adela Pankhurst, and a small group of women based in Manchester founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903.

The WSPU aimed to ‘wake up the nation’ to the cause of women’s suffrage through ‘Deeds Not Words’. This was the beginning of the Suffragette movement as we know it.

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1969- the first supersonic concorde flight 

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1969- the first supersonic concorde flight 

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https://www.britannica.com/technology/Concorde

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Table of Contents

How was the Concorde developed?

When was the first Concorde flight?

How much was a ticket on the Concorde?

Why was the Concorde retired?

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Concorde, the first supersonic passenger-carrying commercial airplane (or supersonic transport, SST), built jointly by aircraft manufacturers in Great Britain and France. The Concorde made its first transatlantic crossing on September 26, 1973, and it inaugurated the world's first scheduled supersonic passenger service on January 21, 1976- British Airways initially flying the aircraft from London to Bahrain and Air France flying it from Paris to Rio de Janeiro. Both airlines added regular service to Washington, D.C., in May 1976 and to New York City in November 1977. Other routes were added temporarily or seasonally, and the Concorde was flown on chartered flights to destinations all over the world. However, the aircraft's noise and operating expense limited its service. Financial losses led both airlines to cut routes, eventually leaving New York City as their only regular destination. Concorde operations were finally ceased by Air France in May 2003 and by British Airways in October 2003. Only 14 of the aircraft actually went into service.

The Concorde was the first major cooperative venture of European countries to design and build an aircraft. On November 29, 1962, Britain and France signed a treaty to share costs and risks in producing an SST. British Aerospace and the French firm Aérospatiale were responsible for the airframe, while Britain's Rolls-Royce and France's SNECMA (Société Nationale d'Étude et de Construction de Moteurs d'Aviation) developed the jet engines. The result was a technological masterpiece, the delta-wing Concorde, which made its first flight on March 2, 1969. The Concorde had a maximum cruising speed of 2,179 km (1,354 miles) per hour, or Mach 2.04 (more than twice the speed of sound), allowing the aircraft to reduce the flight time between London and New York to about three hours. The development costs of the Concorde were so great that they could never be recovered from operations, and the aircraft was never financially profitable. Nevertheless, it proved that European governments and manufacturers could cooperate in complex ventures, and it helped to ensure that Europe would remain at the technical forefront of aerospace development.

On July 25, 2000, a Concorde en route from Paris to New York City suffered engine failure shortly after takeoff when debris from a burst tire caused a fuel tank to rupture and burst into flames. The aircraft crashed into a small hotel and restaurant. All 109 persons on board, including 100 passengers and 9 crew members, died; 4 people on the ground were also killed.

Amy Tikkanen.

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Concorde, the first supersonic passenger-carrying commercial airplane (or supersonic transport, SST), built jointly by aircraft manufacturers in Great Britain and France. The Concorde made its first transatlantic crossing on September 26, 1973, and it inaugurated the world's first scheduled supersonic passenger service on January 21, 1976-British Airways initially flying the aircraft from London to Bahrain and Air France flying it from Paris to Rio de Janeiro.

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The US elects Obama as its first black president

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The US elects Obama as its first black president

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Christopher Bruce's 1981 work Ghost Dances  Strong visual langue supporting political oppression to support the victims of the South America people. https://www.rambert.org.uk/explore/news-and-blog/news/story-i-wanted-tell-christopher-bruce-ghost-dances/

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Christopher Bruce's 1981 work Ghost Dances  Strong visual langue supporting political oppression to support the victims of the South America people. https://www.rambert.org.uk/explore/news-and-blog/news/story-i-wanted-tell-christopher-bruce-ghost-dances/

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It is this that makes him feel the piece has relevance today. "I think it is pertinent to any situation where human rights are being violated," he says. "It doesn't have to be South America. It can be Central America, the Middle East, wherever. It is relevant to a lot of situations. The great strength of dance is its ambiguity. You're not dealing with words but with movement and the audience can read that on different levels. One piece can mean different things to different people."

Now 71, Bruce holds a unique position in British dance. As a dancer and then a choreographer with Rambert from the late 1960s to the mid-1980s, he was encouraged by the company's founder Dame Marie Rambert, who had worked with Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. Although ballet trained, he was also strongly influenced by the technique of Martha Graham, where movement has an earthy, grounded quality. His dance origins therefore go back to pioneers in both classical and contemporary dance.

"I am very grateful for my career developing in the mid to late 20th century," he says "My work was underpinned by tradition and solid classical and modern dance training.

In building his own career - he was artistic director of Rambert from 1994-2002 and has also choreographed for dance companies around the world - Bruce has combined strongly theatrical impulses seen in works such as Cruel Garden and Ghost Dances, with more abstract pieces such as the enormously popular Rooster, set to the music of the Rolling Stones.

"Not all my dances are thematic," he says. "But what I would say is that I have to have a good reason for making the dance." With Ghost Dances, the combination of talking to Joan Jara - and reading her book An Unfinished Song - with his interest in the music of the region meant he had found "a story I wanted to tell."

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"A story I wanted to tell": Christopher Bruce and Ghost Dances - Rambert

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It is this that makes him feel the piece has relevance today. "I think it is pertinent to any situation where human rights are being violated," he says. "It doesn't have to be South America. It can be Central America, the Middle East, wherever. It is relevant to a lot of situations.

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People were shocked to see photos of what was happening in Vietnam they protested for the war to end and for peace which started the 60s hippie movement.

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Rudolf Nureyev made Ballet fashionable with sex appeal  and put Life back into The Royal Ballet https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rudolf-Nureyev-Russian-dancer

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Rudolf Nureyev made Ballet fashionable with sex appeal  and put Life back into The Royal Ballet https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rudolf-Nureyev-Russian-dancer

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We think we have had a hard life then read his story?

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Rudolf Nureyev, in full Rudolf Hametovich Nureyev, (born March 17, 1938, Irkutsk, Russia, U.S.S.R.-died January 6, 1993, Paris, France), Soviet-born ballet dancer whose suspended leaps and fast turns were often compared to Vaslav Nijinsky's legendary feats. He was a flamboyant performer and a charismatic celebrity who revived the prominence of male ballet roles and significantly widened the audience for ballet.

Nureyev, who was of Tatar descent, spent his youth in Ufa, the capital of the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (now Bashkortostan republic, Russia). He began his ballet studies at age 11, left school at 15, and supported himself by dancing. At 17 he entered the Leningrad Ballet School, where he was taught by Aleksandr Pushkin. He was an outstanding but rebellious student, refusing to join the Komsomol (Communist youth organization), disobeying curfew regulations, and learning English privately.

After graduating in 1958, he became soloist with the Leningrad (St. Petersburg) Kirov (now Mariinsky) Ballet and danced leading roles with its touring company. While in Paris with the Kirov Ballet in June 1961, Nureyev eluded Soviet security men at the airport and requested asylum in France. He said later that the rigidly organized Soviet ballet had limited his opportunities to dance frequently and to perform in a variety of roles.

After his defection he danced with the Grand Ballet du Marquis de Cuevas and made his American debut in 1962, appearing on American television and with Ruth Page's Chicago Opera Ballet. Later that year he joined the Royal Ballet (London) as permanent guest artist, but he never became a member of a major dance troupe in the West, preferring to work with various companies on a temporary basis.

Nureyev became well known as Dame Margot Fonteyn's favourite partner. Dancing with her, he interpreted such roles as Albrecht in Giselle, Armand in Marguerite and Armand, and Prince Siegfried in Swan Lake. He was a popular guest artist in companies large and small throughout the world. Also working as a choreographer, Nureyev reworked Swan Lake (Vienna, 1964), giving the dominant role to the male dancer. His version of Sergey Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet (1977) was produced by the London Festival Ballet (now the English National Ballet), and his Manfred (1979) was performed by the Paris Opéra Ballet. In 1980 Nureyev staged The Nutcracker for the Berlin Ballet, and in 1981, owing to a further resurgence of interest in dance in Italy, Nureyev staged his version of Romeo and Juliet at La Scala, with Fonteyn as Lady Capulet. Nureyev's capabilities also extended to modern repertoires, and he performed in works by Martha Graham, Murray Louis, and Paul Taylor. Graham created the role of Lucifer (1975) for him, and in 1978 Nureyev appeared in the American premiers of Canarsie Venus and Vivace, choreographed for him by Louis.

His autobiography, Nureyev, was published in 1962. In 1973 he codirected (with Robert Helpmann) and starred in a filmed version of Don Quixote, and he had acting roles in the films Valentino (1977) and Exposed (1983).

Nureyev became an Austrian citizen in 1982. From 1983 to 1989 he was artistic director of the Paris Opéra Ballet. He continued to choreograph for the American Ballet Theatre and the Paris Opéra Ballet even as his health declined from AIDS-related complications. He died in 1993 at the age of 54.

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Rudolf Nureyev | Biography, Ballets, & Facts

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Rudolf Nureyev, Soviet-born ballet dancer whose suspended leaps and fast turns were often compared to Vaslav Nijinsky's legendary feats. He was a charismatic celebrity who revived the prominence of male ballet roles and significantly widened the audience for ballet. Read more about Nureyev's life and career.

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https://dolly.roslin.ed.ac.uk/facts/the-life-of-dolly/index.html

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Making Dolly

Dolly was part of a series of experiments at The Roslin Institute that were trying to develop a better method for producing genetically modified livestock. If successful, this would mean fewer animals would need to be used in future experiments. Scientists at Roslin also wanted to learn more about how cells change during development and whether a specialised cell, such as a skin or brain cell, could be used to make a whole new animal.

These experiments were carried out at The Roslin Institute by a team led by Professor Sir Ian Wilmut. Because of the nature of the research, the team was made up of many different people, including scientists, embryologists, surgeons, vets and farm staff.

Dolly was cloned from a cell taken from the mammary gland of a six-year-old Finn Dorset sheep and an egg cell taken from a Scottish Blackface sheep. She was born to her Scottish Blackface surrogate mother on 5 th July 1996. Dolly's white face was one of the first signs that she was a clone because if she was genetically related to her surrogate mother, she would have had a black face.

