# data[].attributes.body
German speaking countries were divided, with Austria being the most powerful country. The first unification was the Franco- Prussian war. This led to the start of more wars trying to unify German speaking countries. In 1871 German speaking countries were united. This all was caused by economic success, political failure, and diplomatic tension.

# data[].attributes.body
After the walls were finished King John the second king of Portugal through it would be the best to stay in Brazil. He realized it stopped the unification process from coming to Brazil. The king thought that they could stay un-unified if they stayed there, but in the end, Brazil became its own country. Brazil was unified in late 1825. Prince Dom Pedro declared Brazil's independence from Portugal, founding the Empire of Brazil. This lead to a two-year war of independence.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Brazilian Independence | 3 Minute History

# data[].attributes.body
Otto Von Bismarck was a German statesmen who played a big rule in the unification of Germany in the 19th century. He was the first Chancellor o f the German Empire, employing realpolitik to achieve his goals. Bismarck's policies included a series of wars that strengthened Prussia's position and weakened Austria and France. While he is credited with promoting stability and industrial growth in Germany, his aggressive tactics and diplomatic isolationism also fostered tensions that contributed to later conflicts. His legacy is complex, as he is both admired for his statecraft and criticized for his militaristic approach.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Table of Contents

1. Otto von Bismarck: Early Years

2. Otto von Bismarck: The Iron Chancellor

3. Otto von Bismarck: Kulturkampf, Welfare State, Empire

4. Otto von Bismarck: Final Years and Legacy

Germany became a modern, unified nation under the leadership of the "Iron Chancellor" Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), who between 1862 and 1890 effectively ruled first Prussia and then all of Germany. A master strategist, Bismarck initiated decisive wars with Denmark, Austria and France to unite 39 independent German states under Prussian leadership. Although an arch-conservative, Bismarck introduced progressive reforms-including universal male suffrage and the establishment of the first welfare state-in order to achieve his goals. He manipulated European rivalries to make Germany a world power, but in doing so laid the groundwork for both World Wars.

Otto von Bismarck: Early Years

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck was born April 1, 1815, at his family's estate in the Prussian heartland west of Berlin. His father was a fifth-generation Junker (a Prussian landowning noble), and his mother came from a family of successful academics and government ministers. Throughout his life Bismarck would emphasize his rural Junker roots, underplaying his considerable intellect and cosmopolitan outlook.

Did you know? Although German leader Otto von Bismarck wore a general's uniform in public for much of his later life (and successfully prosecuted three wars as chancellor), his only prior military service was a brief, unwilling stint in a reserve unit.

Bismarck was educated in Berlin and after university took a series of minor diplomatic posts before retiring, at age 24, to run his family's estate at Kneiphof. In 1847 he married and was sent to Berlin as a delegate to the new Prussian parliament, where he emerged as a reactionary voice against the liberal, anti-autocratic Revolutions of 1848.

From 1851 to 1862 Bismarck served a series of ambassadorships-at the German Confederation in Frankfurt, in St. Petersburg and in Paris-that gave him valuable insight into the vulnerabilities of Europe's great powers.

Otto von Bismarck: The Iron Chancellor

William I became Prussia's king in 1861 and a year later appointed Bismarck as his chief minister. Though technically deferring to William, in reality Bismarck was in charge, manipulating the king with his intellect and the occasional tantrum while using royal decrees to circumvent the power of elected officials.

In 1864 Bismarck began the series of wars that would establish Prussian power in Europe. He attacked Denmark to gain the German-speaking territories of Schleswig-Holstein and two years later provoked Emperor Franz-Josef I into starting the Austro-Prussian War (1866), which ended in a swift defeat for the aging Austrian empire. At the time, Bismarck wisely declined to levy a war indemnity against the Austrians.

Bismarck was less circumspect in his conduct of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). Seeing the opportunity to unify Germany's loose confederations against an outside enemy, Bismarck stirred political tensions between France and Prussia, famously editing a telegram from William I to make both countries feel insulted by the other. The French declared war, but the Prussians and their German allies won handily. Prussia levied an indemnity, annexed the French border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and crowned William emperor of a unified Germany (the Second Reich) in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles-a tremendous insult to the French.

Otto von Bismarck: Kulturkampf, Welfare State, Empire

With Germany unified, William I and Bismarck turned to entrenching their domestic power. For much of the 1870s Bismarck pursued a Kulturkampf (cultural struggle) against Catholics, who made up 36 percent of Germany's population, by placing parochial schools under state control and expelling the Jesuits. In 1878 Bismarck relented, allying with the Catholics against the growing socialist threat.

In the 1880s Bismarck set aside his conservative impulses to counter the socialists by creating Europe's first modern welfare state, establishing national healthcare (1883), accident insurance (1884) and old age pensions (1889). Bismarck also hosted the 1885 Berlin Conference that ended the "Scramble for Africa," dividing the continent between the European powers and establishing German colonies in Cameroon, Togoland and East and Southwest Africa.

