# data[].attributes.body
This artifact is about Jacques Daviel, an 18th-century French ophthalmologist who pioneered modern cataract surgery. In 1752, he introduced the extracapsular cataract extraction technique, where the cloudy lens of the eye is surgically removed through an incision rather than pushed back into the eye as in earlier methods. Daviel’s innovation significantly improved surgical outcomes and laid the foundation for modern cataract procedures used today. His work is still highly relevant, as cataract surgery remains one of the most common and effective treatments for restoring vision, directly impacting the brain’s ability to process visual information, which is a crucial aspect of neuroscience. Today, his techniques have evolved into advanced procedures performed worldwide, improving not only eyesight but also cognitive function and quality of life, especially in aging populations. I chose this artifact because Daviel’s contributions marked a turning point in both medical and neuroscience history by demonstrating the essential connection between sensory organ health and brain function. Sources for this information include Daviel’s original accounts (1752), Duke-Elder’s System of Ophthalmology (1969), and studies such as Rahi & Foster’s (1995) report on the impact of cataract surgery on vision and quality of life.

source https://theophthalmologist.com/business-profession/the-ophthalmologists-time-machine-chapter-15

# data[].attributes.headline
300 BCE Herophilos and the Discovery of the Optic Nerve

# data[].attributes.subject
300 BCE Herophilos and the Discovery of the Optic Nerve

# data[].attributes.body
Herophilos of Chalcedon, often called the "Father of Anatomy," was a pioneering Greek physician and anatomist who lived around 300 BCE during the Hellenistic period. Working in Alexandria, Egypt, Herophilos was the first to perform systematic human dissections, which allowed him to accurately describe various parts of the nervous system. Among his most significant discoveries was the optic nerve, which he identified as the critical structure transmitting visual information from the eye to the brain. His distinction between sensory and motor nerves marked a revolutionary step in understanding how the body communicates with the brain, laying the groundwork for future neurological science.

Herophilos conducted his anatomical research in Alexandria, a major intellectual hub of the ancient world, renowned for its Library and Museum. This environment fostered a spirit of scientific inquiry that was unprecedented in the ancient world. While no physical artifacts from his dissections have survived, his detailed descriptions and discoveries were recorded and influenced medical science for centuries. His work reflected a significant departure from earlier mystical interpretations of sight, instead presenting a clear, anatomical explanation of vision that connected the eye directly to the brain through the optic nerve.

Herophilos' discovery of the optic nerve holds great significance in the history of neuroscience. By demonstrating that vision was not just a function of the eyes but also deeply rooted in the brain’s processing, he helped establish one of the earliest understandings of the visual pathways. His work paved the way for later advances in neuroanatomy and sensory processing. This milestone was chosen for the exhibition because it represents the intersection of early ophthalmology and neuroscience, and highlights how ancient anatomical discoveries continue to inform and inspire modern scientific thought.

source：DOI: 10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280

# data[].attributes.headline
150 CE – Galen Describes the Optic Chiasm and Visual Pathways

# data[].attributes.subject
150 CE – Galen Describes the Optic Chiasm and Visual Pathways

# data[].attributes.body
Galen of Pergamon (129–ca. 200/216 CE), one of the most influential physicians of antiquity, was the first to provide a detailed description of the optic chiasm, the X-shaped structure where the optic nerves converge at the base of the brain. Drawing on animal dissections—primarily monkeys and oxen—Galen believed the optic chiasm facilitated communication between the two optic nerves, which he associated with binocular vision. He introduced the term “chiasm” based on its resemblance to the Greek letter chi (Χ), and theorized that visual signals were processed through the brain’s ventricles via the spiritus animalis (animal spirit). Although some of his ideas were later proven inaccurate, his work on the visual pathways dominated medical understanding for over a millennium and laid the foundation for early neuroscience.

This discovery dates back to the 2nd century CE, during the Roman Empire, and was primarily conducted in Pergamon and Rome. Despite restrictions on human dissection, Galen’s insights into the optic chiasm and visual system deeply influenced both neurology and ophthalmology in subsequent centuries. His description of the optic chiasm represents an early attempt to explain how the brain integrates sensory input, and his theories remained authoritative until they were revised in the Renaissance. This work is significant in the history of neuroscience as it marks one of the earliest efforts to map the relationship between eye and brain, shaping how later generations understood vision and neural communication.

source：DOI: 10.1007/s00381-017-3564-1

# data[].attributes.headline
1021 CE – Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) Publishes Book of Optics

# data[].attributes.subject
1021 CE – Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) Publishes Book of Optics

# data[].attributes.body
In 1021 CE, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) completed his Book of Optics, revolutionizing the understanding of vision. He proposed that light travels from objects to the eye, forming an image on the retina, which is then processed by the brain. This challenged earlier Greek theories and introduced one of the first scientific explanations of visual perception involving the nervous system.