Because Dolly's DNA came from a mammary gland cell, she was named after the country singer Dolly Parton.
Learn more about cloning with our cloning FAQs.
Why was Dolly so important?

Dolly was important because she was the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. Her birth proved that specialised cells could be used to create an exact copy of the animal they came from. This knowledge changed what scientists thought was possible and opened up a lot of possibilities in biology and medicine, including the development of personalised stem cells known as iPS cells.

However, Dolly was not the first ever cloned mammal. That honour belongs to another sheep which was cloned from an embryo cell and born in 1984 in Cambridge, UK. Two other sheep, Megan and Morag, had also been cloned from embryonic cells grown in the lab at The Roslin Institute in 1995 and six other sheep, cloned from embryonic and foetal cells, were born at Roslin at the same time as Dolly. What made Dolly so special was that she had been made from an adult cell, which no-one at the time thought was possible.

Dolly's life

Dolly was announced to the world on 22 nd February 1997 to a frenzy of media attention. The Roslin team chose to make the announcement at this time to coincide with the publication of the scientific paper which describes the experiments that produced her. Dolly captured the public's imagination - no small feat for a sheep - and sparked a public debate about the possible benefits and dangers of cloning.

In the week following the announcement, The Roslin Institute received 3,000 phone calls from around the world.

When Dolly was one year old, analysis of her DNA showed that her telomeres were shorter than would be expected for a normal sheep of the same age. Telomeres are 'caps' on the ends of DNA molecules that protect the DNA from damage. As an animal or person ages, their telomeres become progressively shorter, exposing the DNA to more damage.

It's thought that Dolly had shorter telomeres were because her DNA came from an adult sheep and the telomeres had not been fully renewed during her development. This could have meant that Dolly was 'older' than her actual age. However, extensive health screens on Dolly at the time did not find any conditions which could be directly related to premature or accelerated ageing.

Dolly spent her life at The Roslin Institute and, apart from the occasional media appearance, led a normal life with the other sheep at the Institute. Over the years Dolly had a total of six lambs with a Welsh Mountain ram called David. Their first lamb, Bonnie, was born in April 1998, twins Sally and Rosie were born the following year and triplets Lucy, Darcy and Cotton the year after.

After Dolly gave birth to her last lambs in September 2000, it was discovered that she had become infected by a virus called Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus (JSRV), which causes lung cancer in sheep. Other sheep at The Roslin Institute had also been infected with JSRV in the same outbreak.

In 2001, Dolly was diagnosed with arthritis after farm staff noticed her walking stiffly. This was successfully treated with anti-inflammatory medication, although the cause of the arthritis was never discovered.

Dolly continued to have a normal quality of life until February 2003, when she developed a cough. A CT scan showed tumours growing in her lungs and the decision was made to euthanise Dolly rather than risk her suffering. Dolly was put to sleep on 14 th February 2003, at the age of six.

Where is Dolly now?

After her death The Roslin Institute donated Dolly's body to the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh, where she has become one of the museum's most popular exhibits. Dolly is back on display in the museum after an extensive gallery refurbishment, alongside an interactive exhibit on the ethics of creating transgenic animals featuring current research from The Roslin Institute.
National Museums Scotland blog post - 'Goodbye Dolly'

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Dolly was part of a series of experiments at The Roslin Institute that were trying to develop a better method for producing genetically modified livestock. If successful, this would mean fewer animals would need to be used in future experiments.

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The fall of the Berlin Wall 9th November 1989

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The fall of the Berlin Wall 9th November 1989

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Signified the fall of the Iron wall and allowed germany to be united once more. Freed East Germany from Soviet rule.

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9th November. The wall between East and West Berlin finally ends, as a result of both a blunder and the revolutions in the surrounding countries. Hundred thousands of people travel from East to West. This marks the end of communism in Europe. Pink Floyd's album "the Wall" was performed live in Berlin in 1990 to commemorate the fall. The performance took massive preparations to create the enormous sets and effects, the stage took a month build and included an immense high brick wall in the background.

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1975-1980- Yorkshire Ripper murders, Spread widespread panic and dismay against the male police force. 

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1975-1980- Yorkshire Ripper murders, Spread widespread panic and dismay against the male police force. 

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https://www.biography.com/crime-figure/peter-sutcliffe

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Peter Sutcliffe - Yorkshire Ripper, Wife & Death

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Peter Sutcliffe was a British serial killer known as the Yorkshire Ripper whose 1975-80 murder spree left residents of northern England living in fear.

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important hallmark of set design, The first film to utilize surrealistic production design in a major way, Caligari is a key work of the Expressionist movement in post-World War I Germany.

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On 16 August 1975, Bundy was picked up, after a short chase, in Salt Lake County, after a local policeman recognised his VW Beetle. A vehicle search revealed handcuffs, a ski mask and a crowbar, and Bundy was arrested.
He is now infamous or being a charming killer and has been the subject of multiple documentaries and films. He has also been the subject of teenagers obessions in the true crime community on tumblr, with people sympathising for him.

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Art nouveau revival in graphic posters

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1983- Motorola released its first commercial mobile phone

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1983- Motorola released its first commercial mobile phone

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https://www.knowyourmobile.com/phones/the-history-of-mobile-phones-from-1973-to-2008-the-handsets-that-made-it-all-happen-d58/

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In the space of 20 years, smartphones have taken over the world. Billions of people use them every day. But what were the phones that started it all? Let's take a look back at the history of mobile phones...
A LOT can happen in 40 years. But when it comes to technology, 40-years is like going back to the days of Moses or the Roman Empire. Case in point: the mobile phone -- and, more recently, the rise of mobile internet communications, social networks, and super-fast internet.

It was a long road getting here, but now we live in a world where our phones are more powerful than some laptops! It's crazy when you think about it, right? I mean, half of the phones inside our Best Android Phone Guide have more RAM than my mum's laptop! You now have 5G to consider too.

But what were the phones that made it happen? How did we get from the Nokia 3310 to the iPhone 5s (the world's first 64-bit smartphone)? Who were the pioneering brands that made today's handsets possible? And which phone, out of the thousands launched since the 1980s, was the most important? Answer: there have been quite a few.

But first: a history lesson.

History of Mobile Phones

The First Cell Phone...

The world's first mobile phone call was made on April 3, 1973, when Martin Cooper, a senior engineer at Motorola, called a rival telecommunications company and informed them he was speaking via a mobile phone.

The phone Cooper used - if you could call it that - weighed a staggering 1.1kg and measured in at 228.6x127x44.4mm. With this prototype device, you got 30 minutes of talk-time and it took around 10 hours to charge.

However, the concept of smartphones was first envisaged by Nikola Tesla WAY back in 1926 - he basically predicted iPhones, the internet, and our modern telecommunication-powered world.

First Portable Phone

In 1983, Motorola released its first commercial mobile phone, known as the Motorola DynaTAC 8000X. The handset offered 30 minutes of talk-time, six hours standby, and could store 30 phone numbers. It also cost £2639 ($3995).

In the very early days of the mobile space, handsets weren't designed with consumers in mind. You'd need a couple of thousand pounds to get hold of one, and even then performance wasn't great.

Back then, mobile phones were designed with the likes of Gordon Gecko in mind, businessmen-types that drove big Jags and flew Concord. Not your average Joe. And these phones weren't what you'd consider "portable" either.

Even at the start of the 1990s, this was still the case despite Nokia and NEC entering the fray. Nokia's first 'handheld' mobile phone, the Mobira Cityman 900, launched in 1989 and weighed just 800g - a huge improvement over 1982's 9.8kg Mobira Senator model.

1990 to 1995 represented an upward swerve in design and portability, with mobile devices (cell phones) gradually starting to appear in the hands of average consumers for the first time.

When Did Flip Phones Come Out?

Of all the major innovations back in the early days of cell phones, it was perhaps the advent of flip phones that had the biggest impact on consumers.

The first flip phone to come out was the Motorola StarTAC; it was released in 1996 and, thanks to its small and portable size, was one of the most popular cell phones of its time.

In fact, the Motorola StarTAC was so popular it was placed in the number six spot on PC World's Greatest Gadgets of The Past 50 Years. During its time on market, Motorola shifted around 60 million StarTAC phones, making it one of the most popular early cellphones by a mile.

When Was The Flip Phone Invented?

The first actual flip phone, however, was invented in 1989. It was called the MicroTAC, and it was the direct predecessor to Motorola's StarTAC phone.

The MicroTAC featured a semi-clamshell design, whereby the mouthpiece portion of the phone would "flip" down when the user was taking or making a call. Unlike the StarTAC, its buttons and screen were still displayed when, hence the term "semi-clamshell" design.

The MicroTAC was a Motorola phone too, and it picked up where the Motorola DynaTAC left off, shaving off pounds in weight and featuring a vastly more futuristic design. But the Motorola DynaTAC was an important step towards the world's first flip/clamshell phone.

Without the Motorola DynaTAC and the MicroTAC, we wouldn't have had the StarTAC. And without the StarTAC, the idea and popularity of cellphones might never have caught on with consumers, so, yes, we do owe a lot to Motorola and its innovative ways back in the early 1990s.

Keep in mind that these phones were not cheap, either - even by today's standards. The MicroTAC, for instance, retailed for over $2000 when it first came out.

First Nokia Cell Phone

You can't really talk about cell phones without mentioning Nokia because, well, without Nokia, we probably wouldn't have much a phone market today.

And Nokia's role in the growth of the cell phone market really cannot be understated. Neither can its rapid rise as a company, especially given its chequered and rather gloomy history.

For instance, in 1996, Nokia's revenue was around $6.5 billion. Most of it derived from the company's sole focus: telecommunications. By 2001, Nokia's revenue had jumped to a staggering $31 billion. Between 2001 and 2012, Nokia was the biggest phone maker on the planet.

As for Nokia's first cell phone, that'd be the Mobira Cityman 900. Released in 1987, the Cityman 900 was developed and released in conjunction with Mobira. The phone weighed 760g and measured in at 183 × 43 × 79 mm - it was a hulking monster.

