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Lisa wakes up to her mom screaming at her dad and runs out of her room. She and her parents are looking out the window and they are worried that her brother is not happy. On the way out he doesn't grab his book bag so lisa goes to the kitchen to grab it and she sees her mom crying, she wants to help but her dad signals her away, she then grabs her brother as her brother is there waiting. She starts to walk to school and leaflets are dropped on the streets and that's when she figures out Denmark has been taken by Nazi Germany. Then on the way to school Lisa meets up with her cousin and friend Erik, Lisa then asks Erik about the situation and then they start talking about the rumors about what is happening to Jewish people in Germany and how they are disappearing. She gets to school and her teacher starts to cry so lisa and her friend pass notes during class.

how many German soldiers are in Denmark

have any Jews been taken
yes
how many jews have been taken
464 from denmark
how many jewish people in her class

because she is so interested in fighting the germans she might join or form a group to fight back.

I think Lisa's parents might get taken or her friends might.

I don't know how I would act if Mr. Moss or any of my teachers for that matter started to cry.

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On April 9, 1940, German warships enter major Norwegian ports, from Narvik to Oslo, deploying thousands of German troops and occupying Norway. At the same time, German forces occupy Copenhagen, among other Danish cities. German forces were able to slip through the mines Britain had laid around Norwe…

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This relates to the book because near the beginning of the book Lisa's family looks out the window and sees a Luftwaffe squadron

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Lisa can't sleep. All she can think about are the Germans so she starts to think back to happier times when her, her dad and his friends family went on a ride in the friends boat when there were blue skies and were they all had fun. the Germans order the danish people to black out their windows so the allies don't bomb them and if the germans see light they will shoot up the house. Lisa overhears her parents arguing about if her dad should treat the jewish patience. Lisa's family invites her family to the seder dinner were they start talking about rumors about what is happening to the jewish in Austria and Germany and it turns into a heated debate Lisa asked her seder questions but know one gave acknowledgement to her. Lisa and her family stop reading the paper because it's run by Germany and they start  listening to the BBC on the radio because that tells them what is actually happening. Lisa hears her mom and dad arguing and she comes up with an idea about how her dad could make the Germans sick without them knowing.

Vocabulary
-seder
A religious meal served by jewish people to commence the festival of passover.

- Matzah
Matzah is type of bread that is served with a jewish cuisine

Theme connections
When I was little my family and I went to the netherlands to visit family and we went on a sail boat which was a fun experience so when Lisa says she had a great time on a sailboat I can understand why

Predictions
I think Lisa's dad is going to follow through with the plan that she gave him.

I think her dad and mom but specifically her dad is going to get found out and get taken to a concentration camp.

I think her dad or both her mom and dad getting taken is going to spark the start of Lisa joining the resistance.

Questions
Will her family get taken to camps
no they escaped to Sweden
will the germans shoot up there home because of some light
no
how long before Lisa joins the resistance
chapter 4 is where she joins chapter 5 is where she starts her first mission
Links
https://www.chabad.org/holidays/passover/pesach_cdo/aid/1751/jewish/What-Is-a-Seder-Passover-Meal.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackout_(wartime)

Personal thoughts
I think Lisa's Idea about what her dad should do to the Germans is good because there will be less Germans to fight against and their disease might spread through trenches  but bad because if the Germans find out Lisa's dad and maybe her family will get transported to concentration camps.

I noticed subtle hints about Lisa joining the resistance little phrases that the book has like " I wish there was something I could do" little lines like that, that don't need to be added but are because it hints to something coming up.

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What Is a Seder (Passover Meal)? - A quick, one-page overview of the Passover Meal’s steps

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The Seder is the traditional Passover meal that includes reading, drinking 4 cups of wine, telling stories, eating special foods, singing, and other Passover traditions.

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This relates to the story because when Lisa cant sleep she starts to think back to happier times when she went sailing with her family and her dads friends family.

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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This relates to the chapter because Lisa's family stopped reading the paper because it was all German propaganda so they started listening to the radio run by the British so they can know what's actually going on in Denmark

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This relates to the chapter because Lisa talks to her dad about giving German soldiers fake medicine.

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1. In chapter one, the members of Lisa’s family have different reactions to the invasion of the Nazis. Describe their reactions. (4)

Stefan: he was mad at Denmark because they had surrendered and hadn’t tried.

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Mother and Father: Lisa’s mom and dad where super worried when they heard about the invasion

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Erik: Erik didn't really care about the invasion

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Lisa: Lisa didn’t know how to feel at the start but later in the story all she felt was scared

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

1. In chapter two, what dilemma does Lisa’s father face? (2)

___The dilemma is if he should treat the german soldiers or not. Lisa comes up with a plan to be nice to them and give them fake drugs so they don’t heal.________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

1. At the very end of chapter two, Lisa has an important realization about how much the war has changed things. What does she realize? Explain your answer. (2)

____she realizes that having an idea could kill someone like for example her giving her dad an idea about making the Germans sick can kill him if the Germans find out. Even today if you have a negative idea about Putin you can get executed for it._______________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

1. Why does Lisa decide to follow Stefan and Jesper? What does she discover? (2)

_________________She decides to follow Stephan and Jasper because they had heard them have an argument and she followed them and found out that Jasper had joined the resistance and they had blown up tracks and a tool factory__________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

1. What “game” do Stefan and Lisa play with the Nazi soldiers? (1)

Lisa and Stefan play chicken; they pretend to not notice the German soldiers when walking and bump into them. ___________________________________________________________

1. Name three things the Resistance has done to fight back against the Nazis. (3)

They have  blown up tracks, blown up a tool factory and jokes and cartoons about the Germans___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

1. How does the Resistance “tell” the Danes the real news of the war? (2)

___the resistance tells the People of Denmark by sending out leaflets, broadcasting news on the radio at night and by blowing up train tracks and tool factories. ________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

1. At the end of the chapter, Lisa is waiting anxiously for Stefan. Why? (1)

____Stephan got into a car and he didnt come home for dinner and stephan always comes home for dinner._______________________________________________________

Theme Connections

When they mentioned the resistance I thought about what my mom told me about my grandpa and how he was part of the resistance in the Netherlands.

Predictions

I think Lisa is going to ask Stephan if she can join the resistance

I think Lisa will get badly hurt in the future when she plays her chicken game one day.

Links

https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/resistance-movements/the-danish-resistance/

Personal Thoughts

I think it would be a good thing and a bad thing if Lisa joined the resistance because she and her family could get killed if she gets caught but good because shes helping her country out a lot if she joins.

Will Stefan come home
yes
how many people are in the resistance

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Citation: C N Trueman "The Danish Resistance"
historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, . .

The Danish Resistance movement during World War Two was in a curious position. In theory, Denmark was not officially at war with Nazi Germany (though clearly Denmark had been illegally occupied by the Germans in 1940) as the government had not declared war on Germany. The government and king, Christian X, had made a formal protest but agreed to a German decision that gave Denmark 'independence' despite having German troops stationed there against the wishes of the Danish government.

So any form of Danish resistance could not be 'legalised' by the Allies. Though the government in Copenhagen had accepted as a fait accompli that Denmark had been occupied, many Danes did not. Much of the Danish Navy had sailed to Allied ports and Danish ambassadors abroad had refused to accept their government's decision.

A Danish Resistance movement did exist. Many of those in it had been in the Danish Army. Those in the resistance were willing to pass on intelligence to the Special Operations Executive (SOE) but refused to get involved in any sabotage operations called for by SOE. Any sabotage that did take place was sanctioned by resistance leaders within Denmark or based in Stockholm. There was an increase in acts of sabotage within Denmark from 1943 on.

Up to 1943, the Germans within Denmark had had a relatively easy time - for an occupying force. However, sabotage within Denmark led to a more marked hardening of attitude by the Germans. The arrest of resistance suspects usually led to strikes. This led to more arrests for civil disobedience, which caused more strikes.

By August 1943, the situation had become so bad, that the Germans sent the Danish government an ultimatum - they were to declare a state of emergency and they were to condemn to death all captured saboteurs. The government refused to do this and resigned. The Germans responded by formally seizing power and, legally, Denmark became an "occupied country". It was only after this occurred that the Danish Resistance became legitimised as their actions were now against the Germans.

In September 1943, the 'Danish Freedom Council' was created. This attempted to unify the many different groups that made up the Danish resistance movement. The council was made up of seven resistance representatives and one member of SOE. The resistance movement grew to over 20,000 and in the lead-up to D-Day acts of sabotage markedly increased. Though the D-Day landings were to be in Normandy, SOE believed that the more German soldiers tied up elsewhere in Europe, the less that could be present in northern France. Therefore, the more acts of sabotage in Denmark, the more German troops would be tied down there.

The Danish Resistance used the country's proximity to Sweden to great effect. Stockholm became an actual base for the Danish Resistance. Here they were far safer than in Denmark - but they could easily get back to their country. The sea route also allowed the Danish Resistance to get out of the country over 7,000 of Denmark's 8,000 Jews. Because of this, Denmark had one of the lowest statistical casualty rates for Jews in the war.

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The Danish Resistance - History Learning Site

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The Danish Resistance movement during World War Two was in a curious position. In theory, Denmark was not officially at war with Nazi Germany (though clearly Denmark had been illegally occupied by the Germans in 1940) as the government had not declared war on Germany. The government and king, Christ…

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this relates because in the book they talk about the resistance spreading leaflets around.

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The chapter starts off with Lisa and Stefan arguing if Lisa should join the resistance. Lisa talks about how she will do it alone if Stefan wont let her join Stefan asks how and Lisa gives good ideas on how she will do it alone if Stefan doesn't let her join. Stefan thinks about how she won't be effective and how dangerous it is alone. Stefan says he'll put in a good word for Lisa. The next day Erik and Lisa arrive at school to find barbed wire around the yard and men in uniforms, they don't know the language they speak. They give the prisoners an apple the prisoner smiles with no teeth, the guard yells at them. They go to the front and their teacher tells them to go to another school. Lisa says it's full and the teacher said she will meet them there. There are tons of kids there and it is in utter chaos. Lisa and Erik find Sussan and they wait for the teacher to show. When the teacher shows up she shows them to their class. Lisa goes home with a bunch of homework but she does none of it and the only thing she does is wait for Stefan to come home. When he comes home she tries to catch his eyes but she doesn't. after dinner she followed Stefan to his room and he confirmed that he was successful. They then talk about Lisa's next job.

Vocabulary
benevolent- another word for kind

Predictions
I think Lisa will complete her mission

I think Stefan might get caught

I think Lisa's mother is going to find out about her joining the resistance

Questions
How many schools were closed

How did the teacher find them if there were bucket loads of people there

Linkshttps://www.britannica.com/topic/extermination-camp

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extermination camp, German Vernichtungslager, Nazi German concentration camp that specialized in the mass annihilation (Vernichtung) of unwanted persons in the Third Reich and conquered territories. The camps’ victims were mostly Jews but also included Roma (Gypsies), Slavs, homosexuals, alleged me…

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This relates because when Lisa goes to school she finds that its been turned into a prison and she finds jewish prisoners like the jewish prisoners in this photo

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Lisa has to lie to her mom about what she's going to do. Lisa goes to the laundromat and picks up a bag full of newspapers that tell the people of Denmark what's actually happening. she talks about how she gets sick when she's nervous and she throws up when she gets nervous. She takes the bag on the bus and there are two German soldiers that board they start to come over them she throws up on them and they don't search her bag she gets of the bus and brings the bag back to the laundromat she gets home and tells Stefan what happened he starts to laugh hysterically she tells him how serious it could have been he doesn't listen then she thinks about and starts to laugh as well.

Personal thoughts
Lisa joining the resistance and completing her first job is a good thing but I don't think she should have joined so young because she could die a horrible way.

Predictions
I think Lisa will complete her next job

I think Lisa will be impatient and want a next job before her next one is assigned

I think one day Stefan might not come home one day

Questions
Will Lisa and Stefan ever go on a mission together
yes
did Lisa's dad start the fake medicine thing
no

Theme connections
Lisa talking about how there were millions of kids reminds me of the first day of school when everyone is in the front looking for people

Links
https://en.wikipedia./wiki/Danish_resistance_movement#:~:text=The%20Danish%20resistance%20movements%20(Danish,Denmark%20during%20World%20War%20II.

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The Danish resistance movements ( Danish: Den danske modstandsbevægelse) were an underground insurgency to resist the German occupation of Denmark during World War II. Due to the initially lenient arrangements, in which the Nazi occupation authority allowed the democratic government to stay in power, the resistance movement was slower to develop effective tactics on a wide scale than in some other countries.

Members of the Danish resistance movement were involved in underground activities, ranging from producing illegal publications to spying and sabotage. Major groups included the communist BOPA ( Danish: Borgerlige Partisaner, Civil Partisans) and Holger Danske, both based in Copenhagen. Some small resistance groups such as the Samsing Group and the Churchill Club also contributed to the sabotage effort. Resistance agents killed an estimated 400 Danish Nazis, informers and collaborators until 1944. After that date, they also killed some German nationals.

In the postwar period, the Resistance was supported by politicians within Denmark and there was little effort to closely examine the killings. Studies in the late 20th and early 21st centuries revealed cases of improvised and contingent decision making about the targets, including morally ambiguous choices.[citation needed ][clarification needed ] Several important books and films have been produced on this topic.

The "model protectorate"

During the invasion of Denmark on April 9, 1940 and subsequent occupation, the Danish king and government chose not to flee the country and instead collaborated with the German authorities who allowed the Danish government to remain in power. The Germans had reasons to do so, especially as they wanted to showcase Denmark as a "model protectorate", earning the nickname the Cream Front ( German: Sahnefront), due to the relative ease of the occupation and copious amount of dairy products. As the democratically elected Danish government remained in power, Danish citizens had less motivation to fight the occupation than in countries where the Germans established puppet governments, such as Norway or France. The police also remained under Danish authority and led by Danes.

Daily life in Denmark remained much the same as before the occupation. The Germans did make certain changes: imposing official censorship, prohibiting dealings with the Allies, and stationing German troops in the country. The Danish government actively discouraged violent resistance because it feared a severe backlash from the Germans against the civilian population.

Immediately after the occupation began, isolated attempts were made to set up resistance and intelligence activities. Intelligence officers from the Danish army, known as the "Princes," began channeling reports to London allies as early as April 13, 1940. Soon afterwards, Ebbe Munck, a journalist from Berlingske Tidende, arranged to be transferred to Stockholm. From there he could more easily report to and communicate with the British.

Following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941 the Germans banned the Danish Communist Party and had the Danish police arrest its members. Those members who either avoided arrest or later escaped thus went underground and created resistance cells. From October 1942, they published a clandestine newspaper, Land og Folk ("Land and People"), based on the previous Communist Party newspaper, Arbejderbladet, which was distributed widely across the country. Circulation grew to 120,000 copies per day by the end of the occupation. At the beginning of 1943, the cells were centrally coordinated under BOPA ( Borgerlige Partisaner - Civil Partisans), which also began to plan acts of sabotage.

As time went on, many other insurgent groups formed to oppose the occupation. These included the Hvidsten group, which received weapons parachuted by the British, and Holger Danske, which was successful in organizing sabotage activities and the assassinations of collaborators. The Churchill club, one of the first resistance groups in Denmark, was a group of eight schoolboys from Aalborg. They performed some 25 acts of sabotage against the Germans, destroying Nazi German assets with makeshift grenades and stealing Nazi German weapons.

When the Germans forced the Danish government to sign the anti-Comintern pact, a large protest broke out in Copenhagen.[citation needed ]

The number of Danish Nazis was low before the war, and this trend continued throughout the occupation. This was confirmed in the 1943 parliamentary elections, in which the population voted overwhelmingly for the four traditional parties, or abstained. The latter option was widely interpreted as votes for the Danish Communist Party. The election was a disappointment for the National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark (DNSAP) and German Reichsbevollmächtigter. Dr. Werner Best abandoned plans to create a government under Danish Nazi leader Frits Clausen, due to Clausen's lack of public support.

In 1942-43, resistance operations gradually shifted to more violent action, most notably acts of sabotage. Various groups succeeded in making contacts with the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) which began making airdrops of agents and supplies. There were not many drops until August 1944, but they increased through the end of the occupation. In total throughout the war, over 600 ton of weapons, equipment and explosives were airdropped to the Danish resistance by the Allies, while 53 SOE agents were dispatched to Denmark.

On 23 April 1940, members of Danish military intelligence established contacts with their British counterparts through the British diplomatic mission in Stockholm. The first intelligence dispatch was sent by messenger to the Stockholm mission in the autumn of 1940. This evolved into regular dispatches of military and political intelligence, and by 1942-43, the number of dispatches had increased to at least one per week. In addition, an employee of Danmarks Radio was able to transmit short messages to Britain through the national broadcasting network.

The intelligence was gathered mostly by officers in the Danish army and navy; they reported information about political developments, the location and size of German military units, and details about the Danish section of the Atlantic Wall fortifications. In 1942, the Germans demanded the removal of the Danish military from Jutland, but intelligence operations continued. It was carried out by plainclothes personnel or by reserve officers, since this group was not included in the evacuation order. Following the liberation of Denmark, Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery described the intelligence gathered in Denmark as "second to none".

As the years went by, the number of acts of sabotage and violence grew. In 1943, the number grew dramatically, to the point that the German authorities became dissatisfied with the Danish authorities' handling of the situation. At the end of August, the Germans took over full administration in Denmark, which allowed them to deal with the population as they wished. The Germans raided every police station in Denmark, disarmed, arrested and deported all 2,000 Danish police officers to Germany. Policing became easier for the Nazis, but more and more people became involved with the movement because they were no longer worried about protecting the Danish government.

In particular, the Danish Freedom Council was set up in September 1943, bringing together the various resistance groups in order to improve their efficiency and resolve. An underground government was established. Allied governments, who had been skeptical about Denmark's commitment to fight Germany, began recognising it as a full ally.

Due to concerns about prisoners and information held in Gestapo headquarters at the Shellhus in the centre of Copenhagen, the resistance repeatedly requested a tactical RAF raid on the headquarters to destroy records and release prisoners. Britain initially turned down the request due to the risk of civilian casualties, but eventually launched Operation Carthage, a very low-level raid by 20 de Havilland Mosquito fighter-bombers, escorted by 30 P-51 Mustang fighters. The raid succeeded in destroying the headquarters, releasing 18 prisoners of the Gestapo, and disrupting anti-resistance operations throughout Denmark. However, 125 civilians lost their lives due to the errant bombing of a nearby boarding school.

In 1943, the movement scored a great success in rescuing all but 500 of Denmark's Jewish population of 7,000-8,000 from being sent to the Nazi concentration camps by helping transport them to neutral Sweden, where they were offered asylum. The Danish resistance movement has been honoured as a collective at Yad Vashem in Israel as being part of the " Righteous Among the Nations". They were honoured as a collective rather than as individuals at their own request.

Another success was the disruption of the Danish railway network in the days after D-Day, which delayed the movement of German troops to France as reinforcements.

By the end of the war, the organized resistance movement in Denmark had scored many successes. It is believed to have killed nearly 400 persons (the top official number is 385) from 1943 through 1945, who were Danish Nazis, informers or collaborators thought to pose a threat to the Resistance, or Danes working for the Gestapo. The rationale behind the executions was discussed, and several accounts by participants said a committee identified targets, but no historic evidence of this system has been found. In the postwar period, while the killings were criticized, they were also defended by such politicians as Frode Jakobsen and Per Federspiel.

