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Dephi study definition of dyslexia (2025)

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About dyslexia - British Dyslexia Association

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Dyslexia is a neurological difference and can have a significant impact

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Neurodiversity is a relatively new term. It helps to promote the view that neurological differences are to be recognised and respected as any other human variation. It is used to counter negative social connotations that currently exist and to make it easier for people of all neurotypes to contribute to the world as they are, rather than attempting to think or appear more 'typically'.

Neurodiversity encompasses all specific learning difficulties (SpLD), many of which co-occur or overlap. We have explored in more detail the SpLD that most often co-occur with dyslexia.

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Neurodiversity and Co-occurring difficulties - British Dyslexia Association

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Neurodiversity is a relatively new term. It helps to promote the view that neurological differences are to be recognised and respected as any other human...

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How to support reading difficulties in the classroom

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How to support reading difficulties in the classroom

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How to support memory and processing in the classroom

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How to support memory and processing in the classroom

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processing in the classroom

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Ways to help children with working memory difficulties in the classroom

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DIGITAL - New nasen miniguide - 2023 A5 V5

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Signs of Dyslexia  early years, primary & secondary

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Signs of Dyslexia  early years, primary & secondary

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Signs of dyslexia (Early Years) - British Dyslexia Association

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The following indicators may suggest that your child has a Specific Learning Difficulty (SpLD) such as dyslexia. Many young children will display these…

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Our 10 Best Dyslexia Reader Pen in the UK - March 2025 | BestProductsReviews.co.uk

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Easily compare & choose from the 10 best Dyslexia Reader Pen for you. Don’t buy a Dyslexia Reader Pen in the UK before reading our rankings | BestProductsReviews.co.uk

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dyslexia friendly learning environment checklist primary

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Dyslexia - SpLD Classroom Environment Audit

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dyslexia friendly learning environment checklist secondary

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Know your children need a different approach to learning but haven't the time to prepare the resources? Then look no further! This pack provide some you with a wealt

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This webinar is designed for teachers, SENCO’s, senior leaders and IT professionals giving you a basic awareness of what is available to support children and young people with SEND using Microsoft 365.

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In this sponsored webinar from Scanning Pens, SENCo and Head of Education for Scanning Pens, Julia Clouter, talks to Jim Bowen, about his experience of dyslexia both at school and as an adult, and the assistive technology he uses to support him

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Supporting Pupils with Specific Learning Difficulties in secondary (NASEN Guide)

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The English Alphabetic Code - complete picture

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Phonological awareness help sheet and checklist

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Processing Speed help sheet and checklist

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Rewordify.com | Understand what you read

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Rewordify.com helps you read more, understand better, learn new words, and teach more effectively.

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Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear and manipulate the smallest units of sounds (phonemes) in words. Many students with learning differences like dyslexia struggle with phonemic awareness. Because phonemic awareness is a foundational literacy skill, students who have trouble with this skill often have difficulty with reading.

Elkonin sound boxes can help students develop phonemic awareness by focusing on segmenting and blending the sounds in words. Segmenting is breaking a word apart into its individual sounds. Blending is putting the individual sounds together to say the word. Read on to learn how to use Elkonin sound boxes to teach these important skills.

K (Common Core ELA Literacy RF.K.2: Understand spoken words, syllables, and sounds)

1 (Common Core ELA Literacy RF.1.2: Understand spoken words, syllables, and sounds)

Gather materials. Give each student an Elkonin sound boxes printable and five counters, coins, tiles, or other small objects. For students who struggle with fine motor skills, consider using larger objects that are easier to handle.

Words with two sounds and two letters: it, no

Words with three sounds and three letters or with three sounds and four letters ending in a 'silent e': hop, cat, game

Words with three sounds and one or more digraphs (two letters that make one sound): fish, tooth, chime

Words with four phonemes and blends (two or more letters that blend together but that have separate sounds): crab, skip, trade

Words with five phonemes and blends: street, crust, blend

2. Model. Point to the set of boxes that has two squares. Explain that students will move one counter into one square for each sound they hear. Model how you'll do that by lining up two counters above the squares. Say the word it. Pull down one tile into the first square as you say /ĭ/ and the second tile as you say /t/. Then run your finger along the arrow underneath the box to blend the sounds back together: it.