In Finland, Nokia's native market, the Mobira Cityman 900 was often referred to as the "Gorba" because Mikhail Gorbachev, the then General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, was fond on using one to take his calls.

The Gorba was a monster of a phone though, weighing a ton. And it was only designed to work on the NMT 900 network. The Mobira Cityman 900 also made its Hollywood debut in 1987's Lethal Weapon too, where it can be seen in use in several scenes.

The Mobira Cityman 900 was the first Nokia phone, but it was not the phone that Nokia built its empire on. The most popular Nokia phones were yet to come. And these phones were tiny in comparison to the Mobira Cityman 900 - orders of magnitude smaller.

And once cell phones, notably Nokia cell phones, became truly portable - meaning, they'd fit in your jeans pocket - this was when things really took off.

Starting in and around 1992 with the release of Nokia's first mass-produced phone, Nokia 1011 which could send and receive SMS messages, make calls, and store up to 99 phone numbers, things really started to take off with cell phone adoption.

And Nokia's supplychain was their to meet demand; it produced and designed new cell phones at a dizzying rate, generating tens of millions of sales per quarter. And this trend continued from the early 1990s right up the release of the first iPhone and the first Android phones.

By the late-1990s, mobile devices were fast becoming the norm thanks to the following handsets...

1989 - MOTOROLA MICROTAC 9800X

The Motorola MicroTAC had a pretty long shelf life; it was first introduced in 1989, but then went through a few changes that moved it from an analog phone to a GDM-compatible handset in 1994.

It was eventually succeeded by Motorola's StarTAC in 1996, which was one of the first "true" mobile-capable phones ever released.

1992 - MOTOROLA INTERNATIONAL 3200

The Motorola International 3200 was the world's first digital mobile phone. Like the StarTAC, it was GSM compatible. However, it was never certified, so it could be officially linked to a mobile network.

The phone itself, which is still available in some places, as a collector's item, will actually work on the 900MHz network. You'll just have to track one down, and that will probably be pretty tricky (and kinda expensive too!).

1992 - NOKIA 1011

The Nokia 1011 was the world's first mass-produced mobile phone. It could store 99 numbers and was originally released in November 1992.

Because of the technology inside the phone, the price of the Nokia 1011 was exceptionally high - around €1796 in today's money! That's almost as much as the Samsung Galaxy Fold - a phone that folds and has laptop-grade specs!

The Nokia 1011 was able to send and receive SMS messages, making it the world's first SMS-capable phone.

1993 - BELLSOUTH/IBM SIMON PERSONAL COMMUNICATOR

The IBM Simon was built by IBM and was one of the first instances of a head held, touchscreen device. Originally released in 1994, the IBM Simon went on to sell around 50,000 units total, between 1994 and 1995.

The battery on this bad boy, however, only lasted an hour! And you thought your iPhone was bad...

1996 - Nokia 8810 (AKA: "The Matrix Phone")

The Nokia 8810 was designed to be the most luxurious phone of all time. Nokia pulled out all the stops with this one, adding in the world's first internal antenna and support for 250 contacts.

The 8810 would also connect to early 2G networks, and it was also the phone used by Neo's crew in the blockbuster film, The Matrix, making it a true classic in every sense of the word.

1996 - NOKIA 9000 COMMUNICATOR

The Nokia Communicator 9000 is basically the world's first smartphone, as it ran on an Intel 24 MHz 1386 CPU and also had 8MB of RAM. It was heavy too, and it had a full QWERTY keyboard.

It could do email, texts and make calls - three things that hardly any of the competition could manage in the mid-90s.

The Nokia Communicator cost £1000 when it was first released in the UK.

1997 - Nokia 6110

The Nokia 6110 was the first mobile phone to use an ARM processor and was just one of a long line of 6xxx series phones from the Finnish company.

The handset was targeted at the consumer market and featured things like improved call-quality and extended battery life. It was also the first phone with an advanced user interface, a feature that would soon become standard.
Nokia 6110 Features:
1997 - Motorola StarTAC

Inspired by the communicator from Star Trek, this bad boy was the world's first clamshell handset. Another first for Motorola.

1998 - Nokia 5110

Excellent battery, slim by 1998's standards, and it also featured Snake. What more could a 90s consumer want? Interestingly, this was the first mobile phone I ever owned. I think I was in year nine at school when it came out. At the time, pretty much everybody in my year at school had this device.
Nokia 5110 Features:
1998 - NOKIA 9110I

The Nokia 9210i was the successor model to the Nokia 9000 Communicator and it featured a TFT color display, a 32-bit ARM processor and the first instance of Symbian OS on a mobile phone.

The handset was used by Val Kilmer in 1997's remake of The Saint, as well as Anthony Hopkins and Chris Rock in Bad Company.

1999 - BlackBerry 850

The BlackBerry 850 was the first handset released under the BlackBerry brand. Ten years later, RIM would be crowned the fastest-growing company on the planet. And we all know what happened post-2010 as Apple and Android arrived on the scene. BlackBerry's fall from grace is perhaps the saddest thing I have witnessed in my years as a tech journalist. The company, once so influential, now doesn't even make its own phones. Tragic, really...

2000 - Nokia 3310

The phone that all of your mates had at school - if you went to school in the mid-to-late-90s, that is. Even in 2013, many regard the 3310 as one of the best mobile devices ever created. Some even say it's indestructible.

2002 - Samsung SGH-T100

Before Samsung took over the world it made handsets like this, which was the first phone ever to use a thin-film transistor active-matrix LCD display.

2003 - BlackBerry 5810

It didn't have a built-in speaker so you had to plug headphones in to make phone calls, but the BlackBerry 5810 did have email and a QWERTY keyboard.

2003 - NOKIA 1100

Over 250 MILLION Nokia 1100s were sold during its time on the market, making it one of the most successful phone releases of all time. Even by today's standards.

The Nokia 1100 was designed to be basic; it didn't feature a lot of the fancy stuff other Nokia phones had, and this made it very attractive to more basic users.

The Nokia 1100 was officially developed for emerging countries like Nigeria and India.

Nokia's one billionth phone was sold in 2005, as a result of this handset's release.

2003 - NOKIA N-GAGE

The Nokia N-GAGE was the first-ever "gaming phone". It ran on Symbian and featured a rather unique design, whereby the keys were set out on the side of the display.

The phone was designed in an attempt to lure away gamers from Nintendo's Game Boy Advanced. The handset also included support for apps and also MP3, making it a true smartphone in every sense of the word.

On sale between 2003 and 2005, Nokia sold about three million units of this device.

2003 - PALM ONE TREO 600

The TREO 600 was probably the world's first smartphone, as it actually allowed for multi-tasking; you could check the calendar while making a call, for instance.

The result of this phone saw the formation of Palm as a company too, following the merger of Handspring and PalmOne into Palm Inc.

2004 - Motorola Razr V3

Motorola shifted over 130 million of its 'fashion' phone between the years 2004 and 2006, making it the best-selling clamshell handset in history.

2005 - BlackBerry 7270

First BlackBerry handset to feature Wi-Fi, and one of the main reasons for widespread CrackBerry addiction.

Miss QWERTY phones? Check out the Titan Pocket!

2006 - Nokia N95

A true smartphone, one that ran on Symbian, packed in a 332MHz Texas Instruments CPU, and feature 160MB of RAM. It also featured a decent 5-megapixel camera, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi. I had one of these while I was at university but, unfortunately, I ended up losing it at Glastonbury 2008.

2007 - LG Shine
LG Shine Features:

Dimensions: 99.8 x 50.6 x 13.8mm

Weight: 118g

Operating system: Java MIDP 2.0

CPU: ARM9 115 MHz

Memory: 50 MB Internal, microSD (TransFlash) external memory card slot

Battery: 800mAh Li-Ion

Display: 240 x 320, 2.2-inch Display 262K-color TFT LCD

Camera: 2.0 megapixels + Autofocus

2008 - Apple iPhone 3G

This one needs no introduction and is largely responsible for changing the face of the mobile space forever. Apple's iPhone popularised applications with millions of consumers, helped make touchscreen interfaces the norm, and broke new ground for overall design and finish.

The iPhone 3G was the sharpest tip of the mobile stick, but from here on out things would begin progressing even faster.

2010 to 2021: The Android & iPhone Era

A lot of things happened in the phone market during 2010 and 2021. The first and most obvious thing was the rise of Google's Android platform; it went from a relative newbie in 2009 to the world's biggest mobile phone operating system by 2013, destroying the previously dominant operating systems in the form of Symbian, BlackBerry, and Windows.

Symbian kind of died a death in a relatively short period of time, a death that coincided with the death of Nokia. The two things were related too; Android and iPhones did things differently. People liked how they did things, so more and more people moved away from Symbian.

Nokia died. Then came BlackBerry's slow and painful death. The company's refusal to adapt to changing market conditions combined with people adjusting to new form factors for phones, as well as things like apps becoming a thing, killed BlackBerry's market share within the space of a few years.

The company held on, pushed new phones out, but as more and more people migrated away from BBM to WhatsApp, and Apple's iPhone grew in prominence, BlackBerry's days as a player in the phone space were over. The company's last-ditch attempt to revive its fortunes was a brand new operating, BlackBerry 10, which fell flat on its face.

BlackBerry eventually yielded to market demands and incorporated Android into its phones but by this point, it had zero appeal with consumers. People had moved on, either to Apple or Samsung. BlackBerry flailed around for a bit then called it quits, switching to a licensing deal for its brand which was first undertaken by TCL.

Onward Mobility now has the BlackBerry license and has claimed it will release the first 5G BlackBerry phone at some point during 2021.

We also lost a lot of other brands between 2010 and 2020. HTC died a pretty spectacular death, and so too did LG, one of the longest-standing phone brands in the Android ecosystem. Huawei grew rapidly, almost catching Apple and Samsung, but was eventually knee-capped by the US government, losing nearly all of its market share in the space of 24 months.