The movement lost slightly more than 850 members, in action, in prison, in Nazi concentration camps, or (in the case of 102 resistance members) executed following a court-martial.

The Danish National Museum maintains the Museum of Danish Resistance in Copenhagen.

Since the late 20th century, there has been more discussion about the morality of some of the killings carried out by the resistance, sparked by a TV series about the death of Jane Horney, a Danish citizen killed at sea in what Frode Jakobsen defended as an act of war.

With the 60th anniversary of the end of the war, the issue was re-examined in two new studies: Stefan Emkjar's Stikkerdrab and Peter Ovig Knudsen's Etter drabet, "the first profound approaches into the topic." Both authors used veterans of the resistance movement, and covered the sometimes contingent, improvised nature of some of the actions. It suggested that some of the noted Bent Faurschou-Hviid ( Flammen)'s executions may have been mistakenly directed by a double agent. Knudsen's work was adapted as a 2-hour documentary film, With the Right to Kill (2003), which was shown on TV and later released in theaters. These works have contributed to a national discussion on the topic. Flame and Citron ( Flammen og Citronen, 2008) is a fictionalized drama film based on historic accounts of the two prominent Danish resistance fighters, directed by Ole Christian Madsen. It portrays some of the moral ambiguity of their actions.

The extent to which the Danish resistance played an important strategic role in the war has been the subject of much discussion. Immediately after the war and until about 1970, the vast majority of accounts overrated the degree to which the resistance had been effective in battling against the Germans by acts of sabotage and by providing key intelligence to the Allies. More recently, however, after re-examining the archives, historians concur that, while the resistance provided a firm basis for moral support and paved the way for post-war governments, the strategic effect during the occupation was limited. The Germans did not need to send reinforcements to suppress the movement, and garrisoned the country with a comparatively small number of Wehrmacht troops. The resistance did not enter into active combat. Even the overall importance of Danish intelligence in the context of Ultra is questionable.

In his history, No Small Achievement: Special Operations Executive and the Danish Resistance 1940-1945 (2002), Knud Jespersen examined the relationship between British Intelligence and the Danish Resistance. He quoted a report from SHAEF stating that the resistance in Denmark.

"caused strain and embarrassment to the enemy...[and a] striking reduction in the flow of troops and stores from Norway [that] undoubtedly had an adverse effect on the reinforcements for the battles East and West of the Rhine."

Examining the British archives, Jespersen also found a report concluding "that the overall effect of Danish resistance was to restore national pride and political unity." He agreed that this was the movement's most important contribution to the nation.

Carol Matas's 1987 and 1989 novels Lisa and Jesper presented fictionalized accounts of Danish resistance missions.

Ken Follett's 2002 suspense novel Hornet Flight presents a fictionalized account of early Danish resistance.

Stefan Emkjar's Stikkerdrab (Killing of Informers: The Resistance Movements' Liquidation of Danes during the Occupation, 2000) and Peter Øvig Knudsen's Etter drabet (Following the Death: Reports of the Resistance Liquidations, 2001), were both non-fiction studies of the resistance, published before the 60th anniversary of the end of the war.

Number the Stars (1989), children's historical fiction novel by Lois Lowry, won the Newbery Medal.

Barry Clemson's alternative history novel, Denmark Rising (2009), imagines a Denmark that implemented a total resistance to the Nazis via strategic nonviolence.

Povl Falk-Jensen's Holger Danske - Afdeling Eigils sabotager og stikkerlikvideringer under Besættelsen (2010), Danish resistance member Povl Falk-Jensen's memoir. Povl Falk-Jensen was a leading member of the Danish resistance group Holger Danske during World War II and responsible for eleven executions of informers or collaborators.

H. George Frederickson's 1997 text The Spirit of Public Administration compares the response of the bureaucracy in Denmark to other European nations to the rise of the Nazi party and Adolf Hitler.

Aage Bertelsen's "October '43" (1954) An autobiographical account of the Jewish escape to Sweden in 1943, written by a prominent member of the Danish resistance. Originally written in Danish, but translated into other languages. Author not to be confused with famous Danish painter Aage Bertelsen.

The Twentieth Century with Walter Cronkite: episode Sabotage. CBS approximately 1960. Black and white.

Flame and Citron (Flammen og Citronen) (2008) is a drama film based on two prominent Danish resistance fighters,; it is directed by Ole Christian Madsen.

Miracle at Midnight (1998), American made-for-TV movie about the rescue of the Jews in Denmark, starring Sam Waterston and Mia Farrow, featuring neighbors helping a family escape to Sweden.

The Boys from St. Petri, a 1991 Danish drama film.

The Only Way, A 1970 war drama film about the rescue of the Danish Jews starring Jane Seymour.

(Hvidstengruppen) (2012) is a Danish drama film based on the activities of the Hvidsten Group.

With the Right to Kill (Med ret til at dræbe, 2003), is a documentary adapted from the 2001 book by journalist Peter Øvig Knudsen and directed by Morten Henriksen; it explores the liquidation of nearly 400 people by the Resistance during World War II from 1943 through 1945. It won a Robert Award in 2004 for best full-length documentary.

Omvej til friheden (Detour to freedom), a made-for-TV documentary movie about two Jewish families attempting to flee to neutral Sweden and featuring actual Jewish survivors and members of the Danish resistance.

Land of Mine, a 2015 Danish film nominated for Oscar for Best Foreign Film, about young German POWs clearing Nazi beach mines. Director: Martin Zandvliet from IMDB.

Netflix holds distribution rights to a Danish movie The Bombardment, which was first released in October 2021 in Denmark. The film is also known The Shadow In My Eye (Skyggen i mit øje in Danish) and Netflix released the movie in March 2022.

1. ^ Poulsen, Henning (1 January 1991). "Die Deutschen Besatzungspolitik in Dänemark". In Bohn, Robert; Elvert, Jürgen; Rebas, Hain; Salewski, Michael (eds.). Neutralität und Totalitäre Aggression (in German). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 379. ISBN 978-3-515-05887-2.

2. ^ Holbraad, Carsten (2017). Danish Reactions to German Occupation. London: UCL Press. ISBN 9781911307495.

3. ^ H.M. Lunding (1970), Stemplet fortroligt, 3rd edition, Gyldendal, pp. 68-72. (in Danish)

4. ^ Rasmussen, Anita Brask (21 March 2012). "Bombning af Den Franske Skole blev redigeret ud af erindringen" [The bombing of the French School was edited out of the remembrance] (in Danish). Dagbladet Information.

5. ^ The Rescue of Danish Jews, Jewish Virtual Library, Retrieved 17 April 2008.

6. ^ "The Rescue of Denmark's Jews". Yad Vashem. The Underground did not receive the Righteous Among the Nations title, which is only awarded to individuals, not to groups. This was also in the spirit of the request expressed by the members of the Danish underground not to honor them as individuals.

7. ^ Clement Maier, Making Memories: The Politics of in Postwar Norway and Denmark, pp. 259-263, 2007 thesis at European University Institute, available online as pdf.

8. ^ Quistgaard, Georg (1944). Fængselsdagbog og breve [Prison Diary and Letters] (in Danish). Prefaced by Elias Bredsdorff. Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag, Arnold Busck (published 1946). 101 pages.

9. ^ Maier (2007), Making Memories, pp. 269-272

10. ^ "Varinka Wichfeld Muus (1922 - 2002 )". Dansk Kvindebiografisk Leksikon (in Danish). KVINFO.

11. ^ David Schultz was born in Riga, Latvia. Due to his father's work as the Vice Consul in the Danish Foreign Service, David's family lived in a variety of countries while he was a child: first in Tallinn, Estonia [1926], then in Oslo, Norway [1934], and finally in Copenhagen, Denmark [1937]. He attended a School of Commerce in Copenhagen for two years, and during an apprenticeship in Slagelse when he was 17 (1941), he began taking part in Resistance activities. The Resistance was discovered in 1943, at which point David fled to Sweden. He returned to Denmark in 1944 for another year of Resistance activities before escaping to Sweden again in 1945. David was one of the Resistance fighters presented to Sir Winston Churchill in 1950 to honour and thank the Danish Resistance for their support and sacrifices during the German occupation of Denmark. In 1995, David received the Danish nation's Award of Honour for his work in the Resistance.

12. ^ Hayden B. Peake, "The Intelligence Officer's Bookshelf", includes a review of Knud Jespersen's No Small Achievement, CSI Studies, Vol. 48, No.1, Retrieved 19 April 2008.

Ackerman, Peter and Jack DuVall. A Force More Powerful. New York: Palgrave, 2000. ISBN 0-312-24050-3

Hæestrup, Jørgen. Secret Alliance - A Study of the Danish Resistance Movement 1940-45. Vols I, II & III. Odense University Press, 1976-77. ISBN 87-7492-168-1, ISBN 87-7492-194-0 & ISBN 87-7492-212-2.

Jespersen, Knud J. V. No Small Achievement: Special Operations Executive and the Danish Resistance 1940-1945. Odense, University Press of Southern Denmark. ISBN 87-7838-691-8

Lampe, David (1957). The Danish Resistance. New York: Ballantine Books.

Moore, Bob (editor). Resistance in Western Europe (esp. Chapter on Denmark by Hans Kirchoff), Oxford : Berg, 2000, ISBN 1-85973-279-8.

Besættelsens Hvem Hvad Hvor (Who What Where of the Occupation), Copenhagen, Politikens Forlag, 3rd revised edition, 1985. ISBN 87-567-4035-2.

Reilly, Robin. Sixth Floor: The Danish Resistance Movement and the RAF Raid on Gestapo Headquarters March 1, 2002.

Stenton, Michael. Radio London and Resistance in Occupied Europe, Oxford University Press. 2000. ISBN 0-19-820843-X

Voorhis, Jerry. "Germany and Denmark: 1940-45", Scandinavian Studies 44:2, 1972.

Zimmerman, Susan, Prisoner of the Gestapo: Freed by Words, Warfare History Network, 20 March 2019

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The Danish resistance movements ( Danish: Den danske modstandsbevægelse) were an underground insurgency to resist the German occupation of Denmark during World War II. Due to the initially lenient arrangements, in which the Nazi occupation authority allowed the democratic government to stay in power, the resistance movement was slower to develop effective tactics on a wide scale than in some other countries.

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This relates to the chapter because the main point of the chapter is Lisa putting newspapers on bus seats

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Lisa's dad heard about how a mother giving birth and a Jewish harboring family and doctors were killed by the Germans

Lisa danced with jesper

Stefan argued with Erik

Predictions
I think that the dad will bring the baby of the dead mom home

I think Stefan will get caught because he is such a loose canon

Questions
How did the Germans know the Mom was helping Jewish people

Why is the chapter in the perspective of Lisa as an adult

Dear Abby
I don't know what to do. I am a brother to my sister and a son to my parents. I live in Nazi occupied Denmark. I am a jewish and I'm in danger because Denmark didn’t even try to Defend our country. I live in a world where the Nazi control our every move. The only hope we have is the resistance.

Speaking of the resistance, I am a part of it and my sister has been bothering me about it for   a while now. She said she would do it herself if I Didn't let her join.I was worried so I told my sister I would but in a good word for her but I'm mad at myself because If my sister gets caught our whole family will disappear like the rest of the jews and it will be all my fault because i'm the one who joined and the one who let my sister join now there's double the chance that our family will get caught and disappear. I also don't have a lot of trust in my sister to do a good job and not get caught. I mean she's already almost got caught, she only got saved by her weak stomach. I might be overreacting but it would all be on me if she, my sister got caught all because I let her join the resistance.

Did I do the right thing to let my sister join the resistance or should I have let her do it by herself or not do it please help this has been bothering me for awhile.

Sincerely

Resistance fighter

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This relates to the Chapter because in the chapter a mother like the one in the photo got killed by Germans

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The chapter starts off by Lisa's dad bringing home the baby that was the daughter of the mother that got shot in the hospital along with the staff in the room . Lisa was going to make a mean comment then Stefan goes to play with the baby. Then it hits Lisa that it's the baby that had her mom shot. Lisa then asks if it's a boy or a girl and her dad says it's a girl. The baby starts to cry after an explosion Lisa goes to look out the window but is held back by Stefan because there are lights still on. Lisa goes and turns off all the lights and opens the window to see A huge fire where Susanne lives she gets a bad feeling. Later Lisa's dad comes running in with Susanne's hairless and blistered body she was in the fire that they think was started by the Germans because there was a band playing that they didn't like. Susanne gets brought to the hospital and Lisa can't sleep because of the incident she finds out the next morning that Susanne will live but her parents have died in the flames.

Personal Connections
Sussanne getting burned reminds me of a documentary i watched on Niki Lauda crashed and got burned.

Questions
will Susanne stay with Lisa's family
yes
will the baby stay with Lisa's family
yes

Predictions
I think Susanne will stay with Lisa's family

The bombing near Lisa's house was big but not as big as some of the bombings the germans did like the ones this Links tells you about
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-blitz-begins#:~:text=On%20September%207%2C%201940%2C%20300,across%20the%20Channel%20to%20England.

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On September 7, 1940, 300 German bombers raid London, in the first of 57 consecutive nights of bombing. This bombing " blitzkrieg " (lightning war) would continue until May 1941.

After the successful occupation of France, it was only a matter of time before the Germans turned their sights across the Channel to England. Hitler wanted a submissive, neutralized Britain so that he could concentrate on his plans for the East, namely the land invasion of the Soviet Union, without interference. Since June, English vessels in the Channel had been attacked and aerial battles had been fought over Britain, as Germany attempted to wear down the Royal Air Force in anticipation of a land invasion. But with Germany failing to cripple Britain's air power, especially in the Battle of Britain, Hitler changed strategies. A land invasion was now ruled out as unrealistic; instead Hitler chose sheer terror as his weapon of choice.

British intelligence had had an inkling of the coming bombardment. Evidence of the large-scale movement of German barges in the Channel and the interrogation of German spies had led them to the correct conclusion-unfortunately, it was just as the London docks were suffering the onslaught of Day One of the Blitz. By the end of the day, German planes had dropped 337 tons of bombs on London. Even though civilian populations were not the primary target that day, the poorest of London slum areas-the East End-felt the fallout literally, from direct hits of errant bombs as well as the fires that broke out and spread throughout the vicinity. Four hundred and forty-eight civilians were killed that afternoon and evening.

A little past 8 p.m., British military units were alerted with the code name "Cromwell," meaning the German invasion had begun. A state of emergency broke out in England; even home defense units were put to the ready. One of Hitler's key strategic blunders of the war was to consistently underestimate the will and courage of the British people. They would not run or be cowed into submission. They would fight.
READ MORE: Meet the Night Witches, the Daring Female Pilots Who Bombed Nazis By Night

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The Blitz begins as Germany bombs London

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On September 7, 1940, 300 German bombers raid London, in the first of 57 consecutive nights of bombing. This bombing " blitzkrieg " (lightning war) would continue until May 1941. After the successful occupation of France, it was only a matter of time before the Germans turned their sights across the Channel to England.

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This relates to the chapter because there was a big fire that killed Susanne's family and injured her

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this relates to the chapter because Lisa's dad comes home with a baby and it is rinkaly.

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1. Give four reasons why Lisa’s fourteenth birthday is so memorable? (4)

Her dad comes home telling them Germans killed everyone in a hospital room
Lisa goes to the dance hall

they resew there clothes with susanne
Lisa gets a new dress

1. When Lisa tells Stefan and Erik about the hospital massacre, how does Erik react? Why does his reaction make Stefan so mad? (3)

Erik is upset Stefan gets mad at Erik for giving sympathy

1. What “surprise” is waiting at home for Lisa and Stefan when they get back from Lisa’s birthday celebration? (1)

she comes home to her dad crying because of what happened at the hospital

1. What happens to Susanne in chapter seven? (2)

Susanne gets badly burned for a bombing the Germans did

1. In chapter eight, what was Susanne’s motivation for helping with the resistance bombing? (1)

Susanne wanted to get back at the Germans for what they did

1. After they set the factory bomb, Lisa says the following:

“A chill runs down my spine. My God, I think, these Germans are dragging us all down to their level. How will we keep ourselves better than them?” (p. 46)

In your own words tell what does Lisa mean by this and what is she concerned about? (4)

she doesn't want the resistance to kill Germans because that's what there trying to stop needless killings

Questions
why did Susanne just start talking all the sudden

How did susanne have no scars after having serious burns

how did teenagers capture the germans

Predictions
I think Susanne will do a lot more for the resistance because of her parents death

I think Susanne will get caught

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This relates to the chapter because Lisa, Stefan and Susanne go to the factory in a car like this

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This relates to the chapter because in the book they blow up a factory just like this one.

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Susanne, Jesper and Stefan go out and find out after scouting the driver that drove them to the warehouse they blew up that he is a spy telling a gestapo officer about the resistance plans after they learn this Susanne shoots him in cold blood. Jeper and Stefan go for a boat ride with the dead traitor and take him to "Sweden" or in other words they're going to dump him in water off the coast of Sweden. Susanne comes into Lisa's room with a gun telling Lisa they need to hide it she lifts up a board to hide the gun and she sees six more guns including a submachine gun and she doesn't know where they came from then Erik comes knocking saying let me in because the Germans are taking over the military the police and shooting anyone in the street including a ten year old boy that was wondering around.

Questions

why was the kid that got shoot alone

who do the guns under the floorboard belong to

how did the Germans not shoot Erik
he was not seen
predictions
I think Susanne will get caught

Links
https://www.britannica.com/topic/martial-law

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Table of Contents

This article was most recently revised and updated by

martial law, temporary rule by military authorities of a designated area in time of emergency when the civil authorities are deemed unable to function. The legal effects of a declaration of martial law differ in various jurisdictions, but they generally involve a suspension of normal civil rights and the extension to the civilian population of summary military justice or of military law. Although temporary in theory, a state of martial law may in fact continue indefinitely.

In the English legal system, the term is of dubious significance; in the words of the English jurist Sir Frederick Pollock, "so-called 'martial law,' as distinct from military law, is an unlucky name for the justification by the common law of acts done by necessity for the defence of the Commonwealth when there is war within the realm."

Such "acts done by necessity" are limited only by international law and the conventions of civilized warfare. Further, the regular civil courts do not review the decisions of tribunals set up by the military authorities, and very little authority exists on the question of remedies against abuse of powers by the military. In Great Britain and many other jurisdictions, such questions are of little significance in view of the modern practice of taking emergency or special powers by statute.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Adam Augustyn.

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martial law, temporary rule by military authorities of a designated area in time of emergency when the civil authorities are deemed unable to function. The legal effects of a declaration of martial law differ in various jurisdictions, but they generally involve a suspension of normal civil rights and the extension to the civilian population of summary military justice or of military law.