Otto von Bismarck: Final Years and Legacy

William I died in 1888 and was succeeded by his son Frederick III and then his grandson William II, both of whom Bismarck found difficult to control. In 1890 the new king forced Bismarck out. William II was left in control of a flourishing unified state but was ill-equipped to maintain Bismarck's carefully manipulated balance of international rivalries. Respected and honored by the time of his death eight years later, Bismarck quickly became a quasi-mythic figure invoked by political leaders calling for strong German leadership-or for war.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Otto von Bismarck - Biography, World Wars & Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)-also known as the "Iron Chancellor"-was Chancellor of the newly-united German Empire from 1862 to 1890. During his tenure he modernized the nation and helped set the stage for World War I.

# data[].attributes.body
Italy used to be divided into many independent states. In 1845, a revolution started. Italy was attacking and trying to take over other countries. At first they failed, but then the began winning. In 1871, Italy was officially unified.

# data[].attributes.body
Prince Pedro declared independence from Portugal in 1822. This marked a important moment in Brazilian history. On septemver 7, he famously shouted, "Independencia ou Morte!" as he proclaimed Brazil's power. This act led to the establishment of the Empire of Brazil, with Pedro becoming the first emperor. His leadership helped to consolidate Brazil's independence, although it also faced challenges in governance and internal conflict.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Brazil's history in the nineteenth century was dramatically shaped by events in Europe - namely, the ascendancy of Napoleon Bonaparte to the throne of France, and his subsequent conquest of much of continental Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula. As Napoleon's forces marched on Portugal, which had been a consistent ally of the Britain, France's nemesis, the royal court fled for the new world, establishing a court in Rio de Janeiro in 1808.

During his 13-year stay in Rio, Dom João VI brought a number of European-style institutions to the city - a printing press, an opera house, naval and military academies, and much more - so much so that, even after Napoleon's defeat and exile, the Portuguese monarch did not want to return to the court in Lisbon. He found himself more comfortable in Brazil. By choosing a faraway colony as a seat of power, João angered other European countries. His solution was to elevate Brazil to a monarchy and make himself de-facto ruler of two nations.

Still, his subjects and British allies clamored for his return, and so in 1821 João left his son, Prince Pedro, as regent in Brazil and returned to Europe.

Coronation of Pedro I

Brazil's independence from Portugal was a relatively anticlimactic event - there was no war, no act of congress, no overthrow of the government. With Dom João back in Lisbon, the Portuguese Cortes [parliament] attempted to restore Brazil to colonial status. But Pedro, as regent, rejected their attempts. On January 9, 1822, he officially and publicly announced his refusal to obey an order from Parliament that he return to Portugal. That day is now known as the Dia do Fico, a Brazilian holiday, for Pedro's proclamation: "I shall remain."

Pedro was lucky. His decision matched public opinion among Brazilian landowners and bureaucrats, who reflected important political interests. The divide between Portugal and Brazil widened, until September of 1822, when Pedro rejected a final decree from Portugal with the statement "Independência ou Morte!" [Independence or death.] From there he went on with the business of establishing the new Empire of Brazil, clearing out Portuguese loyalists within his government but making no changes to the existing socio-economic order.

In this account, Father Belchior Pinheira de Oliveira, a confidant of Prince Pedro, describes the exact moment of the declaration of independence, just after the prince has received the Cortes' demand that he return.

Accompanied by me, Cordeiro, Bregaro, Carlota, and others, D. Pedro silently walked toward our horses at the side of the road. Suddenly, he halted in the middle of the road and said to me, "Father Belchior, they asked for it and they will get it. The Côrtes is persecuting me and calling me an adolescent and a Brazilian. Well, now let them see their adolescent in action. From today on our relations with them are finished. I want nothing more from the Portuguese government, and I proclaim Brazil forevermore separated from Portugal."

With enthusiasm we immediately answered, "Long live liberty! Long live an independent Brazil! Long live D. Pedro!"

The Prince turned to his adjutant and said, "Tell my guard that I have just declared the complete independence of Brazil. We are free from Portugal."

Lieutenant Canto e Melo rode toward a market where most of the soldiers of the guard remained. He returned to the Prince with them shouting enthusiastically in favor of an independent and separate Brazil, D. Pedro, and the Catholic Religion.

D. Pedro before the guard said, 'The Portuguese Côrtes wants to enslave and to persecute us. Henceforth our relations are broken. Not one tie unites us!' (Burns, 199)

What, according to Father Belchior's account, were Pedro's concerns in breaking away from Portugal?

What do his declaration and his supporters' response indicate about the likely changes to the regime after independence?