Apple and Samsung now dominate the phone space. But it is smaller brands like , , , and that are growing the fastest. And this means, by 2023 or 2023, the biggest phone brand on the planet will probably no longer be Samsung and Apple. It will be a Chinese phone brand. Most likely one owned by BBK, so either OPPO, VIVO, or RealMe.

I wonder how things will change between 2020 and 2030?

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The History of Mobile Phones From 1973 To 2008: The Cellphones That Made It ALL Happen

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In the space of 20 years, smartphones have taken over the world. Billions of people use them every day. But what were the phones that started it all? Let's take a look back at the history of mobile phones... A LOT can happen in 40 years.

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Marie Rambert was born in Warsaw in 1888. Although she showed exceptional aptitude for dance at school, it was not until 1904 when she first saw the work of Isadora Duncan, that she seriously considered becoming a professional dancer. Her parents, however, had other plans and in 1905 Marie Rambert was sent to Paris to study medicine.

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Color television was first shown to the public

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Color television was first shown to the public

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TV's were tested at the World Fair in 1939 to market to the public. One of the first TV brands was RCA. However, color TV had been in development for many years. It was finally released to the public in 1950.

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Second Wave of Black Metal also known as True Norwegian Black Metal

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Beginning in the early 90s, bands like Mayham, Emperor and Burzum started to emerge. This music movement was based around heavily anti- Christian ideology, death, fast drums, heavy guitar, shrieking vocals and "corpse-paint."

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A series of 8 brutal murders perpetuated by the Manson Family Cult in the summer of 1969 in Los Angeles. The cult was led by the charismatic Charles Manson and began as a hippie/free love commune but developed into something more sinister. The murders have been referenced numerous times in popular culture, and reflected changing attitudes toward the idea of celebrity and the culture of Hollywood, as some of the victims were celebrities (ie: Fledgling Actress Sharon Tate). The motive behind the murders was to try to establish/contribute to a new world order and to shock the world.

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/manson-family-murders-what-need-to-know-180972655/

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Sergei Diaghilev: genius of modern ballet

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Sergei Diaghilev set early 20th-century Paris ablaze with his Ballets Russes – and his impact on the world of dance can still be felt today, writes Luke Jennings

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Live Aid was a benefit concert held at Wembley Stadium in London on July 13, 1985. Organized by Boomtown Rats front man Bob Geldof and Ultravox vocalist Midge Ure, the event drew an estimated 1.5 billion television viewers and raised millions for famine relief in Ethiopia. The biggest performance of the day was queen playing all their greatest hits.

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https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/voting-rights-act

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Table of Contents

1. Selma to Montgomery March

2. Literacy Tests

3. Voting Rights Act Signed into Law

4. Voter Turnout Rises in the South

5. Changes to the Voting Rights Act

The Voting Rights Act of 1965, signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote as guaranteed under the 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The Voting Rights Act is considered one of the most far-reaching pieces of civil rights legislation in U.S. history.

Selma to Montgomery March

Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the presidency in November 1963 upon the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. In the presidential race of 1964, Johnson was officially elected in a landslide victory and used this mandate to push for legislation he believed would improve the American way of life, such as stronger voting-rights laws.

After the Civil War, the 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, prohibited states from denying a male citizen the right to vote based on "race, color or previous condition of servitude." Nevertheless, in the ensuing decades, various discriminatory practices were used to prevent African Americans, particularly those in the South, from exercising their right to vote.

During the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, voting rights activists in the South were subjected to various forms of mistreatment and violence. One event that outraged many Americans occurred on March 7, 1965, when peaceful participants in a Selma to Montgomery march for voting rights were met by Alabama state troopers who attacked them with nightsticks, tear gas and whips after they refused to turn back.

Some protesters were severely beaten and bloodied, and others ran for their lives. The incident was captured on national television.

In the wake of the shocking incident, Johnson called for comprehensive voting rights legislation. In a speech to a joint session of Congress on March 15, 1965, the president outlined the devious ways in which election officials denied African American citizens the vote.

Literacy Tests

Black people attempting to vote often were told by election officials that they had gotten the date, time or polling place wrong, that they possessed insufficient literacy skills or that they had filled out an application incorrectly. Black people, whose population suffered a high rate of illiteracy due to centuries of oppression and poverty, often would be forced to take literacy tests, which they sometimes failed.

Johnson also told Congress that voting officials, primarily in Southern states, had been known to force Black voters to "recite the entire Constitution or explain the most complex provisions of state laws," a task most white voters would have been hard-pressed to accomplish. In some cases, even Black people with college degrees were turned away from the polls.

Voting Rights Act Signed into Law

The voting rights bill was passed in the U.S. Senate by a 77-19 vote on May 26, 1965. After debating the bill for more than a month, the U.S. House of Representatives passed the bill by a vote of 333-85 on July 9.

Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law on August 6, 1965, with Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights leaders present at the ceremony.

The act banned the use of literacy tests, provided for federal oversight of voter registration in areas where less than 50 percent of the non-white population had registered to vote, and authorized the U.S. attorney general to investigate the use of poll taxes in state and local elections.

In 1964, the 24th Amendment made poll taxes illegal in federal elections; poll taxes in state elections were banned in 1966 by the U.S. Supreme Court.

Did you know? In 1965, at the time of the passage of the Voting Rights Act, there were six African American members of the U.S. House of Representatives and no Black people in the U.S. Senate. By 1971, there were 13 members of the House and one Black member of the Senate.

Voter Turnout Rises in the South

Although the Voting Rights Act passed, state and local enforcement of the law was weak, and it often was ignored outright, mainly in the South and in areas where the proportion of Black people in the population was high and their vote threatened the political status quo.

Still, the Voting Rights Act gave African American voters the legal means to challenge voting restrictions and vastly improved voter turnout. In Mississippi alone, voter turnout among Black people increased from 6 percent in 1964 to 59 percent in 1969.

Changes to the Voting Rights Act

Since its passage, the Voting Rights Act has been amended to include such features as the protection of voting rights for non-English speaking American citizens. It has also been walked back. In 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in a 5-4 vote that constraints placed on certain states and federal review of states' voting procedures were outdated. In the wake of the Shelby County v. Holder decision, several states began enacting laws limiting voter access, including ID requirements, limits on early voting, mail-in voting and more.

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Voting Rights Act of 1965 - Definition, Summary & Significance

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The Voting Rights Act of 1965, signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote as guaranteed under the 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

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teenagers having more disposable income so can rebel against their parents and have more freedom  with what they wore 

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·       The Sutton Hoo ship burial was discovered in Suffolk, England, just as World War II broke out, and is one of the larges archaeological discoveries ever made.

·       The burial was found on Edith Pretty’s land by self-taught local archaeologist Basil Brown, however he gained no credit for this until very recently.

·       As he didn’t have professional tools, he used a coal shovel and a pastry brush from the Pretty’s house.

·       In 1938, he discovered the imprint of an 88-foot ship, now decayed, and a collapsed burial chamber full of precious treasures.

·       There was no trace of a body in the burial, however later historians have discovered, that the bones must have dissolved due to the acidity of the soil.

·       The person who the burial was for was likely to be a powerful East Anglian king from 625 CE due to the vast amount of coins, gold, jewels and weaponry found within it.

·       Ship burials in England are extremely rare, so it was clear that this burial must have represented someone of great importance.

Impact
In around 410 CE, the Roman Empire broke down, meaning the Roman army left England, resulting in tribes such as the Angles and Saxons invaded and settled in eastern England. Historians used to believe that without the Romans’ civilizing influence, English society went from being well-ordered and sophisticated to lawless and ignorant. This theory led to the period between the late 5th century and the 10th century becoming known as the Dark Ages. The Sutton Hoo with all its intricately designed artefacts completely overturned the ideas we previously had of the early medieval period.

Reflected in performance genres
This story has also been made into a film called The Dig, starring Ralph Fiennes, Johnny Flynn, Lily James, and Carey Mulligan.

The topic of history and archaeology has been portrayed in many different films, Tv shows and live performances, including MacKenzie Crooks series ‘Detectorists’.

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The space race started futuristic/space age fashion and sci-fi films

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On his way to becoming an international icon, the subversive and secretive street artist turned the art world upside-down

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Lesbians and Gays Support the miners 1984-85

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Lesbians and Gays Support the miners 1984-85

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A change in cultural unity between two completely different social groups. Shows how in dire need people will group together to help one another.
Big promotion for gay culture and showed a boost in support for lgbt issues.
Resulted in Labour party passing law for lgbt rights

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• A hobble skirt was a skirt with a narrow enough hem to significantly impede the wearer's stride.
• a short-lived fashion trend (1908 - 1914)
• The hobble skirt may have been inspired by the first woman to ride in an airplane at the Wright Brother's demonstration in 1908. The woman tied her skirt around her ankles whilst in the plane in order to stop it blowing around in the breeze.
• French fashion designer Paul Poiret is credited with the design, and it is rumoured that he was at the Wright Brother's demonstration, so he saw how the woman tied the skirt.
• They were obviously accident prone; many women lost their lives to them due to tripping and falling because they were not able to walk properly.
• To prevent women from splitting their skirts, some women wore a fetter or tied their legs together at the knee.
• Some designers made alterations to the hobble skirt to allow for greater movement. Jeanne Paquin concealed pleats in her hobble skirts while other designers such as Lucile offered slit or wrap skirts.
• The hobble skirt trend began to decline in popularity at the beginning of World War I, as the skirt's limited mobility did not suit the wartime atmosphere.

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Women gained the right to vote in America

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Women gained the right to vote in America

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June 28, 1969

The Stonewall riots started outside the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in the West Village of Manhattan, on the night of the 28 th of June in 1969.

The riot started after after a lesbian called Stormé DeLarverie was hit over the head by police for complaining that her handcuffs were too tight. Two. Drag Queens, Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, were the first to stand up to the police intimidation.

Both women, instrumental in the LGBT rights movement, are credited with playing major roles in the backlash against police brutality at the Stonewall Inn. Other Stonewall customers threw bottles, coins and other items at the officers, as tensions which had built for a long time finally boiled over as those inside the bar were dragged outside by police.