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this relates to the chapter because Lisa finds guns under her floor board

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she dreams about a bee buzzing in her hear about to sting her and then she walks up and it doesn't stop because the buzzing was from the German planes above and her talking about getting stung is a relation to how much pain the German invasion is going to cause this is important because it starts everything to happen in the book

1. “I leap off, dragging my bag, run into the grass and trees beside the stop, and finish throwing up. Then I sink down by my sack. I’m weak, I’m shaking. I think I’m crying, and my mouth tastes terrible. I want to go home. How did I get myself into this? I think back to the streetcar. All those people – they saved me. Maybe they saved my life.” (p. 29)

she's talking about her interaction on the bus and how scary it was and how dangerous it is to be in the resistancethis is important because lisa learns the dangers of war

1. “She whispers to me, ‘That was for Mama and Papa. But it was only the first.’ She’s actually enjoying herself.

A chill runs down my spine. My God, I think, these Germans are dragging us all down to their level. How will we keep ourselves better than them?” (p.46)

Susanne is killing Germans and liking it and all to a avenge her mom and dad almost like the Germans killing to impress to leader and they like it Lisa Lisa realizes that they are snooping down to the level of the Germans
this is important because they are turning into the very thing they are fighting

1. “ ‘No, Father, it can’t be!’ I cry. I’m not willing to accept what he’s getting at. What does it matter that we are Jewish? I don’t feel any different than anyone else, and I’m not treated differently. Now will I have to be only a Jew? Is being a Jew all that’s important about me? The very name Eichmann makes me feel sick to my stomach.” (p. 57)

the meaning is that she is more than just a jewish she's a normal girl and the only difference is that she's jewish and shouldn't be seen as just a jew but as an actual human
lisa learns that people see you sometimes as a single thing not as who you are

1. “ ‘I’m afraid there will be no service tonight at the synagogue,’ Father continues. ‘Rabbi Melchior told everyone at the early service that he’ll be closing the  synagogue. He’s going on holiday.’

I almost laugh. The rabbi going on holiday on Rosh Hashanah?

Then it hits me.” (p.62)

the rabbi going on holiday and telling everyone else to go on holiday is a warning to the jewish to stay away saying the Germans will be there to capture them
this is important because without it lisa would die and the story would be over

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This relates to one of the questions about A bee buzzing in her ear and is about to sting her in a dream

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Lisa's dad calls about something urgent at the hospital

Lisa's excited about going to the senigage but the rabie is on holiday and told everyone else to go on holiday as a warning basically saying Germans are going to round them up

Lisa goes to Erik's house and tells her parents what she knows and eriks at his grandparents

the Germans stole a list of jewish peoples names from the community centre

Questions
what made the Germans start to hunt the jewish instead of letting them live normal and only taking a few from denmark

Has the Rabbi been captured or just ran away for good

Predictions

I think the Germans are going to Capture some of the Jews

I think Thee Rabbi is going to get Captured

Link
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbi

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A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism.[1] One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as semikha – following a course of study of Jewish texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of the rabbi developed in the Pharisaic (167 BCE–73 CE) and Talmudic (70–640 CE) eras, when learned teachers assembled to codify Judaism's written and oral laws. The title "rabbi" was first used in the first century CE. In more recent centuries, the duties of a rabbi became increasingly influenced by the duties of the Protestant Christian minister, hence the title "pulpit rabbis", and in 19th-century Germany and the United States rabbinic activities including sermons, pastoral counseling, and representing the community to the outside, all increased in importance.

Within the various Jewish denominations, there are different requirements for rabbinic ordination, and differences in opinion regarding who is recognized as a rabbi. For example, only a minority of Orthodox Jewish communities accept the ordination of women rabbis.[2][3] Non-Orthodox movements have chosen to do so for what they view as halakhic reasons (Conservative Judaism) as well as ethical reasons (Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism).[4][5]

Etymology and pronunciation[edit]

The word comes from the Mishnaic Hebrew construct רְבִּי‎ rǝbî,[a] meaning "Master [Name]"; the standard Hebrew noun is רב rav "master". רב rav is also used as a title for rabbis,[7] as are rabbeinu ("our master") and ha-rav ("the master"). See also Rav and Rebbe.

The Hebrew root in turn derives from the Semitic root ר-ב-ב (R-B-B), which in Biblical Aramaic means "great" in many senses, including "revered", but appears primarily as a prefix in construct forms.[8] Although the usage rabim "many" (as 1 Kings 18:25, הָרַבִּים) "the majority, the multitude" occurs for the assembly of the community in the Dead Sea Scrolls, there is no evidence to support an association of this use with the later title "rabbi".[9] The root is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb,[10] meaning "lord" (generally used when talking about God, but also about temporal lords), and to the Syriac word ܪܒܝ rabi.

Some communities, especially Sephardic and Yemenite Jews, historically pronounced the title רִבִּי‎ ribbī; this pronunciation also competed with רְבִּי‎ rǝbî and רַבִּי rabī in Ashkenaz until the modern period.[11][12]

Historical overview[edit]

Rabbi is not an occupation found in the Hebrew Bible, and ancient generations did not employ related titles such as Rabban, Rabbi, or Rav to describe either the Babylonian sages or the sages in Israel. For example, Hillel I and Shammai (the religious leaders of the early first century) had no rabbinic title prefixed to their names. The titles "Rabban" and "Rabbi" are first mentioned in Jewish literature in the Mishnah. Rabban was first used for Rabban Gamaliel the elder, Rabban Simeon his son, and Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai, all of whom were patriarchs or presidents of the Sanhedrin in the first century. Early recipients of the title rabbi include Rabbi Zadok and Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, beginning in the time of the disciples of Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai. The title "Rabbi" occurs (in Greek transliteration ῥαββί rabbi) in the books of Matthew, Mark, and John in the New Testament, where it is used in reference to "Scribes and Pharisees" as well as to Jesus.[12][13] According to some, the title "rabbi" or "rabban" was first used after 70 CE to refer to Yochanan ben Zakkai and his students, and references in rabbinic texts and the New Testament to rabbis earlier in the 1st century are anachronisms or retroactive honorifics.[14] Other scholars believe that the term "rabbi" was a well-known informal title by the beginning of the first century CE, and thus that the Jewish and Christian references to rabbis reflect the titles in fact used in this period.[15]

The governments of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were based on a system that included the Jewish kings, the Jewish prophets, the legal authority of the high court of Jerusalem, the Great Sanhedrin, and the ritual authority of the priesthood. Members of the Sanhedrin had to receive their ordination (semicha) in an uninterrupted line of transmission from Moses, yet rather than being referred to as rabbis they were called priests or scribes, like Ezra, who is called in the Bible "Ezra, the priest, the scribe, a scribe of the words of God's commandments and of His statutes unto Israel."[16] "Rabbi" as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible,[17] though later rabbinic sources occasionally use it as a title for wise Biblical figures.[18]

With the destruction of the two Temples in Jerusalem, the end of the Jewish monarchy, and the decline of the dual institutions of prophets and the priesthood, the focus of scholarly and spiritual leadership within the Jewish people shifted to the sages of the Men of the Great Assembly (Anshe Knesset HaGedolah). This assembly was composed of the earliest group of "rabbis" in the more modern sense of the word, in large part because they began the formulation and explication of what became known as Judaism's "Oral Law" (Torah SheBe'al Peh). This was eventually encoded and codified within the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent rabbinical scholarship, leading to what is known as Rabbinic Judaism.

Talmudic period[edit]

From the 1st to 5th centuries, the title "Rabbi" was given to those sages of the Land of Israel who received formal ordination (semicha), while the lesser title "Rav" was given to sages who taught in the Babylonian academies, as ordination could not be performed outside the Land of Israel.[17] (However, another opinion holds that "Rabbi" and "Rav" are the same title, pronounced differently due to variations in dialect.[19]) Sherira Gaon summarized the relationship between these titles as follows: "Rabbi is greater than Rav, Rabban is greater than Rabbi, one's name is greater than Rabban".[20]

After the suppression of the Patriarchate and Sanhedrin by Theodosius II in 425, there was no more formal ordination in the strict sense. A recognised scholar could be called Rav or Hacham, like the Babylonian sages. The transmission of learning from master to disciple remained of tremendous importance, but there was no formal rabbinic qualification as such.

Middle Ages[edit]

In the early Middle Ages "rabbi" was not a formal title, but was used as a term of respect for Jews of great scholarship and reputation.[17] After the emergence of Karaism, Jews who still followed the Talmudic traditions became known as "rabbanites".[17] Initially communities might have a religious judge appointed by the central geonate, often possessing a certification known as pitka dedayanuta or bearing the title chaver (short for chaver besanhedrin hagedolah, used in Israel) or aluf (used in Babylonia).[17] By the 11th century, as the geonate weakened it was common for Jewish communities to elect a local spiritual authority.[17] In the 11-12th century, some local rabbinic authorities in Spain received formal certification known as ketav masmich or ketav minui in preparation for their leadership role.[17] Maimonides ruled that every congregation is obliged to appoint a preacher and scholar to admonish the community and teach Torah, and the social institution he describes is the germ of the modern congregational rabbinate.

Until the Black Death, Ashkenazi communities typically made religious decisions by consensus of scholars on a council, rather than the decision of a single authority.[21] In the 14th century, the concept arose of a single person who served as religious authority for particular area (the mara de'atra).[17] Formal ordination is first recorded among Ashkenazim with Meir ben Baruch Halevi (late 14th century), who issued the formal title Moreinu (our teacher) to scholars, though it likely existed somewhat earlier.[22] By the 15th century, this formal ordination (known as semicha) became necessary in order to be recognized as a rabbi.[21] Initially some Sephardic communities objected to such formal ordination, but over time the system became adopted by them too.[17]: 13

18th–19th centuries[edit]

A dramatic change in rabbinic functions occurred with Jewish emancipation. Tasks that were once the primary focus for rabbis, such as settling disputes by presiding over a Jewish court, became less prominent, while other tasks that were secondary, like delivering sermons, increased in importance.

In 19th-century Germany and the United States, the duties of the rabbi in some respects became increasingly similar to the duties of other clergy, like the Protestant Christian minister, and the title "pulpit rabbis" appeared to describe this phenomenon. Sermons, pastoral counseling, representing the community to the outside, all increased in importance.[17] Non-Orthodox rabbis, on a day-to-day business basis, now spend more time on these functions than they do teaching or answering questions on Jewish law and philosophy. Within the Modern Orthodox community, many rabbis still mainly deal with teaching and questions of Jewish law, but many are increasingly dealing with these same pastoral functions.[23]

Traditionally, rabbis have never been an intermediary between God and humans. This idea was traditionally considered outside the bounds of Jewish theology. Unlike spiritual leaders in many other faiths, they are not considered to be imbued with special powers or abilities.

Rabbi instructing children in 2004

Functions[edit]

Rabbis serve the Jewish community. Hence their functions vary as the needs of the Jewish community vary over time and from place to place.

Study and teaching

Rabbis have always been the main links in the chain of transmission (masorah) whereby knowledge of the Torah has been passed down through the generations.[24] Learning from their teachers, adding new insights of their own (hidushim), and teaching the public have always been the primary functions of the rabbinate. Studying the Torah is a rabbi's lifelong undertaking that does not end with receiving ordination. A rabbi is expected to set aside time daily for study. A rabbi that does not constantly replenish his or her store of Torah learning will lack the knowledge, inspiration and mastery of Jewish law and traditions required to perform all other rabbinic functions.

Once acquired, Torah knowledge must be passed on, because it is the heritage of all Israel.[25] Teaching by rabbis occurs in many venues—the schoolroom of course, elementary (heder), intermediate (yeshivah) and advanced (kollel), but also, especially in antiquity, in the vineyard, the marketplace and the disciple circle.[26] In many synagogues, the rabbi will give a short daily class to those who attend morning or evening services. The sermon is another form of public education, often integrating Biblical passages with a contemporary ethical message,[27] and no Jewish meal or celebration is complete without the rabbi's "d'var Torah"—a short explanation of Biblical verses related to the event.

Apart from face to face instruction, rabbis who are inclined to authorship have composed an extensive rabbinic literature, dealing with all aspects of the Jewish tradition—Bible commentaries, codes of law, responsa, mystical and ethical tracts, and collections of sermons are examples of common genres of rabbinic literature.

Judging

Prior to emancipation, rulers delegated discipline and dispute settlement within the Jewish community (kahal) to the Jewish community itself. If a dispute, domestic or commercial, a tort or a petty crime, involved only Jewish residents, then it could be settled in the town's Jewish court according to Jewish law. The town rabbi, with his extensive knowledge of Torah law (halakhah), was expected to preside as Head of the Court (av beth din),[28] although lay assessors might join him in judgment. The judgments were enforced with fines and various degrees of communal excommunication when necessary.[29]

After emancipation, Jews, as citizens of their countries, turned to civil courts for dispute resolution. Today rabbinical courts remain active under the auspices of each Jewish denomination for religious matters, such as conversion and divorce, and even, on a voluntary basis, for civil matters when the parties voluntarily elect to have the rabbinical judges serve as their arbitrators.[30] In Israel there are rabbinical courts for matters of personal status.

Legislating

During the centuries of Jewish self-government, some problems were considered regional or universal and could not be solved by a single rabbi acting alone. At these times rabbinical synods were convened for concerted action, calling together the prominent rabbis of the region to debate solutions and enact binding regulations (takkanot) for their communities. The regulations involved matters as diverse as dowries and matrimonial law, relations with gentiles, utilizing civil courts, education of orphans, anti-counterfeiting measures, and the hiring of schoolteachers.[31] The most famous of these ordinances is ascribed to Rabbeinu Gershom, and was probably enacted in a rabbinic synod he convened c. 1000 CE.[32] The ordinance, still in effect today, prohibits polygamy among Jews in the West.

In the modern era rabbis have enacted takkanot in the State of Israel,[33] and the major Jewish movements, such as Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist, enact takkanot for their members. Today most congregational rabbis are members of a national rabbinic organization related to their movement[note 1] and also an association of local rabbis in their city. When these bodies debate local and national questions, they function in a manner that is similar to the rabbinic synods of the past.

Religious supervision

The Jewish community requires a number of religious institutions for daily life, and it falls to rabbis, with their knowledge of Jewish law, to supervise them to ensure they operate in accordance with Jewish law. Examples would be Jewish slaughter (shekhita), Jewish dietary laws in shops and institutions (kashrut), the ritual bath (mikveh), the elementary school (heder), the Sabbath boundaries (eruvin), and the burial society (hevra kadisha). Traditionally this function fell to the town's rabbi. In the modern era, rabbis who specialize in this type of supervision will find full-time employment as a Mashgiach (supervisor of ritual law), and some of these functions are now performed by national organizations, such as the Orthodox Union which offers kosher certification.[37]

Pastoral counseling

In addition to answering questions about Jewish law and rituals, a congregational rabbi may often be consulted for advice on personal matters. Much of a modern rabbi's time is devoted to pastoral work, including visiting the sick and officiating at life cycle occasions.[17] In the pre-modern era, rabbis had no special training in counseling, relying instead on their personal qualities of empathy and caring. These factors continue to inform rabbinic advising in the modern era. However modern rabbinical seminaries have instituted courses in psychology and pastoral counseling as part of the required rabbinic curriculum and they offer internships in counseling and social services for their rabbinical students.[17][38] Among Hasidic Jews, turning to the rebbe for advice on personal matters is common.

Leading prayer services

Traditionally rabbis did not lead prayer services in the modern sense. There is no requirement that a rabbi be present for public prayer. The Jewish liturgy is fixed and printed in prayer books (siddurim), the vocal portions are chanted by a cantor (hazan) and the Torah portion is read by a trained reader (ba'al koreh). If the rabbi was present, he would be seated in front near the Ark and as a matter of respect, the pace at which the rabbi recited his prayers might set the pace of the service. If halakhic questions arose about the prayer service, the rabbi would answer them.

In modern synagogues, the rabbi takes a more active role in leading prayer services. In some synagogues, it is permitted for the rabbi to select passages from the prayer book for public reading, to omit some passages for brevity and to add special prayers to the service. The rabbi may lead the congregation in responsive reading, announce page numbers and comment on the liturgy from time to time. At Sabbath and holiday services, the congregational rabbi will deliver a sermon either right before or right after the Torah is read.

Celebrating life's events

Jewish law does not require the presence of a rabbi at a marriage, bar or bat mitzvah, circumcision, funeral, house of mourning, or unveiling of a monument at a cemetery. At the same time, Jewish law has prescribed requirements for each of these events and rituals. It therefore became customary for rabbis to be present and to lead the community in celebration and in mourning. In the modern era, it is virtually obligatory to have the rabbi's participation at these events, and ministering to the congregation in these settings has become a major aspect of the modern rabbinate.

Jewish divorce, which requires a rabbinical court (beth din), will always have rabbis in attendance.

Charitable works

The synagogue has been a place where charity is collected every weekday after services and then distributed to the needy before Sabbaths and holidays. However, most synagogues now suggest that congregants support the synagogue via an annual dues payment, usually collected on a monthly basis. It was not the rabbi who collected these sums; that task was assigned to the sexton, wardens of charity and charitable associations.[39] But it was the rabbi's task to teach that charity (tzedakah) is a core Jewish value. The rabbi did this by preaching, teaching and by example—hosting poor out of town yeshiva students at the home table and offering Jewish travelers a kosher meal. Maimonides formulated a ladder consisting of eight degrees of charity, starting with reluctant giving and ending with teaching someone a trade.[40] Rabbi Israel Salanter (1809–1883) was once asked, "How do you provide for your spiritual needs?" He answered, "By providing for someone else's physical needs."[41]

Today Jewish federations and foundations collect and distribute most charity within the Jewish community. However the rabbi retains the task of teaching the value of charity and often participates personally in appeals for the synagogue and for national and international causes.

Role-modeling

The rabbi serves as a role model for the congregation by his or her conduct and deportment. Congregation members are keen observers of their rabbi's personality traits, family life, professional conduct, leisure activities and in general the way he or she treats others. Rabbis are aware of this and in the best case deliberately model their conduct so that it represents Jewish values to the community and to outsiders.

This aspect of the rabbinate, setting an example for the public, has a direct application in Jewish law. The way the greatest rabbis and Torah scholars conducted themselves can become a precedent in Jewish law, known as ma'aseh.[42] For example, based on reports of what rabbis did in the Talmud, Maimonides ruled that one engaged in public affairs should not break off his duties to recite certain prayers.[43]

Outreach, also known as kiruv (bringing close)

Some rabbis program and guide activities designed to reach Jews who are unaffiliated with Judaism or lapsed in their observances. These include "Beginners' Services" where the Jewish liturgy is shortened and explained, and Shabbatons, where unaffiliated Jews are hosted by an observant family during Sabbath to experience the day in a religious setting and to learn about its rituals and customs. Chabad outreach sends many rabbis and their wives to be posted in Chabad Houses worldwide for the express purpose of reaching unaffiliated Jews.

Conversions

Most rabbis will from time to time encounter someone who is not Jewish seeking information about Judaism or wishing to explore conversion to Judaism. This may happen when one member of a couple wishing to marry is seeking conversion or on other occasions when intermarriage is not involved. Based on the rabbi's training and assessment of the person's motivations and goals, the rabbi's approach may range from discouragement of the potential convert to mentoring and directing to a conversion class, in accordance with the policy on conversion of the rabbi's movement.[44] One or three rabbis will serve on the beth din that performs a conversion. There are no rabbis serving as "Jewish missionaries" per se; there is no parallel in Judaism to the proselytizing of other faiths.[45]

Match-making

In periods when match-making was common, rabbis participated.[46] Rabbis were well-acquainted with their community members and in particular with the young unmarried men attending their yeshivas. Parents did not hesitate to consult the rabbi for suitable matches. Today in Orthodox circles where socializing among the sexes is not common, this practice continues, and in all branches of Judaism, a rabbi who can help in this arena will not hesitate to do so.[47]

Synagogue administration

The modern synagogue is a non-profit religious corporation run by a Board of Directors elected by the members. However, on a day-to-day basis, board members are not present. In most synagogues, it is the rabbi's task to administer the synagogue, supervise personnel, manage the physical plant, review (if not write) the newsletter, and interact with the brotherhood, the sisterhood and the youth organizations. Very large synagogues may employ a separate administrator or assistant rabbi to perform some or all of these functions.