3. Practice and give feedback. Invite students to practice another word with you. Depending on your students' needs, you might use the sound box with three squares and the word hit. Support students as they pull down one tile for /h/, one for /ĭ/, and another for /t/. Then blend the sounds back together to make hit.

Repeat the activity with several words that have two, three, four, or five sounds (as appropriate for your students). Provide feedback as students segment and blend the sounds.

For English language learners (ELLs): Hold up a picture of the word you are asking students to segment. Say the word and have students repeat it. (If the word is a cognate, say the word both in English and in the student's home language.) After students say the word in English, segment the sounds and then blend them together. By doing so, you'll help students build vocabulary by connecting the word with its meaning.

Understand: Why this strategy works

All students - and particularly students who learn and think differently - benefit from explicit instruction in literacy. The visual element of the sound boxes helps students to segment each sound separately. Similarly, moving the tiles and dragging their finger along the word helps to engage students in multisensory learning.

Elkonin sounds boxes are especially useful for ELLs. Learning English can be difficult for some students because there are sounds in English that may not exist in their home language. For instance, English has many more vowel sounds than Spanish. Elkonin sound boxes give students repeated practice with hearing unfamiliar sounds.

Share this resource with families to help them understand the importance of phonemic awareness and other phonological skills.

Research behind this strategy

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Elkonin sound boxes: An evidence-based literacy strategy

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Learn how to use Elkonin boxes to teach phonemic awareness. Get a printable of Elkonin sound boxes to help teach segmenting and blending.

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Dyslexia Screener is an initial screener for teachers concerned about a pupil's literacy progress. Standardised to ensure accurate benchmarks, the assessment can be used to screen year groups or for individual pupils whose performance in literacy is causing concern. It distinguishes between general literacy difficulties and those associated with dyslexia. Comprising six digital tests, it identifies whether a pupil would benefit from further diagnostic assessments.
The Dyslexia Guidance Handbook provides invaluable advice for teachers and SENCOs supporting dyslexic pupils, from pre-school through to university. With activities based on real classroom experiences (including photocopiable materials), it covers each education stage, from common early dyslexia signs such as difficulty with letters, to recommended study techniques and how to make access arrangements for examinations.

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Dyslexia Screener is an initial screener for teachers concerned about a pupil's literacy progress. Standardised to ensure accurate benchmarks, the assessment can be used to screen year groups or for individual pupils whose performance in literacy is causing concern. It distinguishes between general literacy difficulties and those associated with dyslexia.

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Find out all the information you need about dyslexia screening and formal assessments.

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I've got to admit that I'm a bit of a language geek. I love finding out from where words or bits of words originate, and I actually love analysing spellings too, probably because I like working with visual patterns as well unpicking morphology. So, it pleases me greatly that the newest definition of dyslexia (see Towards a consensus on dyslexia: Findings from a Delphi study), which many assessors are now working with, finally includes specific reference to orthography. Back in the 1890s, when the ophthalmologist Rudolf Berlin first coined the term 'dyslexia' the concept of difficulties accessing print whilst having sound eyesight was what started the ball rolling. But then once the speech and language therapists took the lead in the mid-20th century, the focus shifted to deficits in phonological processing as the primary cause of dyslexia. It's taken another 70 or so years, but it is pleasing to see that experts across various dyslexia-related domains can finally agree that there are without doubt multiple factors that affect the development of accurate and fluent reading and spelling...and orthography is indeed one of them.
So, what exactly is Orthography?
Orthography, the conventional system of the printed form of a language, serves as the backbone of written communication. It encompasses the rules and patterns that govern how words are represented visually, including the use of letters, diacritical marks (e.g. accents), and punctuation. Whilst often taken for granted by fluent readers and writers, orthography plays a significant role in literacy acquisition. Furthermore, it provides critical insights into the identification and support of individuals with dyslexia.

Orthography involves the visual representation of a language's phonemes (speech sounds) and both graphemes (letters) and morphemes (units of meaning). It connects spoken language to written text through a system of symbols that must be learned and internalised. Different languages have orthographies that vary in complexity. For instance:

* Transparent orthographies (e.g., Finnish, Italian) have a straightforward letter-to-sound correspondence, making them easier to decode.

* Opaque orthographies (e.g., English, French) have inconsistent or complex spelling rules, presenting greater challenges for learners.