This series of riots over the days after the initial riot were a turning point in the LGBT movement. To this day, the movement and fight for gender equality is bigger and stronger and the community continues to grow and thrive.

This moment in history and other LGBT associated moments such as the AIDS crisis have been reflected and referred to many times in this century of film, TV and stage. Including a recent drama ‘It’s a Sin’

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It was a time where social movements were emerging. The Youth Movement, The Civil Rights Movement and The Women’s liberation Movement were three movements specifically influenced by fashion

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The Wider Space Race - U.S.A VS U.S.S.R. 

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The Wider Space Race - U.S.A VS U.S.S.R. 

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Three American astronauts (Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins) of the Apollo 11 mission beat the Russian cosmonauts to the moon during the more than a decade long ‘space race’. The ongoing race had been between the two world superpowers as they tried to prove who was the most advanced and ultimate in the mid-20th century.

Until the success of Apollo 11, the Russian cosmonauts had achieved further success than the Americans, having put the first satellite into orbit around the earth as well as the first living thing into space (Laika the stray dog who had been launched into space in 1957). In 1961, Russia beat America again, when Yuri Gagarin was the first human to travel into space. However, in 1967 cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov was killed upon impact with the earth following a failed moon landing mission, due to parachutes not deploying properly. This served as a harsh reminder to the world of how dangerous space flight was, and how huge this achievement would be. Just over two years later, the American Apollo 11 would succeed where the Russian Soyuz mission had failed.

In America, the space race led to a giant drive for patriotism and division between the U.S.A and the, then, U.S.S.R throughout the cold war. Thus, creating a separationist attitude amplified by the idea of being “better” than the opposition in many ways fabricated by each side in propaganda. It also brought a cultural shift to the arts in that it brought something which seemed implausible only a few years prior, as the aircraft was not invented until 1903 with innovation from the Wright brothers. This influenced an attitude of futuristic ideas and looking to the future as a viable thing of the now, which was reflected in the fashion trends of the time and artistic movements which moved away from what was traditionally known to create more box like shapes and use of metallic effect fabrics. The space race was more than a political endeavour, it became a matter of pop culture and as with pop culture, things around it changed including the entertainment world.

Despite this, the space race and cold war also allowed for cultural similarities between the U.S.A and the U.S.S.R, leading to a continued cultural exchanging program which would let over 1,700 individuals total between the two nations discover the wonders of the other. This continued into the 1970s and included in 1972 (only 3 years after the American Apollo 11 mission) an American theatre into the country.  (I found this very interesting, the rest of the article can be found here: https://boundarystones.weta.org/2017/02/02/thawing-cold-war-theatre ).

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Published between 1896-1950s

The magazines gave rise to the term Pulp Fiction

Known for its exploitive and sensational subject matter

The Illustrations were, scandalous, over the top, with brightly saturated colors.

Modern Superhero comics are descendants of “Hero Pulp”

Flash Gordon

Doc Savage

The Shadow

The Phantom Detective

Pulp Magazine’s peak of popularity: 1920s-1940s

During the great depression, pulps were an affordable means of spreading content to the masses. (15 cents USD)

It was one of the main forms of entertainment (alongside film and radio) at the time

The magazines created an escapist form of entertainment at a harsh time for the working class.

Pulp magazines was primarily an American phenomenon, however there was a respectable number of British pulp magazines: e.g., Pall Mall Magazine, The Novel Magazine, Cassell’s Magazine, The Story Teller, etc.

Decline of Popularity began with World War II

During World War II, the paper shortage damaged Pulp Magazine markets.

Comic books and paperback novels became heavy competition

Expansion of televisions also helped kill the market

Plus, more literary entrainment got cheaper, closing the price gaps.

Although the publications of Pulp Magazines died off, their themes did help influence some of the genres in the entertainment industry. (Film, Television, Video games)

E.g., Adventure, mystery, fantasy, Science Fiction, Gangster, War

The film "Pulp Fiction"

The title is a reference to Pulp Magazines

The Films content is influenced by the magazine’s usual use of graphic violence and punchy dialogue.

https://www.nrm.org/2013/04/pulp-magazines-and-their-influence-on-entertainment-today-by-mai-ly-degnan/

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Marilyn Monroe: Pink Dress- Gentlemen Prefer Blondes 1953

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Marilyn Monroe: Pink Dress- Gentlemen Prefer Blondes 1953

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https://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/cold-war-history

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Containment

By the time World War II ended, most American officials agreed that the best defense against the Soviet threat was a strategy called "containment." In his famous "Long Telegram," the diplomat George Kennan (1904-2005) explained the policy: The Soviet Union, he wrote, was "a political force committed fanatically to the belief that with the U.S. there can be no permanent modus vivendi [agreement between parties that disagree]." As a result, America's only choice was the "long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."

"It must be the policy of the United States," he declared before Congress in 1947, "to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation...by outside pressures." This way of thinking would shape American foreign policy for the next four decades.

Did you know? The term 'cold war' first appeared in a 1945 essay by the English writer George Orwell called 'You and the Atomic Bomb.'

The Cold War: The Atomic Age

The containment strategy also provided the rationale for an unprecedented arms buildup in the United States. In 1950, a National Security Council Report known as NSC-68 had echoed Truman's recommendation that the country use military force to contain communist expansionism anywhere it seemed to be occurring. To that end, the report called for a four-fold increase in defense spending.

In particular, American officials encouraged the development of atomic weapons like the ones that had ended World War II. Thus began a deadly " arms race." In 1949, the Soviets tested an atom bomb of their own. In response, President Truman announced that the United States would build an even more destructive atomic weapon: the hydrogen bomb, or "superbomb." Stalin followed suit.

As a result, the stakes of the Cold War were perilously high. The first H-bomb test, in the Eniwetok atoll in the Marshall Islands, showed just how fearsome the nuclear age could be. It created a 25-square-mile fireball that vaporized an island, blew a huge hole in the ocean floor and had the power to destroy half of Manhattan. Subsequent American and Soviet tests spewed radioactive waste into the atmosphere.

The ever-present threat of nuclear annihilation had a great impact on American domestic life as well. People built bomb shelters in their backyards. They practiced attack drills in schools and other public places. The 1950s and 1960s saw an epidemic of popular films that horrified moviegoers with depictions of nuclear devastation and mutant creatures. In these and other ways, the Cold War was a constant presence in Americans' everyday lives.

The Cold War and the Space Race

Space exploration served as another dramatic arena for Cold War competition. On October 4, 1957, a Soviet R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile launched Sputnik (Russian for "traveling companion"), the world's first artificial satellite and the first man-made object to be placed into the Earth's orbit. Sputnik's launch came as a surprise, and not a pleasant one, to most Americans.

In the United States, space was seen as the next frontier, a logical extension of the grand American tradition of exploration, and it was crucial not to lose too much ground to the Soviets. In addition, this demonstration of the overwhelming power of the R-7 missile-seemingly capable of delivering a nuclear warhead into U.S. air space-made gathering intelligence about Soviet military activities particularly urgent.

In 1958, the U.S. launched its own satellite, Explorer I, designed by the U.S. Army under the direction of rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, and what came to be known as the Space Race was underway. That same year, President Dwight Eisenhower signed a public order creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a federal agency dedicated to space exploration, as well as several programs seeking to exploit the military potential of space. Still, the Soviets were one step ahead, launching the first man into space in April 1961.

That May, after Alan Shepard become the first American man in space, President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) made the bold public claim that the U.S. would land a man on the moon by the end of the decade. His prediction came true on July 20, 1969, when Neil Armstrong of NASA's Apollo 11 mission, became the first man to set foot on the moon, effectively winning the Space Race for the Americans.

U.S. astronauts came to be seen as the ultimate American heroes. Soviets, in turn, were pictured as the ultimate villains, with their massive, relentless efforts to surpass America and prove the power of the communist system.

The Cold War and the Red Scare

Meanwhile, beginning in 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee ( HUAC) brought the Cold War home in another way. The committee began a series of hearings designed to show that communist subversion in the United States was alive and well.

In Hollywood, HUAC forced hundreds of people who worked in the movie industry to renounce left-wing political beliefs and testify against one another. More than 500 people lost their jobs. Many of these "blacklisted" writers, directors, actors and others were unable to work again for more than a decade. HUAC also accused State Department workers of engaging in subversive activities. Soon, other anticommunist politicians, most notably Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-1957), expanded this probe to include anyone who worked in the federal government.

Thousands of federal employees were investigated, fired and even prosecuted. As this anticommunist hysteria spread throughout the 1950s, liberal college professors lost their jobs, people were asked to testify against colleagues and "loyalty oaths" became commonplace.

The Cold War Abroad

The fight against subversion at home mirrored a growing concern with the Soviet threat abroad. In June 1950, the first military action of the Cold War began when the Soviet-backed North Korean People's Army invaded its pro-Western neighbor to the south. Many American officials feared this was the first step in a communist campaign to take over the world and deemed that nonintervention was not an option. Truman sent the American military into Korea, but the Korean War dragged to a stalemate and ended in 1953.

In 1955, the United States and other members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) made West Germany a member of NATO and permitted it to remilitarize. The Soviets responded with the Warsaw Pact, a mutual defense organization between the Soviet Union, Albania, Poland, Romania, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria that set up a unified military command under Marshal Ivan S. Konev of the Soviet Union.

Other international disputes followed. In the early 1960s, President Kennedy faced a number of troubling situations in his own hemisphere. The Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961 and the Cuban missile crisis the following year seemed to prove that the real communist threat now lay in the unstable, postcolonial "Third World."

Nowhere was this more apparent than in Vietnam, where the collapse of the French colonial regime had led to a struggle between the American-backed nationalist Ngo Dinh Diem in the south and the communist nationalist Ho Chi Minh in the north. Since the 1950s, the United States had been committed to the survival of an anticommunist government in the region, and by the early 1960s it seemed clear to American leaders that if they were to successfully "contain" communist expansionism there, they would have to intervene more actively on Diem's behalf. However, what was intended to be a brief military action spiraled into a 10-year conflict.