Chaplaincy

Jewish chaplain insignia, U.S. Air Force

Rabbis go into the field wherever members of the Jewish community may be found. This is most noticeable in the military services and on university campuses where some rabbis serve as Jewish chaplains on a full-time basis. All branches of the U. S. military have Jewish chaplains in their ranks[48] and rabbis serve in the Israeli Defense Forces. The Hillel Foundation provides rabbis and Jewish services on 550 campuses [49] while Chabad operates Jewish centers with a rabbi near 150 college campuses.[50] Local rabbis perform other chaplaincy functions on a part-time basis in hospitals, senior homes and prisons. Worthy of mention are the rabbis who accompanied Jews to concentration camps during the Nazi era; in dire circumstances they continued to provide rabbinic services, such as ritual observance, advice and counseling, to the victims of Nazi persecution, whenever it was possible to do so.[51]

Public affairs

As leaders of the Jewish community, many rabbis devote a portion of their time to activities in the public arena, especially where Jewish interests are at stake. They dialogue with public officials and community groups, interact with school boards, advocate for and against legislation, engage in public debates, write newspaper columns, appear in the media and march in parades and demonstrations with others to show support for causes. The extent and tenor of these activities is dictated by the rabbi's own conscience and social and political leanings as informed by Jewish values.

Defending the faith

Rabbis are often called upon to defend the Jewish faith. During the Middle Ages, the Church arranged a series of public disputations between rabbis and priests that were intended to "disprove" the Jewish faith and condemn its religious texts, including the Talmud.[52] The rabbis acquitted themselves well in debate with their superior understanding of Jewish texts and mass conversions to Christianity did not take place. However following these disputations local rulers at the Church's behest consigned cartloads of precious Hebrew manuscripts to the flames.[53] Today rabbis are involved in countering the activities of missionaries aimed at converting Jews to other religions, explaining for example that one cannot be of the Jewish faith while believing in either the Christian God or the Christian messiah.[54]

Interfaith activities

Some rabbis engage in interfaith dialogues with clergy of other faiths. They may host student groups from the religious schools of other faiths and participate in interfaith services. They will view these activities as a means of deepening understanding and reducing misconceptions in a diverse society. Other rabbis, especially those affiliated with Orthodox Judaism, will generally not participate in interfaith dialogues about theology. They will however engage in discussions with the clergy of other faiths about matters of mutual social concern.[55]

Non-practicing rabbis

There is a segment of the rabbinate that does not engage in rabbinic functions on a daily basis, except perhaps to study. Because rabbinic ordination (Semikhah) has the features of a post-graduate academic degree, some study to receive ordination but then follow a different career in secular business, education or the professions. These rabbis may be asked from time to time to perform a rabbinic function on an ad hoc and voluntary basis, e.g. to perform a marriage ceremony or answer a religious question. At other times, they act as regular members of the Jewish community. No negative attitudes attach to rabbis who do not practice the profession. They are likely admired in their communities for their decision to spend years engaged in advanced Torah study for its own sake.

Compensation[edit]

In antiquity those who performed rabbinic functions, such as judging a case or teaching Torah to students, did not receive compensation for their services.[56] Being a rabbi was not a full-time profession and those who served had other occupations to support themselves and their families, such as woodchopper, sandal-maker, carpenter, water-carrier, farmer and tanner.[57] A respected scholar, Rabbi Zadok (1st cent. CE), had said "never to use the Torah as a spade for digging,"[58] and this was understood to mean never to use one's Torah knowledge for an inappropriate purpose, such as earning a fee. Still, as honored members of the community, Torah sages were allowed a series of privileges and exemptions that alleviated their financial burdens somewhat. These included such things as tax exemption from communal levies,[59] marketplace priority (first in, first out regarding their trade),[59] receiving personal services from their students (shimush talmedei hakhamim),[60] silent business partnerships with wealthy merchants,[61] and a substitute fee to replace their lost earnings when they had to leave work to perform a rabbinic function (sekhar battalah).[62]

During the period of the Geonim (c. 650-1050 CE), opinions on compensation shifted. It was deemed inappropriate for the leaders of the Jewish community to appear in the marketplace as laborers or vendors of merchandise, and leading a Jewish community was becoming a full-time occupation. Under these conditions, the Geonim collected taxes and donations at home and abroad to fund their schools (yeshivot) and paid salaries to teachers, officials and judges of the Jewish community, whom they appointed.[63] Maimonides (1135–1204), who supported himself as a physician, reasserted the traditional view of offering rabbinic service to the Jewish community without compensation.[64] It remains the ideal. But circumstances had changed. Jewish communities required full-time rabbis, and the rabbis themselves preferred to spend their days studying and teaching Torah rather than working at a secular trade.

By the fifteenth century it was the norm for Jewish communities to compensate their rabbis, although the rabbi's contract might well refer to a "suspension fee" (sekhar battalah) rather than a salary, as if he were relinquishing a salary from secular employment.[65] The size of salaries varied, depending on the size of the community served, with rabbis in large cities being well-compensated while rabbis in small towns might receive a small stipend.[66] Rabbis were able to supplement their rabbinic incomes by engaging in associated functions and accepting fees for them, like serving as the community's scribe, notary and archivist, teaching in the elementary school or yeshivah, publishing books, arbitrating civil litigations, or even serving as a matchmaker.[67]

With the formation of rabbinical seminaries starting in the nineteenth century, the rabbinate experienced a degree of professionalization that is still underway. At the present time, an ordained graduate of a rabbinical seminary that is affiliated with one of the modern branches of Judaism, Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or modern Orthodox, will find employment—whether as a congregational rabbi, teacher, chaplain, Hillel director, camp director, social worker or administrator—through the placement office of his or her seminary. Like any modern professional, he or she will negotiate the terms of employment with potential employers and sign a contract specifying duties, duration of service, salary, benefits, pension and the like.[68] A rabbi's salary and benefits today tend to be similar to those of other modern professionals, such as lawyers and accountants, with similar levels of post-graduate education.[69] It is also possible to engage in the rabbinate part-time, e.g. at a synagogue with a small membership; the rabbi's salary will be proportionate to the services rendered and he or she will likely have additional employment outside the synagogue.[citation needed]

[edit]

The practical basis for rabbinic authority involves the acceptance of the rabbinic individual and their scholarly credentials. In practical terms, Jewish communities and individuals commonly proffer allegiance to the authority of the rabbi they have chosen. Such a rabbinic leader is sometimes called the "Master of the Locale" (mara d'atra).[70] Jewish individuals may acknowledge the authority of others but will defer legal decisions to the mara d'atra.[71]

The rabbi derives authority from achievements within a meritocratic system. Rabbis' authority is neither nominal nor spiritual — it is based on credentials. Typically the rabbi receives an institutional stamp of approval. It is this authority that allows them to engage in the halakhic process and make legal prescriptions.[72]

The same pattern is true within broader communities, ranging from Hasidic communities to rabbinical or congregational organizations: there will be a formal or de facto structure of rabbinic authority that is responsible for the members of the community. However, Hasidic communities do not have a mere rabbi: they have a Rebbe, who plays a similar role but is thought to have a special connection to God. The Rebbes' authority, then, is based on a spiritual connection to God and so they are venerated in a different way from rabbis.

Honor[edit]

According to the Talmud, it is a commandment (mitzvah) to honor a rabbi and a Torah scholar, along with the elderly, as it is written in Leviticus 19:32, "Rise up before the elderly, and honor the aged."[73] One should stand in their presence and address them with respect.[74] Kohanim (priests) are required to honor rabbis and Torah scholars like the general public. However, if one is more learned than the rabbi or the scholar there is no need to stand. The spouse of a Torah scholar must also be shown deference.[75] It is also a commandment for teachers and rabbis to honor their students.[76] Rabbis and Torah scholars, in order to ensure discipline within the Jewish community, have the authority to place individuals who insult them under a ban of excommunication.[77]

Ordination[edit]

Classical ordination[edit]

The first recorded examples of ordination are Moses transmitting his authority to Joshua[78] and the 70 elders.[79] Similarly, Elijah transmitted his authority to Elisha.[80]

According to Pirkei Avot, ordination was transmitted without interruption from Moses to Joshua, to the elders, to the prophets, to the men of the Great Assembly, to the Zugot, to the Tannaim.[81] The chain of semikhah was probably lost in the 4th or 5th century, though possibly as late as the 12th century.

According to Maimonides (12th century), if it were possible to gather the greatest sages of the generation, a reconstituted court could confer classic semikhah or ordination.[82] Since then, a number of modern attempts to revive the Sanhedrin have been made. So far, no such attempt has been accepted as valid among the consensus of rabbis, or persisted for longer than about a century.

Contemporary ordination[edit]

Since the end of classical ordination, other forms of ordination have developed which use much of the same terminology, but have a lesser significance in Jewish law.

Nowadays, a rabbinical student is awarded semikhah (rabbinic ordination) after the completion of a learning program in a yeshiva or modern rabbinical seminary or under the guidance of an individual rabbi. The exact course of study varies by denomination, but most are in the range of 3–6 years. The programs all include study of Talmud, the codes of Jewish law and responsa to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the branch of Judaism. In addition to rabbinical literature, modern seminaries offer courses in pastoral subjects such as counseling, education, comparative religion and delivering sermons. Most rabbinical students will complete their studies in their mid-20s. There is no hierarchy and no central authority in Judaism that either supervises rabbinic education or records ordinations; each branch of Judaism regulates the ordination of the rabbis affiliated with it.

The most common formula used on a certificate of semikhah is Yore yore ("He may teach, he may teach", sometimes rendered as a question and answer, "May he teach? He may teach."). Most Rabbis hold this qualification; they are sometimes called a moreh hora'ah ("a teacher of rulings"). A more advanced form of semikhah is yadin yadin ("He may judge, he may judge" or "May he judge? He may judge."). This enables the recipient to serve as a judge on a rabbinical court and adjudicate cases of monetary law, among other responsibilities. The recipient of this ordination can be formally addressed as a dayan ("judge") and also retain the title of rabbi. Only a small percentage of rabbis earn the yadin yadin ordination. Although not strictly necessary, many Orthodox rabbis hold that a beth din (court of Jewish law) should be made up of dayanim with this ordination.

Orthodox and Modern Orthodox Judaism[edit]

Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, a leading Rabbinical authority for Orthodox Judaism of the second half of the twentieth century.

An Orthodox semikhah requires the successful completion of a program encompassing Jewish law and responsa in keeping with longstanding tradition. Here, Orthodox rabbinical students work to gain knowledge in specific and relevant Talmudic sugyas, and their development in the Rishonim and Acharonim (early and late medieval commentators) and their application in Halakha (Jewish law). Building on this, is the study of those sections of the Shulchan Aruch (codified Jewish law) and its main commentaries that pertain to daily-life questions (such as the laws of keeping kosher, Shabbat, and the laws of family purity). See: Yeshiva § Talmud study and Yeshiva § Jewish law; Semikhah § Concept; Posek § Formulating a ruling (psak din); and List of rabbinical schools § Orthodox.

Orthodox rabbis typically study at yeshivas, which are dedicated religious schools. Modern Orthodox rabbinical students, such as those at Yeshiva University, study some elements of modern theology or philosophy, as well as the classical rabbinic works on such subjects (see Yeshiva § Ethics, mysticism and philosophy).

The entrance requirements for an Orthodox yeshiva include a strong background within Jewish law, liturgy, Talmudic study, and attendant languages (e.g., Hebrew, Aramaic and in some cases Yiddish). Specifically, students are expected to have acquired deep analytic skills, and breadth, in Talmud before commencing their rabbinic studies. At the same time, since rabbinical studies typically flow from other yeshiva studies, those who seek semichah are typically not required to have completed a university education. Exceptions exist, such as Yeshiva University, which requires all rabbinical students to complete an undergraduate degree before entering the program, and a Masters or equivalent before ordination.

Historically, women could not become Orthodox rabbis. Starting in 2009, some Modern Orthodox institutions began ordaining women with the title of "Maharat", and later with titles including "Rabbah" and "Rabbi". This is currently a contested issue for many Orthodox institutions, leading some to seek alternate clerical titles and roles for women (see Women rabbis and Torah scholars § Orthodox Judaism, Toanot Rabniyot, and Yoetzet Halacha).[3][2]

While some Haredi (including Hasidic) yeshivas (also known as "Talmudical/Rabbinical schools or academies") do grant official ordination to many students wishing to become rabbis, most of the students within the yeshivas engage in learning Torah or Talmud without the goal of becoming rabbis or holding any official positions. The curriculum for obtaining ordination as rabbis for Haredi scholars is the same as described above for all Orthodox students wishing to obtain the official title of "Rabbi" and to be recognized as such.

Within the Hasidic world, the positions of spiritual leadership are dynastically transmitted within established families, usually from fathers to sons, while a small number of students obtain official ordination to become dayanim ("judges") on religious courts, poskim ("decisors" of Jewish law), as well as teachers in the Hasidic schools. The same is true for the non-Hasidic Litvish yeshivas that are controlled by dynastically transmitted rosh yeshivas and the majority of students will not become rabbis, even after many years of post-graduate kollel study.

Some yeshivas, such as Yeshivas Chafetz Chaim and Yeshivas Ner Yisroel in Baltimore, Maryland, may encourage their students to obtain semichah and mostly serve as rabbis who teach in other yeshivas or Hebrew day schools. Other yeshivas, such as Yeshiva Chaim Berlin (Brooklyn, New York) or the Mirrer Yeshiva (in Brooklyn and Jerusalem), do not have an official "semichah/rabbinical program" to train rabbis, but provide semichah on an "as needed" basis if and when one of their senior students is offered a rabbinical position but only with the approval of their rosh yeshivas.

Haredim will often prefer using Hebrew names for rabbinic titles based on older traditions, such as: Rav (denoting "rabbi"), HaRav ("the rabbi"), Moreinu HaRav ("our teacher the rabbi"), Moreinu ("our teacher"), Moreinu VeRabeinu HaRav ("our teacher and our rabbi/master the rabbi"), Moreinu VeRabeinu ("our teacher and our rabbi/master"), Rosh yeshiva ("[the] head [of the] yeshiva"), Rosh HaYeshiva ("head [of] the yeshiva"), "Mashgiach" (for Mashgiach ruchani) ("spiritual supervsor/guide"), Mora DeAsra ("teacher/decisor" [of] the/this place"), HaGaon ("the genius"), Rebbe ("[our/my] rabbi"), HaTzadik ("the righteous/saintly"), "ADMOR" ("Adoneinu Moreinu VeRabeinu") ("our master, our teacher and our rabbi/master") or often just plain Reb which is a shortened form of rebbe that can be used by, or applied to, any married Jewish male as the situation applies.

Note: A rebbetzin (a Yiddish usage common among Ashkenazim) or a rabbanit (in Hebrew and used among Sephardim) is the official "title" used for, or by, the wife of any Orthodox, Haredi, or Hasidic rabbi. Rebbetzin may also be used as the equivalent of Reb and is sometimes abbreviated as such as well.

Non-Orthodox Judaism[edit]

Conservative Judaism[edit]

Conservative Judaism confers semikhah after the completion of a program in the codes of Jewish law and responsa in keeping with Jewish tradition. In addition to knowledge and mastery of the study of Talmud and halakhah, Conservative semikhah also requires that its rabbinical students receive intensive training in Tanakh, classical biblical commentaries, biblical criticism, Midrash, Kabbalah and Hasidut, the historical development of Judaism from antiquity to modernity, Jewish ethics, the halakhic methodology of Conservative responsa, classical and modern works of Jewish theology and philosophy, synagogue administration, pastoral care, chaplaincy, non-profit management, and navigating the modern world in a Jewish context. Entrance requirements to Conservative rabbinical study centers include a background within Jewish law and liturgy, familiarity with rabbinic literature, Talmud, etc., ritual observance according to Conservative halakha, and the completion of an undergraduate university degree. In accordance with national collegiate accreditation requirements, Conservative rabbinical students earn a Master of Arts in Rabbinic Literature in addition to receiving ordination. See List of rabbinical schools § Conservative

Reform Judaism[edit]

In Reform Judaism rabbinic studies are mandated in pastoral care, the historical development of Judaism, academic biblical criticism, in addition to the study of traditional rabbinic texts. Rabbinical students also are required to gain practical rabbinic experience by working at a congregation as a rabbinic intern during each year of study from year one onwards. All Reform seminaries ordain women and openly LGBT people as rabbis and cantors. See List of rabbinical schools § Reform

Seminaries unaffiliated with main denominations[edit]

There are several possibilities for receiving rabbinic ordination in addition to seminaries maintained by the large Jewish denominations; these are the Academy for Jewish Religion in New York City, AJR in California, Hebrew College in Boston, and Hebrew Seminary in Illinois. The structure and curricula here are largely as at other non-Orthodox yeshivot.

More recently established are several non-traditional, and nondenominational (also called "transdenominational" or "postdenominational") seminaries. These grant semicha with lesser requirements re time, and with a modified curriculum, generally focusing on leadership and pastoral roles. These are JSLI, RSI, and PRS. The Wolkowisk Mesifta is aimed at community professionals with significant knowledge and experience, and provides a tailored curriculum to each candidate. Rimmon, the most recently established, emphasizes halakhic decision making.

Interdenominational recognition[edit]

Historically and until the present, recognition of a rabbi relates to a community's perception of the rabbi's competence to interpret Jewish law and act as a teacher on central matters within Judaism. More broadly speaking, it is also an issue of being a worthy successor to a sacred legacy.

As a result, there have always been greater or lesser disputes about the legitimacy and authority of rabbis. Historical examples include Samaritans and Karaites.

The divisions between Jewish denominations may have their most pronounced manifestation on whether rabbis from one denomination recognize the legitimacy or authority of rabbis in another.

As a general rule within Orthodoxy and among some in the Conservative movement, rabbis are reluctant to accept the authority of other rabbis whose Halakhic standards are not as strict as their own. In some cases, this leads to an outright rejection of even the legitimacy of other rabbis; in others, the more lenient rabbi may be recognized as a spiritual leader of a particular community but may not be accepted as a credible authority on Jewish law.

The Orthodox rabbinical establishment rejects the validity of Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis on the grounds that their movements' teachings are in violation of traditional Jewish tenets. Some Modern Orthodox rabbis are respectful toward non-Orthodox rabbis and focus on commonalities even as they disagree on interpretation of some areas of Halakha (with Conservative rabbis) or the authority of Halakha (with Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis).

Conservative rabbis accept the legitimacy of Orthodox rabbis, though they are often critical of Orthodox positions. Although they would rarely look to Reform or Reconstructionist rabbis for Halakhic decisions, they accept the legitimacy of these rabbis' religious leadership.

Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis, on the premise that all the main movements are legitimate expressions of Judaism, will accept the legitimacy of other rabbis' leadership, though will not accept their views on Jewish law, since Reform and Reconstructionists reject Halakha as binding.

These debates cause great problems for recognition of Jewish marriages, conversions, and other life decisions that are touched by Jewish law. Orthodox rabbis do not recognize conversions by non-Orthodox rabbis. Conservative rabbis recognise all conversions done according to Halakha. Finally, the North American Reform and Reconstructionists recognize patrilineality, under certain circumstances, as a valid claim towards Judaism, whereas Conservative and Orthodox maintain the position expressed in the Talmud and Codes that one can be a Jew only through matrilineality (born of a Jewish mother) or through conversion to Judaism.

Women rabbis[edit]

With few rare exceptions, Jewish women have historically been excluded from serving as rabbis. This changed in the 1970s, when due to the shift in American society under the influence of second-wave feminism, the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion began ordaining women as rabbis.[83] Today, Jewish women serve as rabbis within all progressive branches of Judaism, while in Orthodox Judaism, it is a matter of debate, with most communities not accepting women rabbis, while others either ordain women as rabbis or have allowed alternate clerical roles for women (see: Yoetzet Halacha).[3][2]

See also[edit]

Chief Rabbinate of Israel

Hakham

List of rabbis

List of rabbinical schools

Mashpia

Posek

Rav muvhak

Talmid Chakham

Notes[edit]

1. ^ These include the Central Council of American Rabbis for Reform rabbis,[34] the Rabbinical Council of America for Orthodox rabbis,[35] and the Rabbinical Assembly for Conservative rabbis.[36]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

1. ^ rabbi | Definition, History, & Functions | Britannica

2. ^ a b c Israel-Cohen, Y. (2012). Chapter Five: Orthodox Women Rabbis?“It’s Only a Matter of Time”. In Between Feminism and Orthodox Judaism (pp. 69-78). Brill.

3. ^ a b c Nadell, P. S. (2019). Paving the Road to Women Rabbis. Gender and Religious Leadership: Women Rabbis, Pastors, and Ministers, 89.

4. ^ "Orthodox Women To Be Trained As Clergy, If Not Yet as Rabbis –". Forward.com. May 21, 2009. Archived from the original on December 6, 2011. Retrieved May 3, 2012.

5. ^ PRI.org Can Orthodox Jewish Women be Rabbis? Archived January 12, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, November 9, 2015

6. ^ "רב ורבנים". האקדמיה ללשון העברית (in Hebrew). June 3, 2021. Retrieved January 31, 2022.

7. ^ "Rav". Dictionary.com. Retrieved April 21, 2022.

8. ^ Heinz-Josef Fabry entry Rab in Theological dictionary of the Old Testament Vol.13 p273-5 ed. G. Johannes Botterweck, sv:Helmer Ringgren, Fabry 2004 p273 "RAB... is also well attested in Phoenician.9 Here too rab functions as a title; its specific meaning can be determined only by its relationship to other offices and functions.10 Aramaic in all its dialects makes copious use of this root."

9. ^ Fabry entry Rab in Theological dictionary of the Old Testament Volume 13 – Page 298 G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, Heinz-Josef Fabry – 2004 "There is no evidence to support an association, commonly cited in discussions of this usage.160 with the use of the title "Rabbi" ... Already suggested by M. Burrows and repeated by Carmignac, 584"

10. ^ "What does rabbi mean?".

11. ^ Siddur Azor Eliyahu, p.18 (on "Ribbi Yishmael Omer" before Pesukei deZimra). Text with acronyms expanded according to its glossary (parentheses in original, square brackets added based on the glossary): רִבי ישמעאל. בחיריק - כך הוא בכל סידורים ישנים [הכוונה לסידורי אשכנז שנדפסו עד לסידור ר' שבתי סופר מפרעמישלא] (כמו שקלאוו תקמ"ח, דיהרנפורט תקמ"ח, תקנ"ב, תקס"ב, זולצבאך תקנ"ג), כך הוא בהגדה של פסח על ביאור הגר"א שהדפיס רמ"מ משקלאוו בהוראדנא בשנת תקס"ה (וכן הוא בסידורי הספרדים והתימנים). והשינוי לרַבי בפתח הוא משינויי ויעתר יצחק (ספר הגהות על סידור אשכנז וסידור תפילה מאת יצחק סאטאנוב, ברלין תקמ"ד) ובעקבותיו ניקד כן גם ר' וואלף היידנהיים (ויעב"ץ ניקד רְבי בשווא והאריך בזה בלוח ארש). בגמרא מופיע בריבי מלא (מכות ה' ב' חולין פ"ד ב' קל"ז א' שבת קט"ו א' ערובין נ"ג א') וחסר (חולין י"א ב', כ"ח א') ומשמע מכך שאמרו רִבי בחיריק, וגם מפירוש רבינו חננאל (פסחים נ"ב ב' וסוכה מ"ה א') משמע כן.

12. ^ a b Englishman's Greek Concordance of the New Testament by Wigram, George V.; citing Matthew 26:25, Mark 9:5 and John 3:2 (among others)

13. ^ Catherine Hezser, The social structure of the rabbinic movement in Roman Palestine, 1997, page 59 "b – Rabbi as an Honorary Address ... Since Jesus was called "Rabbi" but did not conform to the traditional image of post-70 Jewish rabbis, and since pre-70 sages do not bear the title "Rabbi" in the Mishnah, 29 most scholars assume that the meaning and usage of the term "Rabbi" at the time of Jesus differed from the meaning which it acquired after the destruction of the Temple: in pre-70 times, "Rabbi" was used as an unofficial honorary address for any person held in high esteem; after 70 it was almost exclusively applied to ordained teachers of the Law."

14. ^ Hezser, Catherine (1997). The Social Structure of the Rabbinic Movement in Roman Palestine. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 64–. ISBN 978-3-16-146797-4. Archived from the original on February 8, 2018. We suggest that the avoidance of the title "Rabbi" for pre-70 sages may have originated with the editors of the Mishnah. The editors attributed the title to some sages and not to others. The avoidance of the title for pre-70 sages may perhaps be seen as a deliberate program on the part of these editors who wanted to create the impression that the “rabbinic movement" began with R. Yochanan b. Zakkai and that the Yavnean "academy" was something new, a notion that is sometimes already implicitly or explicitly suggested by some of the traditions available to them. This notion is not diminished by the occasional claim to continuity with the past which was limited to individual teachers and institutions and served to legitimize rabbinic authority.

15. ^ Shanks, Hershel (1963). "Is the Title "Rabbi" Anachronistic in the Gospels?" (PDF). The Jewish Quarterly Review. 53 (4): 337–345. doi:10.2307/1453387. JSTOR 1453387.

16. ^ Ezra 7:11.

17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Berenbaum, Michael; Skolnik, Fred, eds. (2007). "Rabbi, Rabbinate". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 17 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 11–19. ISBN 978-0-02-866097-4.

18. ^ For example Pirkei Avot 6:3 - "One who learns from their companion a single chapter, a single halakha, a single verse, a single Torah statement, or even a single letter, must treat them with honor. For so we find with David King of Israel, who learned nothing from Ahitophel except two things, yet called him his teacher [Hebrew text: rabbo], his guide, his intimate."

19. ^ ברויאר, יוחנן; Breuer, Yochanan (1996). "'Rabbi is Greater than Rav, Rabban is Greater than Rabbi, the Simple Name is Greater than Rabban' / 'גדול מרב רבי, גדול מרבי רבן, גדול מרבן שמו'". Tarbiz / תרביץ. סו (א): 41–59. JSTOR 23599889.

20. ^ Rabbi is Greater than Rav, Rabban is Greater than Rabbi, The Simple Name is Greater than Rabban

21. ^ a b Rosensweig, Bernard. THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROFESSIONAL RABBI IN ASHKENAZIC JEWRY. Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought, vol. 11, no. 3, 1970, pp. 22-30.

22. ^ Meir ben Baruch Ha-Levi

23. ^ Zef Eleff, Modern Orthodox Judaism: A Documentary History, p. 247, quote: "In the 1980s, rabbis and congregants replaced the "scholar-rabbi" with the "pastor-rabbi." With greater frequency, rabbinic search committees asked Orthodox seminaries to supply them with candidates who possessed excellent pastoral skills and deemphasized the importance of intellectual attainment."

24. ^ Mishnah, Avot, chap. 1.

25. ^ Deuteronomy 33:4.

26. ^ David M. Goodblatt, Rabbinic Instruction In Sasanian Babylonia, Brill, 1975.

27. ^ Marc Saperstein, Jewish Preaching, Yale, 1989.

28. ^ S. Schwarzfuchs, Concise History of the Rabbinate, 1993, pp. 51-53.

29. ^ "Excommunication - JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on February 20, 2017.

30. ^ "Rabbinical Courts: Modern Day Solomons," 6 Colum J.L. & Soc. Probs. 49 (1970).

31. ^ "TaḲḲanah - JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on January 8, 2017.

32. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 8, 2017. Retrieved January 7, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link).

33. ^ Dorff and Roset, A Living Tree, SUNY, 1988, p. 402.

34. ^ "About Us". Archived from the original on January 8, 2017. Retrieved January 7, 2017.

35. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on October 24, 2014. Retrieved November 17, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

36. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on November 29, 2001. Retrieved October 25, 2001.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

37. ^ "OU Kosher: Certification and Supervision by the Orthodox Union". OU Kosher Certification. Archived from the original on December 28, 2016.

38. ^ RCA Semicha Guidelines

39. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 13, 2017. Retrieved January 11, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link).

40. ^ "Eight Levels of Charitable Giving". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017.

41. ^ "Someone else's material needs are my spiritual responsibility". January 26, 2013. Archived from the original on January 13, 2017. Retrieved January 11, 2017.

42. ^ "Ma'aseh". Archived from the original on June 5, 2016. Retrieved January 11, 2017.

43. ^ Mishneh Torah, Kri'at Shema 2:5.

44. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 26, 2017. Retrieved January 13, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

45. ^ "BBC - Religions - Judaism: Converting to Judaism". Archived from the original on December 1, 2016.

46. ^ Jeffrey I. Roth, Inheriting the Crown in Jewish Law, Univ. of So. Carolina Press, 2006, pp. 29, 31.

47. ^ Halverson, Kim (February 16, 1992). "Rabbi Plays Cupid in Bid to Keep Faith Among Jews : Matchmaking: His concern that many are marrying non-Jews prompts him to establish dating service so that singles may find others of same religious persuasion". Archived from the original on January 16, 2017 – via LA Times.

48. ^ "Become a Chaplain: Serving Jews Who Serve - JCC Association". Archived from the original on January 8, 2017.

49. ^ "Hillel International - The Foundation for Jewish Campus Life at Colleges and Universities". hillel.org. Archived from the original on December 31, 2016.

50. ^ "About - Chabad on Campus International". www.chabad.edu. Archived from the original on January 8, 2017.

51. ^ See Irving Rosenbaum, The Holocaust and Halakhah, Ktav, 1976, pp. 9-15.

52. ^ "DISPUTATIONS - JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on March 6, 2015.

53. ^ "Burning of the Talmud". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived from the original on December 15, 2016.

54. ^ "Jews-for-J: Messiah & Redemption Response on Ask the Rabbi". September 20, 2011. Archived from the original on January 8, 2017.

55. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 9, 2017. Retrieved January 7, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

56. ^ Jeffrey I. Roth, Inheriting the Crown in Jewish Law: The Struggle for Rabbinic Compensation, Tenure and Inheritance Rights, Univ. of So. Carolina Press, 2006, p. 5.

57. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved January 1, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link).

58. ^ Mishnah, Avot 4:5.

59. ^ a b Bava Batra 7b-8a

60. ^ Ketubot 96a.

61. ^ Berakhot 34b,

62. ^ Talmud Yerushalmi, Nedarim 4:4

63. ^ Roth, 10-12.

64. ^ Mishnah Torah, Talmud Torah 3:10; Commentary on the Mishnah, Avot 4:7.

65. ^ Roth, 27-29.

66. ^ Simha Assaf, LeKorot HaRabbanut, B'Ohalei Yaakov (Mosad HaRav Kook, 5703), pp. 46-48.

67. ^ Roth, 28-32.

68. ^ Roth, 116-117.

69. ^ "Different denominations, same pay". September 17, 2003. Archived from the original on January 2, 2017.

70. ^ Kirschenbaum, Aaron (1993). "MARA DE-ATRA: A Brief Sketch". Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought. 27 (4): 35–40. JSTOR 23260883.

71. ^ Friedman, M. (2004). Halachic rabbinic authority in the modern open society. Jewish Religious Leadership, Image, and Reality, 2, 757-770.

72. ^ John Corrigan, Frederick Denny, Martin S. Jaffee, and Carlos Eire. Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions. New York, NY: Routledge, 2012, 124-128

73. ^ See Talmud Kidushin daf 30–40, Bava Metziah 33a, Rambam's Mishneh Torah tractate Hilkhot Talmud Torah 5:7

74. ^ Maimonides, Hilchot Talmud Torah 5:7.

75. ^ "YUTorah Online – The Obligation to Respect the Wife of a Torah Scholar or a Talmidat Chacham (Rabbi Hanan Balk)". Yutorah.org. June 24, 2010. Archived from the original on June 7, 2013. Retrieved May 3, 2012.

76. ^ Maimonides, Hilchot Talmud Torah 5:12.

77. ^ Maimonides, Hilchot Talmud Torah 6:12.

78. ^ Numbers 27:15–23, Deuteronomy 34:9

79. ^ Numbers 11:16–25

80. ^ 2 Kings 2:9–15

81. ^ Pirkei Avot chapter 1 (especially 1:1)

82. ^ Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Sanhedrin 4:11

83. ^ Blau, Eleanor. "1st Woman Rabbi in U.S. Ordained; She May Be Only the Second in History of Judaism", The New York Times, June 4, 1972. Retrieved September 17, 2009. "Sally HJ. Priesand was ordained at the Isaac M. Wise Temple here today, becoming the first woman rabbi in this country and it is believed, the second in the history of Judaism."

Notes[edit]

1. ^ Some also connect it to Mishnaic Hebrew רֶבִּי rebbî, (Kaufmann A50 RH 2:12)/רִבִּי ribbî (Parma A RH 2:12) "my master" but this term is extremely rare in ancient texts.[6]

Sources[edit]

Berenbaum, Michael; Skolnik, Fred, eds. (2007). "Rabbi, Rabbinate". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 17 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 11–19. ISBN 978-0-02-866097-4.

Aaron Kirchenbaum, Mara de-Atra: A Brief Sketch, Tradition, Vol. 27, No. 4, 1993, pp. 35–40.

Aharon Lichtenstein, The Israeli Chief Rabbinate: A Current Halakhic Perspective, Tradition, Vol. 26, No. 4, 1992, pp. 26–38.

Jeffrey I. Roth, Inheriting the Crown in Jewish Law: The Struggle for Rabbinic Compensation, Tenure and Inheritance Rights, Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2006.

S. Schwarzfuchs, A Concise History of the Rabbinate, Oxford, 1993.

Jewish Encyclopedia: Rabbi

External links[edit]

| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rabbis.

"Rabbi" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism.[1] One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as semikha – following a course of study of Jewish texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of the rabbi developed in the Pharisaic (167 BCE–73 CE) and Talmudic (70–640…

# data[].attributes.body
This is a rabbi this relates to the story because one of the main points is about the rabbi going on vacation and telling everyone to go on vacation as well

# data[].attributes.body
This is an actual list of jewish names just like in the story when the Germans got an actual list of Jewish names

# data[].attributes.body
Lisa goes to Erik's house where he finds Erik, his grandparents and Karl the friend of the grandparents Lisa warns them of the Germans and how they're going to round up Jews

The grandparents and Karl leave with everything and food that they didn't want the Germans to get to a friends house

Lisa and Erik are going back to Copenhagen but on the train two german officers start talking about a danish mob that disarmed and beat a Germans officer to death and how they are going to get revenge on the danes for it so Lisa and Erik get up and move the German officer grabs Lisa and she shrugs him off and they move to another part of the train that's empty still hearing the German officers laugh

Questions

Will the Grandparents get found

will the grandparents home get ravaged
yes
Predictions

I think the Grandparents home will get trashed by the germans

I think Erik will start working in the Resistance

Connections
This connection is a little one but when I went to Toronto I took a train there just like how Lisa and Erik went to Copenhagen they took a train

Links
https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/german-railways-and-the-holocaust

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Wannsee Conference was held on January 20, 1942, in Berlin, to coordinate the implementation of the proposed " Final Solution." At Wannsee, the SS estimated that the "Final Solution"-which was already under way-would ultimately involve 11 million European Jews. Nazi planners envisioned the inclusion of Jews living in neutral or non-occupied countries such as Ireland, Sweden, Turkey, and Great Britain.

The European rail network played a crucial role in the implementation of the "Final Solution." Jews from Germany and German-occupied Europe were deported by rail to the killing centers in German-occupied Poland. The Germans attempted to disguise their deadly intentions, referring to these deportations as "resettlement to the east." The victims were told they were being taken to labor camps, but in reality, from 1942, deportation for most Jews meant transit to killing centers.

Deportations on this scale required the coordination of numerous German government ministries and state organizations, including the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), the Transport Ministry, and the Foreign Office. The RSHA coordinated and directed the deportations; the Transport Ministry organized train schedules; and the Foreign Office negotiated with German-allied states about handing over their Jews.

The Germans used both freight and passenger cars for the deportations. They did not provide the deportees with food or water, even when the transports had to wait days on railroad spurs for other trains to pass. The people deported in sealed freight cars suffered from intense heat in summer, freezing temperatures in winter, and the stench of urine and excrement. Aside from a bucket, there were no provisions for sanitary requirements. Without food or water, many deportees died before the trains reached their destinations. Armed guards shot anyone trying to escape. Between the fall of 1941 and the fall of 1944, millions of people were transported by rail to the killing centers and other killing sites in German-occupied Poland and the occupied Soviet Union.

Dimensions of the Railway Car on Display at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

There were many different kinds of railway cars used for deportations, varying in size and weight. The railway car on display in the Museum's Permanent Exhibition is of just one type used.

To give a sense of how the railway cars varied in size, we have provided the dimensions of the railway car on display along with the dimensions of the average freight car used for deportations in Hungary. It is not certain that the rail car on display in the Museum's Permanent Exhibition was used for the deportation of human beings, but it is typical of the type of rail car used in deportations from the German Reich.

Dimensions of the railway car on display:

Total length 31 feet 6 inches (9.6 meters); interior space for deportees 26 feet 2 inches (8 meters).

Total height 14 feet (4.3 meters) from the bottom of the wheel to the highest point of the car; interior space for deportees (ceiling curves down from the middle): 7 feet 4 inches (2.2 meters ) at the center; 7 feet (2.1 meters) at the sides.

Total width 13 feet 2 inches (4 meters, including the roofing); interior space for deportees: 8 feet 10 inches (2.7 meters).

Dimensions of the average freight car used for deportations in Hungary:

Length: 26.8 feet (8.2 meters)

Width: 7.2 feet (2.2 meters)

Source for Hungarian railway car dimensions: Randolph L. Braham, The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary, Volume 1 (New York: The Rosenthal Institute for Holocaust Studies, 1994), p. 686.