Really importantly, the complexity of an orthography directly influences the cognitive demands placed on learners as they develop reading and writing skills.
Dyslexia and Orthography
Dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty that affects an individual's ability to decode and encode written language, and so it can significantly hinder the development of literacy skills. Orthographic processing - the ability to recognise and remember written word forms - is a key area where individuals with dyslexia often face difficulties. These can include:

1. Letter Reversals
* Examples: Confusing "b" and "d," "p" and "q," or "n" and "u."

* Very common in early stages of learning to read and write, but can persist longer for those with dyslexia.

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2. Inconsistent Spelling
* Examples: Spelling the same word differently within the same text (e.g., "because" as "becos," "becaus," etc.).

* Difficulty in memorising word patterns and rules.

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3. Phoneme-to-Grapheme Errors
* Examples: Writing "fot" instead of "foot" or "bake" instead of "back."

* Challenges in mapping sounds (phonemes) to their corresponding letters (graphemes).

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4. Omissions and Additions
* Omissions: Leaving out letters or syllables (e.g., writing "hap" for "happy").

* Additions: Adding extra letters (e.g., writing "bigg" for "big").

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5. Transpositions
* Examples: Reversing the order of letters within a word, such as "form" instead of "from" or "gril" for "girl."

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6. Homophone Confusion
* Examples: Mixing up "there," "their," and "they're" or "to," "too," and "two."

* Difficulty distinguishing words that sound the same but are spelled differently.

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7. Inconsistent Application of Rules
* Struggling with rules like silent letters, doubling consonants, or vowel combinations.

* Examples: Confusing "hopping" (doubling the "p") and "hoping" (no doubling).

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8. Difficulty with Irregular Words
* Examples: Struggling to spell non-phonetic words like "said" or "half".

* English's irregular spelling patterns are especially challenging for dyslexic learners.

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9. Weak Word Recall
* Forgetting how to spell familiar words, even those used frequently.

* Example: Suddenly misspelling "what" as "wat."

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10. Inability to Recognise Word Boundaries
* Writing without clear spaces between words.

* Example: Writing "sheisrunning" instead of "she is running."

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11. Case Switching
* Mixing uppercase and lowercase letters within words.

* Examples: Writing "doG" or "HoUse."

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12. Difficulty with Suffixes and Prefixes
* Struggling to correctly add or modify suffixes and prefixes.

* Examples: Writing "walkt" instead of "walked" or "unhappyer" instead of "unhappier."

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13. Mirror Writing
* Writing letters or numbers backward (e.g., "Ɔ" instead of "C").

* Often associated with spatial and directional challenges.

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14. Struggles with Silent Letters
* Omitting silent letters in words like "knock," "write," or "honest."

* Examples: Writing "nock" for "knock."

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15. Handwriting Challenges
* Difficulty forming letters consistently and legibly, leading to additional orthographic errors.

* Can overlap with dyslexia, but is not a sign of dyslexia on its own.

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These difficulties reflect differences in the way the brain processes language and visual information i.e. printed symbols. Dyslexia is often linked to phonological deficits, but orthographic processing difficulties can exacerbate the challenges of reading and writing.

Understanding orthography is crucial in identifying dyslexia, particularly in languages with opaque spelling systems like English. Assessment tools, which may be purely observational or formal age-standardised tests, examine a child's ability to carry out tasks such as matching letters (and numerals), discriminating between similar-looking letters and/or words, recognising irregular words with automaticity, recalling common spelling patterns, and so on.

Supporting Learners with Dyslexia
Given the significant role of orthography in literacy, effective support for individuals with dyslexia often includes explicit instruction in spelling and reading. Multisensory approaches focus on strengthening the connection between letters and sounds while providing repeated practice with word patterns and irregular spellings. For languages with opaque orthographies, additional emphasis may be placed on retention strategies (e.g. using mnemonics) and even the use of assistive technologies, such as text-to-speech software or spell-check tools.

Conclusion
Orthography is more than a set of arbitrary spelling rules; it is a fundamental component of language that shapes how we read and write. For individuals with dyslexia, challenges in processing print underscore the need for targeted interventions and reasonable adjustments. By deepening our understanding of orthography and its role in literacy, teachers and parents can better support learners in overcoming obstacles and achieving their full potential in reading and written communication.

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Orthography and dyslexia...it's not all about the sounds!

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I've got to admit that I'm a bit of a language geek. I love finding out from where words or bits of words originate, and I actually love analysing spellings too, probably because I like working with visual patterns as well unpicking morphology.