The End of the Cold War and Effects

Almost as soon as he took office, President Richard Nixon (1913-1994) began to implement a new approach to international relations. Instead of viewing the world as a hostile, "bi-polar" place, he suggested, why not use diplomacy instead of military action to create more poles? To that end, he encouraged the United Nations to recognize the communist Chinese government and, after a trip there in 1972, began to establish diplomatic relations with Beijing.

At the same time, he adopted a policy of "détente"-"relaxation"-toward the Soviet Union. In 1972, he and Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev (1906-1982) signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I), which prohibited the manufacture of nuclear missiles by both sides and took a step toward reducing the decades-old threat of nuclear war.

Despite Nixon's efforts, the Cold War heated up again under President Ronald Reagan (1911-2004). Like many leaders of his generation, Reagan believed that the spread of communism anywhere threatened freedom everywhere. As a result, he worked to provide financial and military aid to anticommunist governments and insurgencies around the world. This policy, particularly as it was applied in the developing world in places like Grenada and El Salvador, was known as the Reagan Doctrine.

Even as Reagan fought communism in Central America, however, the Soviet Union was disintegrating. In response to severe economic problems and growing political ferment in the USSR, Premier Mikhail Gorbachev (1931-2022) took office in 1985 and introduced two policies that redefined Russia's relationship to the rest of the world: "glasnost," or political openness, and " perestroika," or economic reform.

Soviet influence in Eastern Europe waned. In 1989, every other communist state in the region replaced its government with a noncommunist one. In November of that year, the Berlin Wall-the most visible symbol of the decades-long Cold War-was finally destroyed, just over two years after Reagan had challenged the Soviet premier in a speech at Brandenburg Gate in Berlin: "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall." By 1991, the Soviet Union itself had fallen apart. The Cold War was over.

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Cold War: Summary, Combatants, Start & End

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The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union lasted for decades and resulted in anti-communist suspicions and international incidents that led the two superpowers to the brink of nuclear disaster.

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A fashion movement starting in the 60s and carrying on into the 70s encouraging men to wear bolder colors, patterns, and silhouettes.
These styles, pioneered by young people and rock stars, were influenced by a mix of antiwar sentiments, self expression, sexual liberation and exploration, and protest against assigned gender roles.
Brought about a revitalization of frills, patterns, and suit silhouettes that took inspiration from 18th and 19th century men’s clothing and military styles.
Rock stars were the leading figureheads during the peacock revolution. The Beatles were part of the early wave of male musicians wearing brighter colors and more elaborate outfits, followed by later icons such as Jimi Hendrix, Marc Bolan, Elton John, 🤬 Jagger, and David Bowie among many others.

https://www.bustle.com/articles/164464-7-reasons-the-peacock-revolution-of-the-1960s-was-important-for-gender-norms

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Sister Rosetta Tharpe performs “Didn't It Rain” at a railway station platform in south Manchester on 7 May 1964

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Sister Rosetta Tharpe Performs in South Manchester in 1964

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Sister Rosetta Tharpe Performs in South Manchester in 1964

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Although not as well known as many other mainstream rock n’ roll legends, she is credited with bringing about the birth of rock n’ roll as a genre itself, popularizing heavily distorted guitar riffs and hip-swinging dance movements through her charismatic performances of gospel music. She is credited with being a significant influence on musicians that came after such as Aretha Franklin, Jerry Lee Lewis, Elvis Presley, Meatloaf and many others. In 2018 she was inducted into the Rock n’ Roll Hall of Fame.

For this performance, not only were there a significant number of people who would go on to become influential musicians themselves among the live audience watching her, but the performance was also broadcast to around 10 million viewers on television, with Sister Rosetta Tharpe’s performance being singled out as what many people remembered most about the show. Famed TV producer Johnnie Hamp, responsible for booking the acts and suggesting the show take place at the disused train station, was later told that that particular show was of great influence to musicians like 🤬 Jagger, Jimmy Page, John Paul Jones and many others.

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Sister Rosetta Tharpe at Manchester 1964

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Peaceful protest led by Gandhi against the British Raj's salt tax.

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The Space Race was a period of US-Soviet technical rivalry. Evolving from the ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations following World War II. The competition was to achieve superior spaceflight capability. Although the US was hailed the victor of the space race due to having the first man on the moon the Soviet Union achieved the stepping stones to get a person on the moon before the USA such as the first satellite, the first human in orbit and the first woman in space.

Due to the space race playing such an important role in the development technology and communications. Genres such as Sci-Fi shot to popularity as the world became obsessed with the space age. With the advent of the Space Race, many Hollywood productions began to exploit the new national interest in space exploration. Not only did the Space Age provide new aesthetics in the form of new set designs, but it also offered a host of new stories to bring to the cinema

useful link:
https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/space-race-timeline

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The space race was a 20th Century struggle between two nation-states, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US). The pursuit for both was the domination of space flight technologies. The competition began on 2 August 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement of their similar intent to launch artificial satellites.

The space race has its origins in the nuclear arms race between the two nations following the Second World War. Both sides were aided by German missile technology and scientists from their missile programme. The technological advantages required for such power were seen as necessary for national security and political superiority. The space race produced groundbreaking efforts to launch artificial satellites; space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human space voyages in low Earth orbit and lunar missions.

The space race between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) was a remarkable time in history with many far-reaching achievements in science, space exploration, and technology. This timeline shows the twenty-year competition between the two nations.

Space race timeline

2 August 1955: The USSR responds to the US announcement that they intend to launch the first artificial satellite into space with a satellite of their own.

4 October 1957: The USSR successfully launches Sputnik 1, the first Earth-orbiting satellite in history.

3 November 1957: The USSR successfully launches Sputnik 2, carrying a dog named Laika into space. They become the first nation to successfully send a living organism into orbit.

31 January 1958: The US enter the space race by launching Explorer 1, the first US satellite to reach orbit. It carried experimental equipment that led to the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belt.

1 October 1958: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is created in the US, replacing the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA).

18 December 1958: The US launch SCORE, the world's first communications satellite. It captured world attention by broadcasting a pre-recorded Christmas message from US President Dwight D. Eisenhower, becoming the first broadcast of a human voice from space.

2 January 1959: The USSR launches Luna 1, known as the first "cosmic rocket" as it accidentally escaped the orbit of the Moon due to the object having too much speed. Luna 1 becomes the first human-made object to leave the orbit of the Earth and orbit the sun instead.

2 August 1959: The US launches Explorer 6, the world's first weather satellite and obtains the first pictures of Earth from space.

12 September 1959: The USSR launches Luna 2 and accomplishes its mission of creating the first spacecraft to reach the surface of the Moon.

4 October 1959: The USSR launches Luna 3 and succeeds in their mission of sending an object into orbit around the Moon and photographing the far side of the Moon.

19 August 1960: Aboard the Soviet Union's Sputnik 5, the first animals (two dogs, Belka and Strelka) and a range of plants are returned alive from space.

31 January 1961: Ham, a US chimpanzee, becomes the first hominid (or great ape) in space and the first to successfully survive the landing.

12 April 1961: The Soviet Union achieve a clear triumph in the space race. Aboard the Vostok 1, Yuri Gagarin makes a single orbit around the Earth and becomes the first man to reach space. He remained in space for one hour and forty-eight minutes before landing in Saratov Oblast, west Russia.

5 May 1961: The US achieve the first pilot-controlled journey and first American in space with Alan Shepard aboard the Mercury-Redstone 3 (or Freedom 7) spacecraft. On this flight, Shepard did not orbit Earth. He flew 116 miles high. The flight lasted about 15 minutes.

16 June 1963: Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first civilian and first woman in space. She spends almost three days in space, orbiting the Earth 48 times aboard her spacecraft, Vostok 6.

18 March 1965: Alexei Leonov leaves his spacecraft, the Voskhod 2, in a specialized spacesuit and conducts a twelve-minute spacewalk, the first of its kind.

14 July 1965: The US satellite, Mariner 4, performs the first successful voyage to the planet Mars, returning the first close-up images of the Martian surface.

1967: This year proves the most deadly of the space race for both the US and Soviet Union. In January, American astronauts Ed White, Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee die when a fire ignited in their Apollo 1 capsule on the launch pad. Only a few months later the Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov is also killed when the parachute on his Soyuz 1 capsule fails to open on his reentry into Earth's atmosphere.

21 December 1968: US spacecraft Apollo 8 becomes the first human-crewed spacecraft to reach the Moon, orbit it, and successfully return to Earth.

20 July 1969: Neil Armstrong and later Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin become the first men to walk on the Moon while their crewmate Michael Collins continues to orbit the Moon aboard the Apollo 11. This secured a victory for America in the space race with a televised landing witnessed around the world by 723 million people.
Find out more about Apollo 11
11 April 1970: The US Apollo 13 mission is known as the first explosion onboard a spacecraft where the crew survived.

19 April 1971: The USSR launches the first space station. Parts of this spacecraft will become core segments of the International Space Station (ISS) almost thirty years later in November 2000.

1 August 1971: David Scott, commander of the Apollo 15 mission, becomes the first person to drive on the Moon. He's also remembered for paying tribute to the Soviet Union and US astronauts who died in the advancement of space exploration. When walking on the Moon, Scott places a plaque with a list of the dead. Alongside this, he leaves a small aluminium sculpture of an astronaut in a spacesuit, created by Belgian artist Paul Van Hoeydonck.

15 July 1975: With tensions between the US and USSR softening, the first cooperative Apollo-Soyuz mission is launched. With two separate flights, the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft dock in space and the two commanders Tom Stafford and Alexei Leonov exchange the first international handshake. This act can be seen to symbolically end the space race, paving the way for future joint missions, such as the International Space Station and the Shuttle-Mir programme.

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Explore and learn about the key events and achievements that shaped almost twenty years of competition between the United States and the Soviet Union

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The writer Jack Kerouac photographed by John Cohen

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The Beat Generation was an American literary and social movement originating from the 1950s. The key writers involved were Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsburg and William Burroughs.

They created new literary techniques and formats such as Burrough’s cut-up technique, which was the splicing of a document, rearranged to create new meaning; as well as Jack Kerouac’s stream of consciousness typed on 120-foot-long scroll.