Note for Teachers

The Museum provides the dimensions of the railway car because of its significance as a historical artifact. However, please refer to the Museum's teacher guidelines for information about the dangers of simulating (based on a set of physical dimensions) the experience of deportation during the Holocaust. For a discussion of the dangers of classroom simulations and role plays about the Holocaust, please see the guideline about making responsible methodological choices.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Wannsee Conference was held on January 20, 1942, in Berlin, to coordinate the implementation of the proposed " Final Solution." At Wannsee, the SS estimated that the "Final Solution"-which was already under way-would ultimately involve 11 million European Jews.

# data[].attributes.body
This relates to the chapter because one of the main points is Lisa and Erik riding a train like this one back to Copenhagen

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Lisa gathers clothes and belongings for her and her sister

Lisa goes to her dads office with sarah

after that they go to the hospital to hide before their boat to Sweden

Questions
Will the Germans Find Lisa and her family
no she made it to Sweden
Is there a traitor at the hospital
no
Predictions
I think Lisa's mom will get caught because they keep mentioning her and says shes with Stefan

I think Susanne got caught because we haven't heard from her in a bit

Links
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust#:~:text=Oskar%20Schindler%20%E2%80%93%20German%20businessman%20whose,rescued%20many%20thousands%20of%20Jews.

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During World War II, some individuals and groups helped Jews and others escape the Holocaust conducted by Nazi Germany. Since 1953, Israel's Holocaust memorial, Yad Vashem, has recognized 26,973 persons as Righteous among the Nations. Yad Vashem's Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, headed by an Israeli Supreme Court justice, recognizes rescuers of Jews as Righteous among the Nations to honor non-Jews who risked their lives during the Holocaust to save Jews from extermination by the Nazi Germany.

Poland had a very large Jewish population, and, according to Norman Davies, more Jews were both killed and rescued in Poland than in any other nation: the rescue figure usually being put at between 100,000-150,000. The memorial at Bełżec extermination camp commemorates 600,000 murdered Jews and 1,500 Poles who tried to save Jews. Thousands in Poland have been honored as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem, constituting the largest national contingent. Martin Gilbert wrote that "Poles who risked their own lives to save the Jews were indeed the exception. But they could be found throughout Poland, in every town and village."

Until the end of Communist domination, much of German-occupied Poland's Holocaust history was hidden behind the veil of the Iron Curtain. During the World War II Nazi occupation, Poland was the only country where any help provided to a person of Jewish faith or origin was punishable by death. Yet 6,532 men and women (more than from any other country in the world) have been recognized as rescuers by Yad Vashem in Israel.

Poland during the Holocaust of World War II was under total enemy control: initially, half of Poland was occupied by the Germans, as the General Government and Reichskomissariat; the other half by the Soviets, along with the territories of today's Belarus and Ukraine. The list of Polish citizens officially recognized as Righteous includes 700 names of those who lost their lives while trying to help their Jewish neighbors. There were also groups, such as the Polish organization, that took drastic and dangerous steps to rescue victims. Witold Pilecki, a member of Armia Krajowa, the Polish Home Army, organized a resistance movement in Auschwitz from 1940, and Jan Karski tried to spread the word of the Holocaust.

When AK Home Army Intelligence discovered the true fate of transports leaving the Jewish Ghetto, the council to Aid Jews - Rada Pomocy Żydom (codename ) - was established in late 1942 in co-operation with church groups. The organization saved thousands. Emphasis was placed on protecting children, as it was nearly impossible to intervene directly against the heavily guarded transports. False papers were prepared, and children were distributed among safe houses and church networks. Two women founded the movement: the Catholic writer and activist Zofia Kossak-Szczucka and the socialist Wanda Filipowicz. Some of its members had been involved in Polish nationalist movements, which were themselves anti-Jewish, but which became appalled by the barbarity of the Nazi mass murders. In an emotional protest prior to the foundation of the council, Kossak wrote that Hitler's race murders were a crime about which it was not possible to remain silent. While Polish Catholics might still feel Jews were "enemies of Poland", Kossak wrote that protest was required: "God requires this protest from us... It is required of a Catholic conscience... The blood of the innocent calls for vengeance to the heavens."

In the 1948-49 Zegota Case, the Stalin-backed regime established in Poland after the war secretly tried and imprisoned the leading survivors of Zegota as part of a campaign to eliminate and besmirch resistance heroes who might threaten the new regime.

Jews were aided also by diplomats outside Poland. The Ładoś Group was a group of Polish diplomats and Jewish activists who created in Switzerland a system of illegal production of Latin American passports aimed at saving European Jews from the Holocaust. About 10,000 Jews received such passports, of whom over 3,000 have been saved. The group efforts are documented in the Eiss Archive. Jews were also helped by Henryk Sławik, in Hungary, who helped save over 30,000 Polish refugees, including 5,000 Polish Jews by giving them false Polish passports with a Catholic designation, and by Tadeusz Romer in Japan.

The Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture writes "One cannot forget the repeated initiatives of the head of the Greek Christian Orthodox Metropolitan See of Thessaloniki, Gennadios, against the deportations, and most of all, the official letter of protest signed in Athens on March 23, 1943, by Archbishop Damaskinos of the Greek Orthodox Church, along with 27 prominent leaders of cultural, academic and professional organizations. The document, written in a very sharp language, refers to unbreakable bonds between Christian Orthodox and Jews, identifying them jointly as Greeks, without differentiation. It is noteworthy that such a document is unique in the whole of occupied Europe, in character, content and purpose".

The 275 Jews of the island of Zakynthos, however, survived the Holocaust. When the island's mayor, Loukas Karrer (Λουκάς Καρρέρ), was presented with the German order to hand over a list of Jews, Bishop Chrysostomos returned to the amazed Germans with a list of two names; his and the mayor's. Moreover, the Bishop wrote a letter to Hitler himself stating that the Jews of the island were under his supervision. In the meantime the island's population hid every member of the Jewish community. When the island was almost levelled by the great earthquake of 1953, the first relief came from the state of Israel, with a message that read "The Jews of Zakynthos have never forgotten their Mayor or their beloved Bishop and what they did for us."

The Jewish community of Volos, one of the most ancient in Greece, had fewer losses than any other Jewish community in Greece thanks to the timely and dynamic intervention and mobilization of the massive communist-leftist partisan movement of EAM-ELAS ( National Liberation Front (Greece) - Greek People's Liberation Army) and the successful cooperation of the head of the Greek Christian Orthodox Metropolitan See of Demetrias Joachim and the chief rabbi of Volos, Moses Pesach for the evacuation of Volos from the Jewish people, after the events in Thessaloniki (displacement of the city's Jews to concentration camps).

Princess Alice of Battenberg and Greece, who was the wife of Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark and the mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and mother-in-law of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, stayed in occupied Athens during the Second World War, sheltering Jewish refugees, for which she is recognized as " Righteous Among the Nations" at Yad Vashem. Although the Germans and Bulgarians deported a great number of Greek Jews, others were successfully hidden by their Greek neighbors.

82-year-old Simon Danieli traveled from Israel to his birthplace in Veria to thank the descendants of the people who helped him and his family escape Nazi persecution during World War II. Danieli was 13 in 1942 when his family-father Joseph, a grain merchant, mother Buena, and nine siblings-fled Veria to escape the increasingly frequent atrocities committed by Nazi forces against the city's Jews. They ended up in a small nearby village in Sykies, where the family was taken in by Giorgos and Panayiota Lanara, who offered them shelter, food and a hiding place in the woods, helped also by a priest, Nestoras Karamitsopoulos. The Nazis, however, soon stormed Sykies, where around 50 more Jews from Veria had also taken refuge. They questioned the priest about the whereabouts of the Jews, but when Karamitsopoulos refused to answer, they began raiding people's homes. They found Jews hidden in eight homes, and promptly set fire the houses. They also turned their wrath on the priest, torturing him and pulling out his beard, according to Danieli.

Père Marie-Benoît was a French Capuchin priest who helped smuggle approximately 4,000 Jews into safety from Nazi-occupied Southern France and subsequently was recognized by Yad Vashem as a Righteous among the Nations in 1966. The French town of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon sheltered several thousand Jews. The Brazilian diplomat Luis Martins de Souza Dantas illegally issued Brazilian diplomatic visas to hundreds of Jews in France during the Vichy Government, saving them from almost certain death. Si Kaddour Benghabrit, the religious head of the Islamic Center of France, helped more than a thousand Jews by providing forged identity papers to the Jews of Paris during the German occupation of France. He also managed to hide many Jewish families in the rooms of Paris Mosque as well as in the residencies and women's prayer areas.

In April 1943, members of the Belgian resistance held up the twentieth convoy train to Auschwitz, and freed 231 people. Several local governments did all they could to slow down or block the registration processes for Jews they were obliged to perform by the Nazis. Many people saved children by hiding them away in private houses and boarding schools. Of the approximately 50,000 Jews in Belgium in 1940, about 25,000 were deported-though only about 1,250 survived. Marie and Emile Taquet sheltered Jewish boys in a residential school or home. The Reverend Bruno Reynders was a Catholic Belgian Monk who defied the Nazis, as he implemented the directive of Pope Pius XII to save the Jews, worked with local orphanages, Catholic Nuns and the Belgian Underground to forge false identities for Jewish children whose parents willingly gave them up in an attempt to spare their lives faced with deportation to the death camps. Pere Bruno risked his life for his values and to save the lives of an estimated 400 Jewish children and is honored as a Righteous Gentile at Yad Vashem.

L'abbé Joseph André is another Catholic priest who secured safe hiding places with Belgian families, orphanages and other institutions for Jewish children and adults.

The Jewish community in Denmark remained relatively unaffected by Germany's occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940. The Germans allowed the Danish government to remain in office and this cabinet rejected the notion that any "Jewish question" should exist in Denmark. No legislation was passed against Jews and the yellow badge was not introduced in Denmark. In August 1943, this situation was about to collapse as the Danish government refused to introduce the death penalty as demanded by the Germans following a series of strikes and popular protests. The German empire forced the Danish government to shut down. During these events, German diplomat Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz tipped off Danish politician Hans Hedtoft that the Danish Jews would be deported to Germany following the collapse of the Danish government. Hedtoft alerted the Danish resistance and the Jewish leader C.B. Henriques informed the acting Chief Rabbi Marcus Melchior in the absence of the Chief Rabbi Max Friediger who had already been arrested as a hostage on 29 August 1943, urging the community to go into hiding in service on 29 September 1943. During the following weeks, more than 7,200 of Denmark's 8,000 strong Jewish communities were ferried to neutral Sweden hidden in fishing boats. A small number of Jews, some 450 in all, were captured by the Germans and shipped to Theresienstadt. Danish officials were able to ensure that these prisoners weren't shipped to extermination camps, and Danish Red Cross inspections and food packages ensured focus on the Danish Jews. Swedish Count Folke Bernadotte ensured their release and transport to Denmark in the final days of the war.

Netherlands

Based on its 1940 population of 9 million the 5,516 Jews rescued in the Netherlands represents the largest per capita number: 1 in 1,700 Dutch was awarded the Righteous Among the Nations medal. Notable rescuers include:

Willem Arondeus, Dutch artist and resistance fighter who helped forge documents allowing Jewish families to flee the country

Gertruida Wijsmuller-Meijer, who helped save about 10,000 Jewish children from Germany and Austria just before the outbreak of the war (Kindertransport) and on the last transport ship leaving the Netherlands to the UK in May 1940.

Jan Zwartendijk, who as a Dutch consular representative in Kaunas, Lithuania, issued exit visas used by between 6,000 and to 10,000 Jewish refugees.

Those who hid and helped Anne Frank and her family, like Miep Gies.

Marion van Binsbergen helped save approximately 150 Dutch Jews, most of them children, throughout the German occupation of the Netherlands.

Jan van Hulst (18 December 1903 - 1 August 1975), instrumental in preventing Jews from being deported and murdered during the Holocaust.

The participants of the so-called "Amsterdam dock strike" (better known as the February strike, about 300,000 to 500,000 people who on 25 and 26 February 1941 took part in the first strike against persecution of the Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe).

The village of Nieuwlande (117 inhabitants) that set up a quota for residents to rescue Jews.

After the Invasion of Yugoslavia, the country was occupied by Germany and some regions were occupied by Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria and Albania. A joint German-Italian puppet state called Independent State of Croatia was installed. After a bombing campaign on major Serbian cities, a German puppet regime Nedić's Serbia led by Milan Nedić was installed. In collaboration with the German Army, Serbian Chetnik collaborators along with the Serbian Volunteer Corps as well as the Serbian State Guard assisted in the persecution of Jews in Serbia proper, in Hungarian-occupied Vojvodina region, and in the territory held by the Croatian Ustashas. Serbian Jews who were not transported to concentration camps in Germany were either murdered in Nazi concentration camps within Serbia ( Sajmište and Banjica), Banjica being jointly controlled by Nedic's Government and the German Army, or transported to Ustasha-controlled concentration camp Jasenovac and murdered there. Jews living in Hungarian-occupied regions faced mass executions, the most notorious being the Novi Sad raid in 1942.

Serbian civilians were involved in saving thousands of Yugoslavian Jews during this period. Miriam Steiner-Aviezer, a researcher into Yugoslavian Jewry and a member of Yad Vashem's Righteous Gentiles committee states: "The Serbs saved many Jews. Contrary to their present image in the world, the Serbs are a friendly, loyal people who will not abandon their neighbors." As of 2017 Yad Vashem recognizes 135 Serbians as Righteous Among Nations, the highest of any Balkan country.

Bulgaria joined the Axis powers in March 1941 and took part in the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece. The Nazi-allied government of Bulgaria, led by Bogdan Filov, fully and actively assisted in the Holocaust in occupied areas. On Passover 1943, Bulgaria rounded up the great majority of Jews in Greece and Yugoslavia, transported them through Bulgaria, and handed them off to German transport to Treblinka, where almost all were murdered. The Nazi-allied government of Bulgaria deported a higher percentage of Jews (from the areas of Greece and the Republic of Macedonia) than did the German occupiers in the region. In Bulgarian-occupied Greece, the Bulgarian authorities arrested the majority of the Jewish population on Passover 1943. The territories of Greece, Macedonia and other nations occupied by Bulgaria during World War II were not considered Bulgarian-they were only administered by Bulgaria, but Bulgaria had no say as to the affairs of these lands.

The active participation of Bulgaria in the Holocaust however did not extend to its pre-war territory and after various protests by Archbishop Stefan of Sofia and the interference of Dimitar Peshev, the planned deportation of the Bulgarian Jews (about 50,000) was stopped. Deportation to the concentration camps was denied. Bulgaria was officially thanked by the government of Israel despite being an ally of Nazi Germany.

Dimitar Peshev was the Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Bulgaria and Minister of Justice during World War II. He rebelled against the pro-Nazi cabinet and prevented the deportation of Bulgaria's 48 000 Jews. He was aided by the strong opposition of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Although Peshev had been involved in various anti-Semitic legislation that was passed in Bulgaria during the early years of the War, the government's decision to deport Bulgaria's 48 000 Jews on 8 March 1943 was too much for Peshev. After being informed of the deportation, Peshev tried several times to see Prime Minister Bogdan Filov but the prime minister refused. Next, he went to see Interior Minister Petar Gabrovski insisting that he cancel the deportations. After much persuasion, Gabrovski finally called the governor of Kyustendil and instructed him to stop preparations for the Jewish deportations. By 5:30 p.m. on 9 March, the order was cancelled. After the war, Peshev was charged with anti-Semitism and anti-Communism by the Soviet courts, and sentenced to death. However, after an outcry from the Jewish community, his sentence was commuted to 15 years imprisonment, though released after just one year. His deeds went unrecognized after the war, as he lived in poverty in Bulgaria. It was not until 1973 that he was awarded the title of Righteous Among the Nations. He died the same year.

Historians have estimated that up to one million refugees fled from the Nazis through Portugal during World War II, an impressive number considering the size of the country's population at that time (circa 6 million). Portugal remained neutral within the overall objectives of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance; and that astute policy under precarious conditions, made it possible for Portugal to contribute to the rescue of a large number of refugees. Portuguese Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar allowed all international Jewish organizations-HIAS, HICEM, the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, World Jewish Congress, and Portuguese Jewish relief committees-to establish themselves in Lisbon. In 1944, in Hungary, risking their lives, the diplomats Carlos Sampaio Garrido and Carlos de Liz-Texeira Branquinho, coordinating with Salazar, also helped many Jews escape Nazis and their Hungarian allies. In June 1940, when Germany invaded France, Portuguese consul in Bordeaux, Aristides de Sousa Mendes issued visas, indiscriminately, to a population in panic, without asking previous authorizations from Lisbon, as he was supposed to. On 20 June, the British Embassy in Lisbon accused the Consul in Bordeaux of improperly charging money for issuing visas and Sousa Mendes was called to Lisbon. The number of visas issued by Sousa Mendes cannot be determined; a 1999 study by the Yad Vashem historian Dr. Avraham Milgram published by the Shoah Resource Center, International School for Holocaust Studies, asserts that there is a great difference between reality and the myth created by the generally cited numbers. Sousa Mendes never lost his title as he kept on being listed in the Portuguese Diplomatic Yearbook until 1954 and kept on receiving his full Consul salary, $1,593 Portuguese Escudos, until the day he died. Other Portuguese credited for saving Jews during the war are Professor Francisco Paula Leite Pinto and Moisés Bensabat Amzalak. A devoted Jew, and a Salazar supporter, Amzalak headed the Lisbon Jewish community for more than fifty years (from 1926 until 1978). Leite Pinto, General Manager of the Portuguese railways, together with Amzalak, organized several trains, coming from Berlin and other cities, loaded with refugees.

In Franco's Spain, several diplomats contributed very actively to rescue Jews during the Holocaust. The two most prominent ones were Ángel Sanz Briz (the Angel of Budapest), who saved around five thousand Hungarian Jews by providing them Spanish passports, and Eduardo Propper de Callejón, who helped thousands of Jews to escape from France to Spain. Other diplomats with a relevant role were Bernardo Rolland de Miota (consul of Spain at Paris), José Rojas Moreno (Ambassador at Bucharest), Miguel Ángel de Muguiro (diplomat at the Embassy in Budapest), Sebastián Romero Radigales (Consul at Athens), Julio Palencia Tubau, (diplomat at the Embassy in Sofía), Juan Schwartz Díaz-Flores (Consul at Vienna) and José Ruiz Santaella (diplomat at the Embassy in Berlin).

According to the data available at Yad Vashem, by 1 January 2019, 904 rescuers of Jews in Lithuania were identified, whereas in the catalogue compiled by the Vilna Gaon State Jewish Museum, 2300 Lithuanians who rescued Jews are indicated, among them 159 members of clergy.

The Republic of Lithuania following the occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in September 1939, accepted and accommodated in the country numbers of Polish and Jewish refugees as well as soldiers of defeated Polish army. Part of these refugees were later saved from the Soviets (and eventually from Nazis) by Japanese consul-general Chiune Sugihara and director of Philips plants in Lithuania and part-time acting consul of Netherlands Jan Zwartendijk after the occupation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union on June 15, 1940.