The work was written in Cairo during the Islamic Golden Age, a time of major scientific progress. Despite living under house arrest, Ibn al-Haytham conducted experiments on light, reflection, and refraction. His book was later translated into Latin and influenced European scientists, shaping the fields of optics and neuroscience.

Ibn al-Haytham’s ideas were groundbreaking because they connected the eye and brain in the process of vision. His emphasis on observation and experimentation laid the foundations for modern science. This work is important in neuroscience history for explaining how sensory information is interpreted by the brain.

sources: https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=2047

# data[].attributes.headline
1543 CE – Andreas Vesalius’ “De Humani Corporis Fabrica” Corrects Galen

# data[].attributes.subject
1543 CE – Andreas Vesalius’ “De Humani Corporis Fabrica” Corrects Galen

# data[].attributes.body
In 1543 CE, Andreas Vesalius, a pioneering anatomist from Brussels, published his groundbreaking work De Humani Corporis Fabrica (“On the Fabric of the Human Body”) while serving as Chair of Surgery and Anatomy at the University of Padua. Unlike his predecessors, Vesalius insisted on performing human dissections himself, allowing him to directly observe and document the human body's structures with unprecedented accuracy. His Fabrica corrected many of Galen's long-accepted errors, such as the belief that the human mandible consisted of two bones rather than one, and his descriptions of the optic nerves and brain anatomy provided a more accurate understanding of the nervous system. Published in Basel, Switzerland, Fabrica featured detailed illustrations that not only advanced medical knowledge but also established a new standard for anatomical science.

Vesalius’ work marks a turning point in the history of neuroscience and anatomy, shifting the discipline from reliance on ancient texts to evidence-based investigation. By challenging Galen's authority and prioritizing empirical observation, Vesalius laid the foundation for modern scientific methods in medicine. His accurate depiction of the optic nerves, cranial structures, and the brain's anatomy deepened the understanding of sensory pathways and visual processing, contributing directly to early neurological thought. De Humani Corporis Fabrica remains one of the most influential texts in the history of medicine, symbolizing the Renaissance move toward direct observation and experimentation in the study of the human body.

sources: DOI: 10.1016/j.jvs.2014.11.080

# data[].attributes.headline
1604 CE – Johannes Kepler Explains How the Eye Forms an Image on the Retina

# data[].attributes.subject
1604 CE – Johannes Kepler Explains How the Eye Forms an Image on the Retina

# data[].attributes.body
This artifact focuses on Johannes Kepler, the renowned 17th-century astronomer and optical scientist, and his groundbreaking explanation of how the human eye forms images on the retina. In 1604, Kepler published his work Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena, where he corrected earlier misconceptions about vision. He was the first to describe how light enters the eye, passes through the lens, and projects an inverted image onto the retina, laying the foundation for modern understanding of the visual process.

Kepler’s discovery occurred during the early 17th century, a period marked by significant advances in science and optics. His work was conducted in the Holy Roman Empire, particularly in cities like Prague and Linz. Although rooted in a specific time and place, his insights transcended borders and became fundamental to scientific thought across Europe and beyond.

This artifact is significant to the history of neuroscience because it represents a turning point in the scientific study of perception and sensory processing. Kepler’s explanation of retinal image formation bridged the gap between physical optics and the neural interpretation of visual information. His work influenced later studies on how the brain processes sensory input, making it a cornerstone in both vision science and the broader field of neuroscience. I chose this artifact because it highlights the moment when rigorous scientific methods were first applied to understanding human sensation, ultimately shaping the way we study the nervous system today.

sources: https://ethos.lps.library.cmu.edu/article/id/629/

# data[].attributes.body
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) was a pioneering anatomist and physician, known as the Father of Modern Anatomy. In 1543 CE, he published De Humani Corporis Fabrica, a groundbreaking anatomical text that corrected centuries of errors passed down from Galen. Through detailed dissections and direct observation, Vesalius accurately described the optic nerves, optic chiasm, and brain structures, laying the foundation for modern understanding of the visual pathways and the nervous system. His hands-on approach and emphasis on empirical evidence transformed anatomy from a theoretical discipline into a science based on observation and experimentation.

Vesalius is the ideal historical guide for this exhibition because his work directly connects ophthalmology and neurology, demonstrating how the study of the eye advanced knowledge of the brain. By challenging ancient authorities and prioritizing first-hand investigation, he played a key role in shaping early neurological thought. His legacy continues to inspire the scientific exploration of vision, perception, and the nervous system.

sources: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Vesalius