The sparse and libertarian style of the Beat's works influenced the music industry to adopt a new freer style, both lyrically and melodically. Burroughs’ cut-up technique influenced song writers such as Bob Dylan (a close friend of Ginsberg) and David Bowie. Thom Yorke (Radio Head) notoriously formulated Kid A by pulling lines of lyrics from a hat.

https://www.anothermag.com/design-living/8941/five-ways-the-beat-generation-transformed-pop-culture

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A world-wide epidemic caused by influenza viruses led to between 50 and 100 million deaths in 1918 and 1919 (as much as 1 of every 18 people). Because neutral Spain was not censoring news it became associated with Spain but its origins are more likely to be the USA or France. It came in three waves (Spring 1918, Autumn 1918, and Winter 1919) and the second wave was unusually deadly. And unlike typical flu pandemics it disproportionately killed young healthy adults. Many researchers have suggested that the conditions of the war significantly aided the spread of the disease. And others have argued that the course of the war (and subsequent peace treaty) was influenced by the pandemic. To help understand questions about the worst disaster in history we have built a computer model of the pandemic. To use and adapt the model does not require any programming knowledge.

The model provides the functionality to explore how the pandemic may have unfolded without the war. Or if the war lasted much longer. You can run the simulation with one history setting and then another and compare the resulting graphs. As there is controversy about where the flu originated you can also run simulations according to different theories. The model contains a large number of behaviours and parameters which you can change or disable from within your browser to run your own experiments and see what effect they have. For example, American Expeditionary Forces can be inactivated by clicking on it to see what effect the American troop movements had on the pandemic. Similarly Armistice celebrations North American and Europe and Armistice celebrations Australia and New Zealand can be disabled to determine how much they influenced the dynamics of the pandemic's second wave.

There is a web version of the model that will run in your browser (requires Java) and a downloadable version (requires the free software NetLogo). We have also prepared some videos of the execution of the Spanish Flu model. These run faster but lack all the interactive features. More information on how to run the model can be found in the Student Guide. We have also drawn together a rich collection of articles, video lectures and primary source materials from across the World Wide Web into a resource pack to support you in your exploration of this topic. All materials you can reuse in your own teaching and learning.

This model can be used in courses in history (of World War One or epidemics), public health, or computer modelling. Both a teachers guide and students guide has been developed, containing links to supporting resources and 'Things to think about' and 'try' when running the model. Ultimately it can be used as a focus of discussions about uncertainties and controversies in history. And how, if at all, one can attempt to answer questions in counter-factual history.

Thanks to Professor John Oxford and Douglas Gill for their generous help understanding the history of the Spanish Flu and their comments on early versions of the computer model.

Cite : The 'Spanish' Influenza pandemic and its relation to World War I (http://ww1centenary.oucs.ox.ac.uk/?p=2190) by Kenneth Kahn (http://ww1centenary.oucs.ox.ac.uk/author/kkahn/) licensed as Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 2.0 UK: England & Wales (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/uk/)

Reuse : Web link

About Kenneth Kahn

Ken Kahn is a senior researcher at the University of Oxford IT Services leading the Modelling4All project that combines ideas of accessible modelling within a web 2.0 community.

This entry was posted in Aftermath, Body and Mind, Teaching and tagged 355 (Military science), 610 (Medical Sciences), 940 (General history of Europe), Blogs, Global Views, R (Medicine), R131-687 (Medicine - history of medicine), Simulations, UH (Medical Sciences - other services). Bookmark the permalink.

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The 'Spanish' Influenza pandemic and its relation to World War I

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A world-wide epidemic caused by influenza viruses led to between 50 and 100 million deaths in 1918 and 1919 (as much as 1 of every 18 people). Because neutral Spain was not censoring news it became associated with Spain but its origins are more likely to be the USA or France.

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In 1941, Lord Mountbatten discovered a new colour to use as camouflage for Navy ships after claiming to see a requisitioned Union Cruise liner painted pink disappear into the distance faster than those painted battleship grey. It was only in use for two years because it wasn't very good camouflage at all!

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156,000 American, British and Canadian soldiers landed on Normandy Beach in occupied Europe to start Operation Overlord and the beginning of the end of WW2

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Buying new clothes was rationed during the second world war in Britain. Because of this, the government launched their ‘Make do and mend’ campaign, encouraging people to repurpose and reimagine their current wardrobes as an alternative to buying new garments.

It impacted society by challenging the creativity and craftmanship of the everyday person as well as challenging societies purchasing desires and need to look ‘perfect’ constantly. Make do and mend as a mentality has massively influenced society although it is now more used to support the sustainable purchasing and wearing of clothes. Make do and mend is now a choice rather than a necessity, although many would argue its necessary for everyone to employ more of a make do and mend attitude in order to combat fast fashion, thus showing its societal impact.

Make do and mend is reflected in performance design through prop recycling and the use of repurposed materials in costume design. Even in our own projects for university we’ve been encouraged to use repurposed materials thus showing different ways that make do and mend translates to construction for performance as well as construction for the wider fashion industry

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The space race between the US and USSR inspires designers such as Courreges and Cardin to produce fashion reflecting the futuristic and angular shapes seen in the brand new space crafts being created.

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Ed Gein was a convicted murder who was know for mutilating both of his victims and corpes he stole from graveyards.

It is believed that his activity began after the death of his mother in 1945, whom he was infatuated with. Most people incorrectly call Gein a serial killer. He has two confirmed kills, Mary Hogan and Bernice Worden. It was found he had taken approximately nine bodies from local cemeteries.

It was the disappearance of local woman, Bernice Worden which led to the discovery of Gein's home. Gein lived in a farmhouse, but there was only evidence of him living in two of the many rooms. In these rooms artifacts made from human organs were found by police on november 16th 1957 after gein had been arrested earlier in the day.

He was convicted of the murder of Bernice Worden and Mary Hogan, a woman who had disappeared 3 years earlier, and confessed to making regular visits to 3 local cemertarys from 1947 to 1952 admitting to stealing from 9 graves. This was able to be corroborated with physical evidence.

As the scene found at giens house was one of the most gruesome in years, news spread around quickly. Gein’s habits of making clothes and masks from human skin became the inspiration for several horror films including:

Alfred Hitchcock's psycho

The character of buffalo bill from silence of the lambs

And most notably

Leatherface from the Texas Chainsaw Massacre

However the majority of the media that has been inspired by Gein's crimes have sensationalized what happened. And like most crime cases that gain notoriety, the victims have been forgotten.

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Impact on wider society

•The movement has been highly influential - when people think of the 80s style, they think of the Memphis style.

•Their style was used for ads and magazines which popularised the aesthetic - a key example of this were MTV logos and video packages

Impact on performance genres

•Saved by the Bell – the use of clashing colours, geometric shapes and swirls in the opening credits, and the colour scheme throughout the show.

•Pee-wee’s Playhouse – combined 1950s style with the Memphis style which helped to accentuate the movement.

•Back To The Future 2 - most notably in the Cafe ‘80s which was a “novelty restaurant” in the future that embraces the Memphis style.

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The peacock dress worn as a sign of British Opression in India

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The peacock dress worn as a sign of British Opression in India

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http://www.nationaltrustcollections.org.uk/object/107881

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Costume

c. 1900 - 1902

Paris

Order this image

NT 107881

Caption

This dress tells us a story of our colonial past. It was worn by Mary Curzon (1870-1906), the wife of George Curzon, the Viceroy of India (1859-1925), at a ball in Delhi on 6 January 1903 to mark the coronation of King Edward VII (1841-1910) as Emperor of India. The spectacular and lavish event was full of pageantry and royal ceremony, and was designed to entertain and impress Indian princes and dignitaries, while underlining the power of British rule. The design of Mary's dress was not only highly fashionable but also subtly political. Made of fabric traditionally worn by Mughal court rulers, it appropriated the motif of a peacock feather (an important Hindu symbol, particularly associated with Lord Krishna and the goddess Saraswati). The intention was perhaps to present a visual sense of continuity, aligning British rule with Indian courts of the past as a statement of dominance. The richly decorated fabric, which includes hundreds of beetle-wing cases, was made by Indian craftsmen, while the dress itself was made in Paris by Jean-Philippe Worth (1856-1926).

Summary

Gold and silver Zardozi embroidery with applied green beetle wing covers (elytra) on silk taffeta with a lining of Indian cotton muslin. The Peacock Dress was made by unknown Indian embroiderers before being sent to French haute couture designers 'House of Worth' in Paris to be made into a fashionable European gown, c.1900-1902. It was worn by Mary Victoria Leiter, Lady Curzon (1870-1906), Vicereine of India, at the Delhi Durbar in 1903.

Full description

Lady Mary Curzon became Vicereine of India upon on her husband's appointment as Viceroy in 1898. She recorded her experience of India in diaries and countless letters, a life revolving around a calendar of social events staged to symbolise the authority of the British Empire. Despite frequent ill-health, Lady Curzon was the public face of the Viceroyalty and her life was scrutinised and reported on by the press. She had a keen interest in fashion and was aware of the importance of her appearance as the wife of a political figure. Known for her preference of combining Indian textiles with European fashion styles, Lady Curzon wore this gown, known as Peacock Dress, at the 1903 Delhi Durbar Coronation Ball. The Ball was the pinnacle of two weeks of events marking the succession of Edward VII and Queen Alexandra as Emperor and Empress of India. It was held in the Diwan-I-Khas at the Red Fort, Delhi, the historic residence of the Mughal Emperors. Lady Curzon's dress deliberately referred to - or, as the historian Nicola J. Thomas writes, 'replaced' - the Peacock Throne which had originally stood in the Diwan-I-Khas (Thomas 2007, p. 392). This dazzling jewelled throne, now lost, was made for Shah Jahan in the early 17th century but was looted during the Persian invasion of Nader Shah in 1739. A replica throne was destroyed in 1857 when the British commandeered the Red Fort as a garrison in India's First War of Independence. The gown was made of Zardozi embroidered fabric traditionally used for elaborate Mughal court garments and palace furnishings. The technique takes its name from the densely worked metal thread; zar (gold) and dozi (work). It used the peacock image for its pattern, a symbol of great significance in Indian culture and the Hindu religion. The use of this motif would have been noted by all who saw it. The fabric, perhaps sourced by Lady Mary herself, was shipped to Paris to be made into a dress by the House of Worth. Mary was unusual in her choice to wear Indian textiles, and to have many of her clothes made up in India. This would not have gone unnoticed in the higher echelons of Indian society, among Maharajas and Maharanis at state functions. Other gowns worn by Lady Curzon in India are in the collection of the Fashion Museum, Bath.