Here Debret presents a grand, theatrical interpretation of the ascendancy of Emperor Pedro I and the separation of Brazil from the kingdom of Portugal. Framed by a curtain and flanked by symbols of the new nation's independence, the former prince regent takes center stage. Debret is at once conveying two messages that later artists would frequently reiterate: that Brazil is a separate entity with its own history; and that, despite its differences with the Old World, its peoples can see it as a peer of the long-standing civilizations that came before it.

The decision to label the new government an "empire" rather than a "kingdom" was a calculated and political one - Roman emperors were divinely supported, but did not receive their earthly power from their blood, as Pedro would have in Lisbon following the death of his father, Joao VI. In theory, at least, a Roman emperor received a mandate from the people to rule on their behalf. Lacking an imperial history of its own, Brazil adopted another's. As Pedro holds the new Constitution, the diverse peoples around him cheer and clamor for his rule. White and black parents put their children forward, as if waiting for them to be blessed, while bandeirantes pledge their allegiance and a soldier fires a cannon in celebration.

Notice, in the shadows to the left and right of the throne, the Indian civilians and warriors, respectively; the presence of indigenous peoples was an oft-invoked piece of evidence for "Brazilian history." In 1862, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the coronation Debret acclaims here, elites in Rio de Janeiro unveiled an equestrian statue of Pedro I; Native Brazilians are carved beneath the triumphal national monument as a means of reminding viewers that the country had a past before the Portuguese.

Some other details are worth observing. The boat in the far left foreground is carrying coffee and sugar, the two most important crops at the time of this painting. The old man on the right is from Sao Paulo, while his grandson, upon whom he is leaning, is from Minas Gerais. Finally, the entire scene is consecrated by heraldic angels and three cherubim carrying a crowned orb with the letter "P," presumably for "Pedro." This orb resembles the imperial coat of arms, which also decorated the national flag until the empire's end in 1889.

Portraits of a King and an Emperor

The man in the images on the left is King João VI, and the man on the right is the Emperor Pedro I.

What does the difference in attire of these two men reflect about their political positions?

What is the value in comparing them side by side? What are the similarities and differences between them?

Comparisons of Rio de Janeiro

Why did Debret show these two images, the close-up of the palace and the long view of the coastline, together? How does one complement the other?

What assumptions can be made about the economy and social structure of Rio de Janiero from these images?

How does the plaza depicted in this image differ from the one shown in Debret's "Vue de la Place de Palais, à Rio de Janiero"?

What kinds of people are shown and what kinds of tasks are they doing?

How does the architecture differ from that of the aforementioned image?

Arrival of Princess Leopoldine

What does this illustration say about the Brazilian monarchy?

How is the princess welcomed to Brazil?

How does the illustration reflect both European and Brazilian values in terms of its setting, its people, and its architecture?

Pedro II Assumes Leadership

The focal point of this Debret painting, hard to see from afar, is standing on a chair. In 1831, under pressure from the Brazilian military and the Portuguese monarchy, Dom Pedro I returned to Portugal to assume the throne (his father had died five years earlier), leaving his son Pedro II as the claimant to the Brazilian imperial seat of power.

Pedro II was five years old at the time, so a triumvirate of regents was arranged, planning to rule the country until the young emperor reached age 18. Here we see the symbolic acclamation of the new leader, who waves to the crowd from a balcony in the upper-left while in military dress. For the Brazilian elites, the continued existence of an emperor was vital from a symbolic point of view. Although liberals and conservatives split on how power should be centralized in this still-young government, they supported the regents' plan all the same.

The men on horseback closest to Pedro's balcony represent the different sectors of Rio de Janeiro, the capital city from 1793 to 1960. Behind the line of soldiers in the center, notice the celebrating men, many of whom are holding branches, which were meant to symbolize the national colors, green and gold. All the revelers appear to be well off, if not elite. There are no clearly poor people in this audience, but they were not as invested in preserving the status quo as the elites who wanted to ward off any potential political tumult that might accompany a change of power. Indeed, following a series of small revolts in the 1830s that questioned the empire's legitimacy and what Brazil stood for, the country's elites pushed for Pedro II to assume power four years early. He did so in 1840, and would rule the "Second Empire" for the next 59 years.

Further Reading

Roderick Barman's Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825-1891 studies the reign of the emperor, "a complex personality who simultaneously compels sympathy, exasperation, and respect."

Sources

Burns, Bradford, ed. A Documentary History of Brazil. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Brazil's history in the nineteenth century was dramatically shaped by events in Europe - namely, the ascendancy of Napoleon Bonaparte to the throne of France, and his subsequent conquest of much of continental Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula.

# data[].attributes.body
Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, was a key architect of Italian unification in the 19th century. As a prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, he skillfully navigated political alliances, notably with France, to challenge Austrian dominance in Italy. Cavour implemented economic reforms that modernized Sardinia and strengthened its military capabilities. His diplomatic efforts and military strategies led to significant territorial gains and the eventual proclamation of the Kingdom of leadership and vision were essential in shaping the modern Italian state.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Camillo Benso Comte de Cavour | Chemins de mémoire