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Multisensory learning is a popular approach to teaching for those with learning differences such as ADHD, Dyslexic individuals, or children with a learning disability. Multisensory learning is also an effective way to make teaching inclusive, as it offers a wide range of strategies for children to learn, and does not depend upon just listening, writing and reading alone. The following are different kinds of sensory learning that can be incorporated into teaching (*this is not an article about learning styles!*):

Visual - learning through watching and seeing;

Auditory - learning through listening and hearing sounds;

Kinaesthetic - learning through physical activity or body movement (this involves the vestibular and proprioceptive senses);

Tactile - learning through using the sense to touch;

Olfactory and Gustatory - learning through smell and taste.

The multisensory teaching method involves at least two or more of these different sensory learning styles. In recent years, the learning styles idea has been shown to be problematic as many classrooms took this out of context and started labelling children with their 'preferred learning style.' The recent research by authors such as Barbara Tversky has shed new light on using objects to think with (this is not the same as learning styles!). In this article, we will explore classroom applications of this theory in relation to developing comprehension skills and wider literacy skills of pupils.

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How does Multisensory Learning Work?

The multi-sensory approach involves different parts of the human brain, which provides learners with more than a single way to make connections, understand more concepts and retain knowledge. For instance, in an activity that integrates auditory, tactile and visual stimuli, children will be able to build a relationship between the sound, feeling and appearance of that learning activity, which will enable learners to better remember the main information of that task.

In mainstream environments, teaching mostly comprises of activities where children are asked to learn by only listening and readingthe information. It can make learning difficult and children, especially those with learning difficulties, are not able to sustain their attention on the tasks. Of course, it is not possible to integrate all of the senses into multisensory lessons. But, whenever integrated, a multisensory approach is sure to make teaching more inclusive and engaging. Using speech alone can cause difficulties as the learner has to have basic language skills to access the meaning. If a child is trying to understand curriculum content without a proficient level of academic skills, then they may struggle to extrapolate the meaning hidden behind the words. Using multisensory instruction techniques enables children to bypass some of the barriers that they might otherwise encounter. Decoding large amounts of text is a basic language skill that we take for granted. Very quickly, our working memory can be overloaded with the complexities of a cognitive task like reading. Taking a multisensory speech processing approach using visuals and other cues enables the child to dedicate some of the processing to the content and meaning. Approaches such as dual coding use audiovisual speech integration to reduce the cognitive load.

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Which subjects can be taught using Multisensory Learning?

Multi-sensory techniques can be used and adapted to support students learning in any topic area or subject. It is suitable for every student from the early years, to secondary and higher education. The traditional learning process of some subjects involves multisensory learning as a normal way to teach relevant subjects to the students.

For instance, Multi-sensory instruction is one of the most frequently used methods to teach alphabets to children in early education years. Combining kinaesthetic, auditory and visual teaching methods in multisensory language instruction is a frequently used tactic to first introduce children to magnetic letters and to develop phonemic awareness. Research shows that multisensory instruction helps young learners to develop connections between sounds, words and letters at a faster rate.

Also, in a science classroom students carry out practical experiments and note down the experiment results. It is an excellent example of a multisensory learning experience as students use a hands-on approach with equipment and then they use tactile learning and visual senses to see and note down the results of their experiment. Below is a brief description of some of the different kinds of multi-sensory learning techniques.

Visual Techniques: Visual learners prefer vision in teaching. These techniques may include anything from reading the text to the most creative visual arts such as posters, painting, video, or any artistic visual design element used for teaching.

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Visual techniques may also help support dyslexic readers and auditory and tactile learners. For example, using pictures to show how to knit or sew, or writing musical notes on paper.

Auditory Techniques: Auditory learning strategies are meant to help a learner, who learns most effectively by listening. These persons prefer listening to the directions for a project rather than participating in hands-on activitiesor they would like to listen to a lesson as compared to reading a book.

Some examples of auditory processing techniques include the use of songs, music, audio tones, rhymes, lyrics, dialogue, and clapping anything that involves the ear.

Tactile Techniques: Learning through touch is called tactile learning. Mostly coinciding with kinesthetic learning, tactile instructions mostly involve fine motor skills.

Specific auditory techniques mayinvolve the use of finger paints, coins, letter tiles, dominoes, sand, poker chips, textures and raised line paper. Also, modelling materials such as plastic one or clay create good tactile learning media.