Provenance

Commissioned by Lady Mary Curzon and by descent to her daughter Lady Alexandra Metcalfe; offered and accepted in lieu of inheritance tax by HM Government and generously allocated to Kedleston for display in 1997.

Makers and roles

Workshop of Kishan Chand and House of Worth, embroiderer and designer Jean Philippe Worth, designer

References

Thomas 2007: Thomas, Nicola, J. Embodying imperial spectacle: dressing Lady Curzon, Vicereine of India 1899-1905, 'Cultural Geographies', Vol. 14, No. 3 (July 2007), pp. 369-400. 'The Imperial Durbar at Delhi', The Illustrated London News, 17 January 1903

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Costume c. 1900 - 1902 Paris Order this image NT 107881 This dress tells us a story of our colonial past. It was worn by Mary Curzon (1870-1906), the wife of George Curzon, the Viceroy of India (1859-1925), at a ball in Delhi on 6 January 1903 to mark the coronation of King Edward VII (1841-1910) as Emperor of India.

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The Chinese Feminist Movement in the Twentieth Century

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The Chinese Feminist Movement in the Twentieth Century

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The Stonewall riots arose from patrons refusing arrest,and fighting back against police. Martha P Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, two transgender women of colour, were involved in the riots, through throwing rocks and bottles at the law enforcement.

The coming nights after the initial riot, more and more queer and trans people came to The Stonewall inn to join the gay empowerment demonstrations, spreading awareness of the cause, and bringing hope to countless marginalised people.

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1st July - 18th November. The bloodiest battle in British military history, 19,240 British troops died on the first day.

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The Titanic sank in North Atlantic Ocean on 15 April 1912

The loss was felt internationally and monuments were created from donations.

In April 2018 North Atlantic shipping lanes had loads of icebergs in them. Due to Titanic disaster, people knew to slow immensely down or detour.

White Star Line changed their ships design because of the Titanic disaster.

British and American governments set all shipbuilding companies to have new safety regulations

The Titanic was adapted into a movie shown in 1997. It was nominated for 14  Academy Awards. It also created the iconic song ‘My Heart Will Go On’ by Céline Dion. There is also a Scout song about the Titanic.

Titanic facts and figures - BBC Bitesize

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NASA brings the first man to the moon in Apollo 11.

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Police Clashing with Miners During the 1984 Strike

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The Miners’ Strike of 1984-1985 was an attempt by miners to stop the National Coal Board (NCB) and the government of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher shutting down collieries (mines).
https://www.mylearning.org/stories/police-protests-and-public-order/932

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The AIDS Memorial Quilt featured the names of 1,920 people who died of AIDS-related illnesses when it was first displayed in 1987

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Awareness of AIDs and campaigning to remove the stigma, educate and democratise treatments rose in the 1980's.

https://www.aidsmemorial.org/

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The global confrontation that shapes the modern world; the largest and most destructive confrontation in History.

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Madeleine Vionnet by Thérèse Bonnet, ca 1925. Librairie Diktats.

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French Couturier who popularised draping and geometric pattern cutting techniques and pioneered the bias-cut dress

Madeleine opened her fashion house, Vionnet, in 1912, but closed through WW1. Her ground-breaking explorations into the movement of fabric around the body epitomise 1930's glamour.

Beyond being a forward thinking and talented designer, Vionnet was a shrewd business-woman, known for copyrighting her designs and was also a social advocate, providing childcare, health and dental care, food and training to her predominantly female workforce.

https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/madeleine-vionnet-an-introduction
http://explodingfashion.arts.ac.uk/?p=438

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Great Depression - Wall Street Crash - 1929 - 1933

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Great Depression - Wall Street Crash - 1929 - 1933

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refused to be inducted into the armed forces in Vietnam

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1952 Singing in the Rain

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Hattie McDaniel becomes first African-American to win an Academy Award

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Hattie McDaniel becomes first African-American to win an Academy Award

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Winning an Oscar for Best Supporting Actress in 'Gone with the wind'

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Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie 1934

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Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie 1934

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Amelia Earhart flies over the Atlantic Ocean 1932

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Amelia Earhart flies over the Atlantic Ocean 1932

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The largest and most destructive confrontation in the world at this point in time.

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1877

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Trip To the Moon -  Georges Méliés

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1989 Peter Greenaway masterpiece The Cook the Thief his Wife and Her Lover

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1989 Peter Greenaway masterpiece The Cook the Thief his Wife and Her Lover

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"The film that shocked Cannes’ audience and gave headaches to American distributors back in 1989 remains a cornerstone of British arthouse cinema. With music my Michael Nyman, costumes by Jean-Paul Gaultier and prop food by Giorgio Locatelli, all filmed in Greenaway’s singular style of baroque formalism, it represented a culmination of the director’s career-to-date and went on to become an unexpected, scandalising crossover hit."

https://player.bfi.org.uk/rentals/film/watch-cook-the-thief-his-wife-her-lover-1989-online

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Helen Mirren and Michael Gambon star in Peter Greenaway's audacious cinematic delicacy, a shocking Jacobean tragedy peppered with of forthright sex and shocking violence.

Spica (Gambon) is the mafioso owner of a gourmet restaurant who thinks nothing of abusing the guests at his once-upmarket establishment, much to the chagrin of the Chef (Richard Bohringer). Disgusted with his behaviour, Spica's wife Georgina (Mirren) begins an affair with one of the bookish regulars (Alan Howard), leading to an almighty tailspin of perverse violence and revenge. The film that shocked Cannes' audience and gave headaches to American distributors back in 1989 remains a cornerstone of British arthouse cinema. With music my Michael Nyman, costumes by Jean-Paul Gaultier and prop food by Giorgio Locatelli, all filmed in Greenaway's singular style of baroque formalism, it represented a culmination of the director's career-to-date and went on to become an unexpected, scandalising crossover hit.

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Watch Cook the Thief His Wife & Her Lover - BFI Player

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Helen Mirren and Michael Gambon star in Peter Greenaway's audacious cinematic delicacy, a shocking Jacobean tragedy peppered with of forthright sex and shocking violence. Spica (Gambon) is the mafioso owner of a gourmet restaurant who thinks nothing of abusing the guests at his once-upmarket establishment, much to the chagrin of the Chef (Richard Bohringer).

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Still from the Delicatessen. 1990 BFI image library

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Remarkable black comedy from French writer/director team, Jean Pierre Junet and Marc Caro.

A cult classic that introduces the visual aesthetic and exploration of human quirks that later develops in Amelie.

https://player.bfi.org.uk/subscription/film/watch-delicatessen-1990-online

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Metropolitan Opera, New York, 1976 Photograph © Byrd Hoffman Foundation

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1976 Einstein on the Beach created by Phillip Glass and Robert Wilson

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1976 Einstein on the Beach created by Phillip Glass and Robert Wilson

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Unconventional opera that gained both composer, Phillip Glass and designer, Robert Wilson international acclaim.
"Einstein on the Beach was revolutionary when first performed and is now considered one of the most remarkable performance works of our time. "
https://robertwilson.com/einstein-on-the-beach

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The first film with sound - The Jazz Singer starring Al Jolson, Dir. by Alan Crosland - so starts the new age of The Talkies - movies with sound - film would never be the same again!

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1920's Alphonse Appia transforms the practice of stage and LX design

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1920's Alphonse Appia transforms the practice of stage and LX design

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Appia believed in the ability of light to be structural, fluid, plastic, eliminating footlights. For set design, symbols and metaphors prevailed over literal descriptions.

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1970 Peter Brook's radical and revolutionary approach to Shakespeare

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1970 Peter Brook's radical and revolutionary approach to Shakespeare

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One of the most influential Shakespeare productions of the 20th century was Peter Brook’s A Midsummer's Night Dream, designed by Sally Jacobs and first staged in 1970.

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Original Delphos Gown created by Fortuny and Henriette Negrin in 1907 - from the Fortuny Archives

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The now timeless Delphons gown was created by Spanish-born pioneer of pleats, Mariano Fortuny. Fortuny Fabrics, established in Venice in the early 20th century created pleated silks, cottons and gowns for theatre, dance and fashion. Ballet dancer,
Isodora Duncan was well-known as a Fortuny patron and muse.

https://fortuny.com/history/

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-        Mid-90s trend in fashion which showed typically very thin, almost emaciated models with dark circles and pale skin, meaning to mimic the look of heroin addicts.

-        Notable models include Kate Moss, Jodie Kidd and Jamie King

-        Jamie King was a heroin addict in her teens and was in a relationship with fashion photographer David Sorrenti

-        David Sorrenti is best known for his gritty realist photos of the heroin-user lifestyle, many depicting Jamie King.

-        Heroin-chic can be seen in fashion, film and the grunge music-scene from the mid-90s.

-        Film examples: Trainspotting, Pulp Fiction

-        Musicians: Kurt Cobain, Courtney Love, Scott Wieland

-        During the mid-90s, heroin usage became more mainstream as its purity increased dramatically and it’s price decreased. It was also more commonly snorted rather than injected, lessening the stigma usually attached to drug addicts.

-        Grunge music also become associated with heroin usage. Many musicians were known heroin users such as Kurt Cobain from Nirvana.

-        Heroin-chic fashion and it’s associated sub-culture emulated disillusionment with the world and society and a desire to escape from it with drug usage.

-        Was a controversial trend as many feared it glamourised drug usage and loss of hope and motivation to function in society.