Chiune Sempo Sugihara, Japanese Consul-General in Kaunas, Lithuania, 1939-1940, issued thousands of visas to Jews fleeing Kaunas after occupation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union in defiance of explicit orders from the Japanese foreign ministry. The last foreign diplomat to leave Kaunas, Sugihara continued stamping visas from the open window of his departing train. After the war, Sugihara was fired from the Japanese foreign service, ostensibly due to downsizing.

As well as in other countries rescuers from Lithuania came from different layers of society. The most iconic figures are librarian Ona Šimaitė, doctor Petras Baublys, writer Kazys Binkis and his wife journalist Sofija Binkienė, musician Vladas Varčikas, writer and translator Danutė Zubovienė (Čiurlionytė) and her husband Vladimiras Zubovas, doctor Elena Kutorgienė, aviator Vladas Drupas, doctor Pranas Mažylis, Catholic priest Juozapas Stakauskas, teacher Vladas Žemaitis, Catholic nun Maria Mikulska and others. In Šarnelė village (Plungė district) Straupiai family (Jonas and Bronislava Straupiai together with their neighbours Adolfina and Juozas Karpauskai) saved 26 people (9 families).

Citizens of Lithuania and foreign countries who rescue people on the territory of Lithuania and citizens of Lithuania abroad are awarded Life Saving Crosses. The President of Lithuania honors Jewish rescuers every year on the occasion of the National Memorial Day for the Genocide of Lithuanian Jews, which is marked on September 23 to commemorate the liquidation of the Vilna Ghetto on that day in 1943.

Unlike many other Eastern European countries under Nazi occupation, Albania-which has a mixed Muslim and Christian population and a tradition of tolerance-became a safe haven for Jews. At the end of 1938, Albania was the only remaining country in Europe that still issued visas to Jews through its embassy in Berlin. Following the Nazi occupation of Albania, the country refused to hand over its small Jewish population to the Germans, sometimes even providing Jewish families with forged documents. During the war, about 2,000 Jews sought refuge in Albania, and many of them took shelter in rural parts of the country where they were protected by the local population. At the end of the war, Albania's Jewish population was greater than it was prior to the war, making it the only country in Europe where the Jewish population increased during World War II. Out of two thousand Jews in total, only five Albanian Jews perished at the hands of the Nazis. They were discovered by the Germans and subsequently deported to Pristina.

Between February and March in 1939, King Zog I of Albania granted asylum to 300 Jewish refugees before being overthrown by the Italian fascists in April the same year. When the Italians requisitioned the Albanian puppet government to expel its Jewish refugees, the Albanian leaders refused, and in the following years, 400 more Jewish refugees found sanctuary in Albania.

Refik Veseli was the first Albanian to be awarded the title Righteous Among the Nations, having declared afterwards that betraying the Jews "would have disgraced his village and his family. At minimum his home would be destroyed and his family banished". On 21 July 1992, Mihal Lekatari, an Albanian partisan from Kavajë, was recognized as Righteous Among the Nations. Lekatari is noted for stealing blank identity papers from the municipality of Harizaj and distributing identity papers with Muslim names on them to Jewish refugees. In 1997, Albanian Shyqyri Myrto was honored for rescuing Jews, with the Anti-Defamation League's Courage to Care Award presented to his son, Arian Myrto. In 2006, a plaque honoring the compassion and courage of Albania during the Holocaust was dedicated in The Holocaust Memorial Park in Sheepshead Bay in Brooklyn, New York, with the Albanian ambassador to the United Nations in attendance.

During the war, some parts of Kosovo and Macedonia which were occupied by the Axis powers were annexed to Albania, and an estimated 600 Jews were captured in these territories, and consequently killed.

The government of Finland generally refused to deport Finnish Jews to Germany. It has been said that Finnish government officials told German envoys that "Finland has no Jewish Problem". However, the Secret Police ValPo deported 8 Jews in 1942 who were refugees seeking asylum in Finland. Moreover, it seems highly likely that Finland deported Soviet POWs, among them a number of Jews. The majority of Finnish Jews, however, were protected by the government's co-belligerence with Germany. Their men joined the Finnish army and fought on the front.

The most notable Finnish individual involved in aiding the Jews was Algoth Niska (1888-1954). Niska was a smuggler during the Finnish prohibition but had run into financial troubles after its end in 1932, so when Albert Amtmann, an Austrian-Jewish acquaintance, expressed his concerns over his people's position in Europe, Niska quickly saw a business opportunity in smuggling Jews out of Germany. The modus operandi was quickly established. Niska would forge Finnish passports and Amtmann would acquire the customers, who with their new passports would be able to cross the border out of Germany. All in all, Niska falsified passports for 48 Jews during 1938 and earned 2,5 million Finnish marks ($890,000 or £600,000 in today's money) selling them. Only three of the Jews are known to have survived the Holocaust while twenty were certainly caught. The fates of the other twenty-five are not known. Involved in the operation with Niska and Amtmann were Major Rafael Johannes Kajander, Axel Belewicz and Belewicz's girlfriend Kerttu Ollikainen whose job was to steal the forms on which the passports were forged.

Despite Benito Mussolini's close alliance with Hitler, Italy did not adopt Nazism's genocidal ideology towards the Jews. The Nazis were frustrated by the Italian forces' refusal to co-operate in the roundups of Jews, and no Jews were deported from Italy prior to the Nazi occupation of the country following the Italian capitulation in September 1943. In Italian-occupied Croatia, the Nazi envoy Siegfried Kasche advised Berlin that Italian forces had "apparently been influenced" by Vatican opposition to German anti-Semitism. As anti-Axis feeling grew in Italy, the use of Vatican Radio to broadcast papal disapproval of race murder and anti-Semitism angered the Nazis. Mussolini was overthrown in July 1943, and the Nazis moved to occupy Italy, commencing a round-up of Jews. Although thousands were caught, the great majority of Italy's Jews were saved. As in other nations, Catholic networks were heavily engaged in rescue efforts.

In Fiume (northern Italy, today Croatian Rijeka), Giovanni Palatucci, after the promulgation of racial laws against Jews in 1938 and at the beginning of war in 1940, as chief of the Foreigners' Office, forged documents and visas to Jews threatened by deportation. He managed to destroy all documented records of some 5,000 Jewish refugees living in Fiume, issuing them false papers and providing them with funds. Palatucci then sent the refugees to a large internment camp in southern Italy protected by his uncle, Giuseppe Maria Palatucci, the Catholic Bishop of Campagna. Following the 1943 capitulation of Italy, Fiume was occupied by the Nazis. Palatucci remained as head of the police administration without real powers. He continued to clandestinely help Jews and maintain contact with the Resistance, until his activities were discovered by the Gestapo. The Swiss Consul to Trieste, a close friend of his, offered him a safe pass to Switzerland, but Giovanni Palatucci sent his young Jewish fiancée instead. Palatucci was arrested on 13 September 1944. He was condemned to death, but the sentence was later commuted to deportation to Dachau, where he died.

On 19 July 1944, the Gestapo rounded up the nearly 2000 Jewish inhabitants of the island of Rhodes, which had been governed by Italy since 1912. Of the approximately 2,000 Rhodesli Jews who were deported to Auschwitz and elsewhere, only 104 survived.

Giorgio Perlasca, who posed as the consul-general of Spain under the Spanish ambassador in Budapest, was able to put under his protection thousands of Jews and non-Jews destined to concentration camps.

Martin Gilbert wrote that, in October 1943, with the SS occupying Rome and determined to deport the city's 5000 Jews, the Vatican clergy had opened the sanctuaries of the Vatican to all "non-Aryans" in need of rescue in an attempt to forestall the deportation. "Catholic clergy in the city acted with alacrity", wrote Gilbert. "At the Capuchin convent on the Via Siciliano, Father Benoit saved a large number of Jews by providing them with false identification papers [...] by the morning of October 16, a total of 4,238 Jews had been given sanctuary in the many monasteries and convents of Rome. A further 477 Jews had been given shelter in the Vatican and its enclaves." Gilbert credited the rapid rescue efforts of the Church with saving over four-fifths of Roman Jews.

Other Righteous Catholic rescuers in Italy included Elisabeth Hesselblad. She and two British women, Mother Riccarda Beauchamp Hambrough and Sister Katherine Flanagan have been beatified for reviving the Swedish Bridgettine Order of nuns and hiding scores of Jewish families in their convent. The churches, monasteries and convents of Assisi formed the Assisi Network and served as a safe haven for Jews. Gilbert credits the network established by Bishop Giuseppe Placido Nicolini and Abbott Rufino Niccaci of the Franciscan Monastery, with saving 300 people. Other Italian clerics honored by Yad Vashem include the theology professor Fr Giuseppe Girotti of Dominican Seminary of Turin, who saved many Jews before being arrested and sent to Dachau where he died in 1945; Fr Arrigo Beccari who protected around 100 Jewish children in his seminary and among local farmers in the village of Nonantola in Central Italy; and Don Gaetano Tantalo, a parish priest who sheltered a large Jewish family. Of Italy's 44,500 Jews, some 7,680 were murdered in the Nazi Holocaust.

Vatican City State

In the 1930s, Pope Pius XI urged Mussolini to ask Hitler to restrain the anti-Semitic actions taking place in Germany. In 1937, the Pope issued the Mit brennender Sorge ( German: "With burning concern") encyclical, in which he asserted the inviolability of human rights.

Pope Pius XII succeeded Pius XI on the eve of war in 1939. He used diplomacy to aid the victims of the Holocaust, and directed the Church to provide discreet aid. His encyclicals such as Summi Pontificatus and Mystici corporis preached against racism-with specific reference to Jews: "there is neither Gentile nor Jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision". His 1942 Christmas radio address denounced the murder of "hundreds of thousands" of "faultless" people because of their "nationality or race". The Nazis were furious and The Reich Security Main Office, responsible for the deportation of Jews, called him the "mouthpiece of the Jewish war criminals". Pius XII intervened to attempt to block Nazi deportations of Jews in various countries.

Following the capitulation of Italy, Nazi deportations of Jews to death camps began. Pius XII protested at diplomatic levels, while several thousand Jews found refuge in Catholic networks. On 27 June 1943, Vatican Radio broadcast a papal injunction: "He who makes a distinction between Jews and other men is being unfaithful to God and is in conflict with God's commands".

When the Nazis came to Rome in search of Jews, the Pope had already days earlier ordered the sanctuaries of the Vatican City be opened to all "non-Aryans" in need of refuge and according to Martin Gilbert, by the morning of 16 October, "a total of 477 Jews had been given shelter in the Vatican and its enclaves, while another 4,238 had been given sanctuary in the many monasteries and convents of in Rome. Only 1,015 of Rome's 6,730 Jews were seized that morning". Upon receiving news of the roundups on the morning of 16 October, the Pope immediately instructed Cardinal Secretary of State Maglione, to make a protest to the German ambassador. After the meeting, the ambassador gave orders for a halt to the arrests. Earlier, the Pope had helped the Jews of Rome by offering gold towards the 50 kg ransom demanded by the Nazis.

Other noted rescuers assisted by Pius were Pietro Palazzini Giovanni Ferrofino, Giovanni Palatucci, Pierre-Marie Benoit and others. When Archbishop Giovanni Montini (later Pope Paul VI) was offered an award for his rescue work by Israel, he said he had only been acting on the orders of Pius XII.

Pius' diplomatic representatives lobbied on behalf of Jews across Europe, including in Vichy France, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia and Slovakia, Germany itself and elsewhere. Many papal nuncios played important roles in the rescue of Jews, among them Giuseppe Burzio, the Vatican Chargé d'Affaires in Slovakia; Filippo Bernardini, Nuncio to Switzerland; and Angelo Roncalli, the Nuncio to Turkey. Angelo Rotta, the wartime Nuncio to Budapest and Andrea Cassulo, the Nuncio to Bucharest have been recognized as Righteous Among the Nations.

Pius directly protested the deportations of Slovakian Jews to the Bratislava government from 1942. He made a direct intervention in Hungary to lobby for an end to Jewish deportations in 1944, and on 4 July, the Hungarian leader, Admiral Horthy, told Berlin that deportations of Jews must cease, citing protests by the Vatican, the King of Sweden and the Red Cross. The pro-Nazi, anti-Semitic Arrow Cross Party seized power in October, and a campaign of murder of the Jews commenced. The neutral powers led a major rescue effort and Pius' representative, Angelo Rotta, took the lead in establishing an "international Ghetto", marked by the emblems of the Swiss, Swedish, Portuguese, Spanish and Vatican legations, and providing shelter for some 25,000 Jews.

In Rome, some 4,000 Italian Jews and escaped prisoners of war avoided deportation, many of them hidden in safe houses or evacuated from Italy by a resistance group organized by the Irish-born priest and Vatican official Hugh O'Flaherty. Msgr. O'Flaherty used his political connections to help secure sanctuary for dispossessed Jews. The wife of the Irish ambassador, Delia Murphy, assisted him.

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Ho Feng Shan - Chinese Consul in Vienna started to issue visas to Jews for Shanghai, part of which during this time was still under the control of the Republic of China, for humanitarian reasons. Between 1933 and 1941, the Chinese city of Shanghai under Japanese occupation, accepted unconditionally over 18,000 Jewish refugees escaping the Holocaust in Europe, a number greater than those taken in by Canada, New Zealand, South Africa and British India combined during World War II. After 1943, the occupying Nazi-aligned Japanese ghettoised the Jewish refugees in Shanghai into an area known as the Shanghai ghetto. Many of the Jewish refugees in Shanghai migrated to the United States and Israel after 1948 due to the Chinese Civil War (1946-1950).

The Japanese government ensured Jewish safety in China, Japan and Manchuria. Japanese Army General Hideki Tōjō received Jewish refugees in accordance with Japanese national policy and rejected German protest. Chiune Sugihara, Kiichiro Higuchi, and Fumimaro Konoe helped thousands of Jews escape the Holocaust from occupied Europe.

Between 1938 and 1941, around 20,000 Jews were given visas for Bolivia under an agricultural visa program. Although most moved on to the neighboring countries of Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, some stayed and created a Jewish Community in Bolivia.

The Philippines

In a notable humanitarian act, Manuel L. Quezon, the first Commonwealth of the Philippines, in cooperation with United States High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt, facilitated the entry into the Philippines of Jewish refugees fleeing fascist regimes in Europe, while taking on critics who were convinced by fascist propaganda that Jewish settlement is a threat to the country. Quezon and McNutt proposed to have 30,000 refugee families on Mindanao, and 40,000-50,000 refugees on Polillo. Quezon gave, as a 10-year loan to Manila's Jewish Refugee Committee, land beside Quezon's family home in Marikina. The land would house homeless refugees in Marikina Hall, dedicated on 23 April 1940.

Leaders and diplomats

The Most Illustrious duke Roberto de Castro Brandão - Brazilian diplomat and nobleman who issued diplomatic visas and passports to Jews in Marseilles, France. He was later deported, along with his daughter Maria-Theresa marchioness Siciliano di Rende and later Lady Pretyman, née de Castro Brandão, and his son, Brazilian Ambassador, current duke Guy Marie de Castro Brandão, as a diplomatic prisoner in the Rheinhotel Dreesen in Bad Godesberg where Hitler used to go regularly. He stayed there until the end of the war and was exchanged with German soldiers imprisoned by the Allies.

Count Folke Bernadotte of Wisborg - Swedish diplomat, who negotiated the release of 27,000 people (a significant number of whom were Jews) to hospitals in Sweden.

Hiram Bingham IV - American Vice Consul in Marseilles, France, 1940-1941.

José Castellanos Contreras - a Salvadorean army colonel and diplomat who, while working as El Salvador's Consul General in Geneva from 1942 to 1945, and in conjunction with George Mantello, helped save at least 13,000 Central European Jews from Nazi persecution by providing them with false papers of Salvadorean nationality.

Harald Edelstam - Swedish diplomat in Norway who helped to protect and smuggle hundreds of Jews and Norwegian resistance fighters to Sweden.

Rafael Leónidas Trujillo - the Dominican dictator promised to receive 100,000 Jewish refugees into the Dominican Republic in 1938 when Franklin D. Roosevelt organized an international conference in Evian to discuss the persecution of the Jews. Dominican Republic was the only nation accepting Jews immigrants after the conference. The DORSA (Dominican Republic Settlement Association) was formed to settle Jews on the northern coast. 5,000 visas were issued, but only 645 European Jews reached the settlement. The refugees were assigned land and cattle and the town of Sosúa was founded. 5000 dollars in gold from Jewish International in New York were paid for each person taken by the Trujillo. Other refugees settled in the capital Santo Domingo.

Wilm Hosenfeld - German officer who helped pianist Wladyslaw Szpilman, a Polish Jew, among many others.

Seishirō Itagaki - Japanese Army Minister who proposed and adopted a Japanese national policy to receive Jewish refugees.

Lyndon B. Johnson - Future President of the United States who, as a member of the United States House of Representatives in 1938, helped Austrian conductor Erich Leinsdorf gain permanent residency in the United States. Johnson later helped Jews enter the U.S. through Latin America and become workers on National Youth Administration projects in Texas.

Fumimaro Konoe - Japanese Prime Minister who adopted a Japanese national policy to receive Jewish refugees.

Zofia Kossak-Szczucka - Polish founder of Zegota.

Hillel Kook (aka Peter Bergson) established a US-based rescue group, which had considerable support in the Congress and Senate. The group's activism was the major factor forcing President Roosevelt to establish the War Refugee Board in January 1944. One of the WRB's important actions was initiation and sponsoring of the Wallenberg mission to Budapest.

George Mantello (b. Mandl Gyorgy) - El Salvador's honorary consul for Hungary, Romania, and Czechoslovakia - provided Salvadoran protection papers for thousands of Jews. He spearheaded an unprecedented Swiss grassroots protests and press campaign. It led to Roosevelt, Churchill and other world leaders threatening Hungary's ruler, regent Miklos Horthy, with post-war retribution if the transports did not stop. That ended the deportation of Jews from Hungary to Auschwitz.

Boris III of Bulgaria - King of Bulgaria from 1918 to 1943 Resisted demands from Hitler to deport the Jews resulting in all 50,000 being spared, Boris died in 1943 after meeting with Hitler.

Paul V. McNutt - United States High Commissioner of the Philippines, 1937-1939, who facilitated the entry of Jewish refugees into the Philippines.

Delia Murphy - wife of Dr. Thomas J. Kiernan, Irish minister in Rome 1941-1946, who worked with Hugh O'Flaherty and was part of the network that saved the lives of POWs and Jews in the hands of the Gestapo.

Jean-Marie Musy toward end of the war negotiated with Himmler on behalf of Recha Sternbuch - to rescue large numbers of Jews in the concentration camps

Giovanni Palatucci - Italian police official who saved several thousand.

Dimitar Peshev - Deputy Speaker of the Bulgarian Parliament, played a major role in rescuing Bulgaria's 48 000 Jews, the entire Jewish population in Bulgaria at the time.

Frits Philips - Dutch industrialist who saved 382 Jews by insisting to the Nazis that they were indispensable employees of Philips.

Witold Pilecki - the only person who volunteered to be imprisoned in Auschwitz, organized a resistance inside the camp and as a member of Armia Krajowa sent the first reports on the camp atrocities to the Polish Government in Exile, from where they were passed to the rest of the Western Allies.