Kinesthetic Techniques: These are also called learning by doing. Kinesthetic learners prefer learning by motion and doing, using both gross and fine motor skills.

The kinaesthetic technique is a way to effective instruction that occurs when learners engage in hands-on experience. An example is when a child learns to ride a bike or use a swing. From clapping in rhythm to jumping rope, anything that connects learning to body movement is kinesthetic activity.

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What are the benefits of using multisensory instruction in the classroom?

The major benefit of using the multisensory method of teaching is that it helps learners to retain more knowledge. The best way to apply multisensory instruction for students is integrating a variety of sensory experiences in a fun activity to ensure that all of the learners can access and engage in the learning.

Why not try out activities that get students 'thinking with their hands'. These sorts of activities involve pupils manipulating objects and may involve other sensory elements and multisensory activities.

Adding a variety of senses in learning activities does not only make learning more pleasing and engaging, but it also adds to its effectiveness. Sensory stimulation is associated with improved memory retention and mental cognition.

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It is important to note that learning differences and learning difficulties such as dyslexic students or students with ADHD and Autism can often remain undetected until adulthood. Integrating multisensory techniques into the teaching ensures that any person with undiagnosed special educational needs will still find multi-sensory instruction engaging, helpful and fun way of teaching.

For instance, if a student struggles with retaining information with kinesthetic processing, simply performing in the class activities will not be enough to help him retain knowledge. Adding other senses like listening and sight will be needed for supporting his particular needs.

When kids use multiple senses to perform multi-sensory activities, it gives them more ways to connect with their learning. This kind of multisensory instruction techniques involving hands-on learning enables learners to:

Make connections between what they already know and the new information;

Understand and solve problems

Use non-verbal skills of problem-solving.

Multisensory learning techniques are designed while considering that every child is different and using the same teaching strategy is not going to help every individual student.

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Embracing multi-sensory learning in your classroom

Using a multi-sensory instruction approach and activities is a simple remedy that can provide different teaching strategies to teach the majority of subjects to every student with multiple ways to learn. Multisensory teaching techniques are essential for providing equal opportunities to every child so that they can meet and exceed expectations. One word of caution, as we mentioned, the learning styles myth has come into a lot of controversy in recent years. This is largely due to the approach being taken out of context. We have seen some schools play stickers on children physically labelling them with a 'preferred learning style'. This can be damaging and counter-productive as we all use our different senses to make sense of the world around us. Embodied cognition is a growing field of research that we can all learn from. Simply put, learning doesn't just happen all alone in our heads. This reductionist approach only adds to the barriers that our pupils encounter on a daily basis. In closing, provide more opportunities for your students to use their hands, voices and minds.

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Multisensory learning in the classroom: A teacher's guide

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Multisensory learning is a popular approach to teaching for those with learning differences such as ADHD, Dyslexic individuals, or children with a learning disability. Multisensory learning is also an effective way to make teaching inclusive, as it offers a wide range of strategies for children to learn, and does not depend upon just listening, writing and reading alone.

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Literacy screener

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IDL offers the most effective dyslexia and dyscalculia software. Our software has been proven to increase spelling and reading age by 11 months in 26 hours.

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Barrington Stoke For over 25 years, we have been publishing super-readable, dyslexia-friendly fiction to help every child become a reader. Our award-winning short novels are expertly designed to ensure an accessible read for those who struggle and a quick win for more confident readers. Discover the range

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Teaching and learning resources for primary, KS3, GCSE. IGCSE and A level. Revision, practise and exam preparation for all levels. Including Letts revision and home learning, books for Scottish education from Leckie, and Keen Kite resources for primary schools.

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Our condition-specific videos aim to develop a newly qualified teachers' knowledge of SEND and to introduce them to helpful resources and tips for the classroom.

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Daw 2024 Webinar - Multisensory Learning

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DAW 2024 Webinar - Understanding Dyslexia

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Free training workshops for school staff

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Free training workshops for school staff

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Education - Learn Dyslexia - Made By Dyslexia

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Some fantastic games for your Spld learners

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‎A top 5 education game in the U.S.
2021 Academic Choice Awards Winner Spark excitement for learning with Bitsboard – an interactive learning app trusted by over 5 million parents, teachers and students worldwide. Create your own learning experience with 35+ educational activities, join a private cl…

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Our new dyslexia screening test for 7-16-year-olds helps you understand your child’s profile, risk of dyslexia, and how you can help them thrive.