Karl Plagge - a major in the Wehrmacht Heer who issued work permits in order to save almost 1,000 Jews (see The Search for Major Plagge: The Nazi Who Saved Jews, by Michael Good)

Enver Hoxha - Led the Resistance against the German and Italians in Albania. Hoxha refused that the Germans or collaborationists deport a single Jew, therefore Albania was the only country in Europe to have an increased Jewish population after the war.

Mehmet Shehu - a resistance fighter in Albania who allowed Jews to enter Albania, and refused to hand the Jews over to The Germans, during the occupation

Eduardo Propper de Callejón - First Secretary in the Spanish embassy in Paris who stamped and signed passports almost non-stop for four days in 1940 to let Jewish refugees escape to Spain and Portugal.

Manuel L. Quezon - President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, 1935-1941, assisted in resettling Jewish refugees on the island of Mindanao.

Florencio Rivas - Consul General of Uruguay in Germany, who allegedly hid one hundred and fifty Jews during Kristallnacht and later provided them with passports.

Gilberto Bosques Saldívar - General Consul of Mexico in Marseilles, France. For two years, he issued Mexican visas to around 40,000 Jews, Spaniards and political refugees, allowing them to escape to Mexico and other countries. He was imprisoned by the Nazis in 1943 and released to Mexico in 1944.

Oskar Schindler - German businessman whose efforts to save his 1,200 Jewish workers were recounted in the book Schindler's Ark and the film Schindler's List.

Rabbi Solomon Schonfeld set up a Uk-based rescue committee and rescued many thousands of Jews.

Eduard Schulte - German industrialist, the first to inform the Allies about the mass extermination of Jews.

Ho Feng Shan - Chinese Consul in Vienna who freely issued visas to Jews.

Henryk Slawik - Polish diplomat who saved 5,000-10,000 people in Budapest, Hungary.

Aristides de Sousa Mendes - Portuguese diplomat in Bordeaux, who signed about 30,000 visas to help Jews and persecuted minorities to escape the Nazis and The Holocaust.

Recha Sternbuch rescued large numbers of Jews with the help of her husband Yitzchak by smuggling them into Switzerland from Austria, by distributing protection papers, by negotiating with Himmler with help of Jean-Marie Musy to save Jews in the concentration camps as the Germans were retreating, and by rescuing the Jews who arrived to Bergen-Belsen by train from Hungary.

Chiune Sugihara - Japanese consul to Lithuania, 2,140 (mostly Polish) Jews and an unknown number of additional family members were saved by passports, many unauthorized, provided by him in 1940.

Hideki Tōjō - General and Prime Minister of Japan who received Jewish refugees in Manchuria and rejected German protest.

Raoul Wallenberg - Swedish diplomat. Wallenberg saved the lives of tens of thousands of Jews condemned to certain death by the Nazis during World War II. In January 1945, Wallenberg was imprisoned at the headquarters of Rodion Malinovsky in Debrecen and disappeared. He is believed to have been poisoned in the Lubyanka Building by the NKVD torturer Grigory Mairanovsky.

Sir Nicholas Winton - British stockbroker who organized the Czech Kindertransport which sent 669 children (most of them Jewish) to foster parents ln England and Sweden from Czechoslovakia and Austria after Kristallnacht. Sir Nicholas was nominated for the 2008 Nobel Peace Prize.

Namik Kemal Yolga - A Vice-Consul at the Turkish Embassy in Paris who saved numerous Turkish Jews from deportation.

Raymond Geist - Consul General at the American embassy in Berlin. While he was posted in Berlin from 1929 to 1939 he personally intervened with Nazi officials to save those (German Jews as well as opponents of the Nazi regime), who were under the threat of being imprisoned in concentration camps and issued more than 50,000 visas to save their lives. According to the TV series Genius, he was the one who issued visas to Albert Einstein and his family even when he was under orders from J. Edgar Hoover, who was at that time the Director of the FBI to not to give the visas till Albert Einstein signed a declaration confirming that he was not a member of the Communist Party. He was awarded the Order of Merit by the German Federal Republic in 1954.

Religious figures

Catholic officials

Pope Pius XII, preached against racism in encyclicals like Summi Pontificatus. Used Vatican Radio to denounce race murders and anti-Semitism. Directly lobbied Axis officials to stop Jewish deportations. Opened the sanctuaries of the Vatican to Rome's Jews during the Nazi roundup.

Monsignor Hugh O'Flaherty CBE - Irish Catholic priest who saved more than 6,500 Allied soldiers and Jews; known as the "Scarlet Pimpernel of the Vatican". Retold in the film The Scarlet and the Black.

Giuseppe Burzio, the Vatican Chargé d'Affaires in Slovakia. Protested the anti-Semitism and totalitarianism of the Tiso regime. Burzio advised Rome of the deteriorating situation for Jews in the Nazi puppet state, sparking Vatican protests on behalf of Jews.

Andrea Cassulo, papal nuncio in Romania. Appealed directly to Marshall Antonescu to limit the deportations of Jews to Nazi concentration camps planned for the summer of 1942.

Archbishop Aloysius Stepinac of Zagreb, condemned Croat atrocities against both Serbs and Jews, and himself saved a group of Jews. He declared publicly in the Spring of 1942 that it was "forbidden to exterminate Gypsies and Jews because they are said to belong to an inferior race".

Angelo Rotta, papal nuncio to Hungary. Actively protested Hungary's mistreatment of the Jews, and helped persuade Pope Pius XII to lobby the Hungarian leader Admiral Horthy to stop their deportation. He issued protective passports for Jews and 15,000 safe conduct passes - the nunciature sheltered some 3000 Jews in safe houses. An "International Ghetto" was established, including more than 40 safe houses marked by the Vatican and other national emblems. 25,000 Jews found refuge in these safe houses. Elsewhere in the city, Catholic institutions hid several thousand more Jewish people.

Archbishop Johannes de Jong, later Cardinal, of Utrecht, Netherlands, who drew up together with Titus Brandsma O.Carm. († Dachau, 1942) a letter in which he called for all Catholics to assist persecuted Jews, and in which he openly condemned the Nazi German "deportation of our Jewish fellow citizens" (From: Herderlijk Schrijven, read from all pulpits on Sunday 26 January 1942).

Archbishop Jules-Géraud Saliège of Toulouse - lead a number of French bishops (including Monseigneur Théas, Bishop of Montauban, Monseigneur Delay, Bishop of Marseilles, Cardinal Gerlier, Archbishop of Lyon, Monseigneur Vansteenberghe of Bayonne and Monseigneur Moussaron, Archbishop of Albi - in denouncing roundups and mistreatment of Jews in France, spurring greater resistance.

Mother Matylda Getter's Franciscan Sisters of the Family of Mary sheltered Jewish children escaping the Warsaw Ghetto. Getter's convent rescued more than 750.

Sára Salkaházi - a Hungarian Roman Catholic nun who sheltered approximately 100 Jews in Budapest.

Margit Slachta, of the Hungarian Social Service Sisterhood, went to Rome to encourage papal action against the Jewish persecutions. In Hungary, she had sheltered the persecuted and protested forced labour and antisemitism. In 1944, Pius appealed directly to the Hungarian government to halt the deportation of the Jews of Hungary. The Sisters of Social Service, nuns who saved thousands of Hungarian Jews; included Sister Sara Salkahazi, recognized by Yad Vashem as well as beatified.

Dietrich Bonhoeffer - a German Lutheran pastor who joined the Abwehr (a German military intelligence organization) which was also the center of the anti-Hitler resistance, and was involved in operations to help German Jews escape to Switzerland. Arrested by the Nazis, he was hanged on 5 April 1945, not long before the war ended.

Metropolitan Bishop Chrysostomos of Zakynthos, who, when ordered by the Axis occupying forces to submit a list of all Jews on the island, submitted a document bearing just two names: his own and the mayor's. Consequently, all 275 Zante Jews were saved.

Omelyan Kovch - Ukrainian Greek Catholic priest who was deported to Majdanek for helping thousands of Jews. He was canonized by Pope John Paul II

Dimitar Peshev was the Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Bulgaria and Minister of Justice (1935-1936), before World War II. He rebelled against the pro-Nazi cabinet and prevented the deportation of Bulgaria's 48,000 Jews, and was bestowed the title of "Righteous Among the Nations".

Leopold Socha was a Polish sewage inspector in the city of Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine). During the Holocaust, Socha used his knowledge of the city's sewage system to shelter a group of Jews from Nazi Germans and their supporters of different nationalities. In 1978, he was recognized by the State of Israel as Righteous Among the Nations.

Maria Skobtsova - Russian Orthodox nun who ran a shelter for alcoholics, drug addicts and homeless people; the shelter was also open for refugees who had fled from the Soviet Union. During the first three years of the war she also took in several hundred Jewish people fearing persecution. She died in Ravensbrück concentration camp during the end of the war, after almost two years in the camp. Canonized by the Eastern Orthodox Church as a saint; she is also named a Righteous among the Nations by Yad Vashem

Quakers

The Religious Society of Friends, known as Quakers, from 1933 played a major role in assisting and saving Jews through their international network of centres (Berlin, Paris, Vienna) and organizations. In 1947, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the Friends Service Council and to the American Friends Service Committee. Also individual Friends did rescue work.

Elisabeth Abegg - On 23 May 1967, Yad Vashem recognized German Quaker Elisabeth Abegg as Righteous Among the Nations. She helped many Jewish people by offering them accommodation in her home or directing them to hiding places elsewhere.

Laura van den Hoek Ostende - On 29 September 1994, Yad Vashem recognized Dutch Quaker Laura van den Hoek Ostende-van Honk as Righteous Among the Nations for hiding Jews in Putten, Hilversum and Amsterdam.

Mary Elmes - On 23 January 2013, Yad Vashem recognized Irish Quaker Mary Elisabeth Elmes as Righteous Among the Nations for rescuing Jewish children in France.

Auguste Fuchs-Bucholz and Fritz Fuchs - On 11 August 2009, Yad Vashem recognized German Quakers Auguste Fuchs-Bucholz and Fritz Fuchs as Righteous Among the Nations.

Gilbert Lesage - On 14 January 1985, Yad Vashem recognized French Quaker Gilbert Lesage as Righteous Among the Nations.

Gertrud Luckner - On 15 February 1966, Yad Vashem recognized German Quaker Gertrud Luckner as Righteous Among the Nations.

Wijnberg, I., Hollaender, A., 'Er wacht nog een kind ..., De quakers Lili en Manfred Pollatz, huIlse Schwersensky-Zimmermann and n school en kinderte men, 2014, ISBN 97890-79700-67-7

Prominent individuals

Adolfo Kaminsky also spelled Adolphe Kaminsky, specialized in document forgery that assisted Jews escape Nazi Germany

Khaled Abdul-Wahab administrator of Mahdia, Tunisia, under German occupation; first Arab nominated for "Righteous Among the Nations"

Maria Leenderts and Petrus Johannes Jacobus Kleiss, Dutch merchants in her "Selecta Schoenenwinkel" (located at 248 Dierenselaan in Den Haag) with the cooperation of personnel of the "Quick Steps" soccer club (located on the corner of the Hardewijkstraat and the Nijkerklaan in Den Haag) and the pastor of the "Sint Thersia Van Het Kind Jesus Kerk" (located across the street from the Selecta shoe store and on the corner of the Apeldoornselaan and the Dierenselaan) accommodated many Jewish families throughout the war.

Gustav Schröder - German Captain of the Ocean liner SS St. Louis who, in 1939 attempted to find asylum for over 900 Jewish passengers rather than return them to Germany.

Albert Battel - a German Wehrmacht officer.

Victor Bodson helped Jews escape from Germany through an underground escape route in Luxembourg.

Corrie ten Boom, rescued many Jews in the Netherlands by sheltering them at her home. - was sent to Ravensbrück

Stefania Podgorska Burzminski and Helena Podgorska at age 16 and 7 (Helena was her sister), they smuggled out of the ghettos and saved thirteen Jews from the liquidation of the ghettos.

Sgt.-Major Charles Coward was an English POW who smuggled over 400 Jews out of Monowitz labour camp.

Johannes Frömming, horse trainer and driver, employed three Jewish horsemen and hid them on his farm outside Berlin.

Miep Gies, Jan Gies, Bep Voskuijl, Victor Kugler, and Johannes Kleiman hid Anne Frank and seven others in Amsterdam, Netherlands, for two years.

Alexandre Glasberg, Ukrainian-French priest who helped hundreds of French Jews escape deportation.

Otto Hahn, Chemistry-Professor in Berlin, helped Jewish scientists to escape and prevent them from deportation, assisted by his wife Edith Hahn, who had for years collected food for Jews hiding in Berlin.

Friedrich Kellner, justice inspector, who helped Julius and Lucie Abt, and their infant son, John Peter, escape from Laubach.

Stanislaw Kielar - two girls from Reisenbach family

Heralda Luxin, young woman who sheltered Jewish children in her cellar.

Józef and Stefania Macugowscy, hid six members of the Radza family, and several others, in Nowy Korczyn, Poland.

Shyqyri Myrto, Albanian rescuer of Jozef Jakoel and his sister Keti.

Dorothea Neff, Austrian stage actress, who hid her Jewish friend Lilli Schiff.

Algoth Niska, Finnish gentleman rogue and alcohol smuggler; smuggled Jews via the Baltic.

Irene Gut Opdyke, Polish, hid twelve Jews in a German Major's basement.

Jaap Penraat - Dutch architect who forged identity cards for Jews and helped many escape to Spain.

Max Schmeling, German boxer who hid two Jewish children in his Berlin apartment and defied Hitler's orders to fire his Jewish fight promoter, Joe Jacobs.

Irena Sendler, Polish social worker who saved about 2500 Jewish children from the Warsaw Ghetto.

Suzanne Spaak, wealthy socialite who saved Jewish children in France.

Marie Taquet-Martens and Major Emile Taquet hid some seventy-five Jewish children in a home for disabled children they were running in Jamoigne-sur-Semois, Belgium.

Ilse (Davidsohn Intrator) Stanley, herself a German Jew living in Germany until 1939, made many trips to German concentration camps and secured the release of 412 people. After Kristallnacht when she could no longer make those trips, she continued helping German Jews leave the country legally, until her own departure in 1939.

Conrad Veidt, German actor (ironically best known for playing the Nazi antagonist in Casablanca), smuggled his Jewish wife's family out of Germany in his car. He acquired British citizenship in 1939 and used his money and his position to help various other Jews, liberals and LGBT people escape Germany. Before his death in the United States in 1943, he'd participated in various funds helping people escape Germany.

Hetty Voûte, part of the Utrechtse Kindercomite in the Netherlands that rescued hundreds of Jews. Her oral history is found in the book The Heart Has Reasons: Holocaust Rescuers and Their Stories of Courage by Mark Klempner

Gabrielle Weidner and Johan Hendrik Weidner, escape network rescued 800 Jews.

Bertha Marx and Eugen Marx assisted in saving Jews through the Resistance forces.

JUDr Rudolf Štursa, a lawyer, and Jan Martin Vochoč, an Old Catholic priest, in Prague, baptized Jews on demand and issued over 1,500 baptism certificates.

Count Kazamery Deak Lajos & Deak Elizabeth .... Hungary / Magyaregregy ...6 people...4 children and they parents, saved, and sent over to New York City after 7 months of hiding in the basement.

Doreen Warriner - a British Committee for Refugees from Czechoslovakia (BCRC) representative in Prague, and an associate of Marie Schmolka

Villages helping Jews

In occupied Poland, among the hundreds of villages involved, some of the most notable included Głuchów near Łańcut with everyone engaged, as well as the villages of Główne, Ozorków, Borkowo near Sierpc, Dąbrowica near Ulanów, in Głupianka near Otwock, and Teresin near Chełm. In Cisie near Warsaw, 25 Poles were caught hiding Jews; all were killed and the village was burned to the ground as punishment. In Gołąbki, Jerzy and Irena Krępeć provided a hiding place for as many as 30 Jews on their farm and set up homeschooling for all children, Christian and Jewish together; their actions were "an open secret in the village." Other villagers helped "if only to provide a meal." Another farm couple, Alfreda and Bolesław Pietraszek, provided shelter for Jewish families consisting of 18 people in Ceranów near Sokołów Podlaski, and their neighbors brought food to those being rescued. In Markowa, where 17 Jews survived the war in hiding with their Christian neighbors, entire Polish family of Józef and Wiktoria Ulma including 6 children and prenatal child were shot dead by the Germans for hiding the Szall and Goldman families. Dorota and Antoni Szylar hid seven members of Weltz family. Julia and Józef Bar hid five members of Reisenbach family. Michal Bar hid Jakub Lorbenfeld; while Jan and Weronika Przybylak hid Jakub Einhorn.

Tršice, Czech Republic, many people from this village helped hide a Jewish family; six of them were given the honorific of Righteous Among the Nations.

Nieuwlande, Netherlands - during the war, this small village contained 117 inhabitants. Most households in the village and surrounding area cooperated to shelter Jews, thus making it difficult for anyone in the small village to betray their neighbors. Dozens of Jews were thus saved. Over 200 inhabitants have been honored by Yad Vashem.

Moissac, France - There was a Jewish boarding home and orphanage in this town. When the mayor was told that the Nazis were coming, the older students would go camping for several days, the younger students were boarded with families in the area and told to be treated as members of their immediate family; the oldest students hid in the house. When it became too dangerous for the students to stay there any longer, the residents made sure that every student had a safe place to go to. If the students had to move again, the counsellors from the boarding house arranged for a new place and even escorted them to the new housing.

The Portuguese cities of Figueira da Foz, Porto, Coimbra, Curia, Ericeira and Caldas da Rainha were assigned to house refugees. They were pleasant resorts with many available hotels. The refugees led totally ordinary lives. They were allowed to circulate freely within town limits, practice their religions, and enroll their children in local schools. "Here we were given freedom of movement; we were allowed to go on outing and live as we wished", said Ben-Zwi Kalischer. Those times were captured on films that can be found at the Steven Spielberg Film and Video Archive.

External links

Further reading

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust - Wikipedia

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During World War II, some individuals and groups helped Jews and others escape the Holocaust conducted by Nazi Germany. Since 1953, Israel's Holocaust memorial, Yad Vashem, has recognized 26,973 persons as Righteous among the Nations.

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This relates to the chapter because Lisa and other people hide in a psychiatric ward just like this

# data[].attributes.body
Erik had to get sedates put in him because the Germans raided the homes of jewish people celebrating rosh hashanah and his parents were one of the jewish families celebrating at home so he started to go crazy

More people came into the hospital in the disguise of a funeral

They had to give the kids sedatives so they wouldn't scream in the ambulance and track German Soldiers

They made it to the cost and are hiding in the bushes and are waiting for three low whistles

Germans check the bushes but don't see the Lisa and everyone else

Lisa hears a scream shes goes to check and she sees a man who her father knows cut his wife, kid and his own neck to die there not in a camp

They get on a boat and the driver demands more money to transport them

Lisa gets a choice to stay with Stefan or leave

Lisa and Jeper shoot a German he is still alive Jesper finishes the job and gives the all clear

They carry the dead body to a row boat going to dump him halfway

Questions
Why did the mom let Lisa go

Why did the dad kill his kid and wife and himself if they were near safety

he was worried that the Germans would catch him and thought that killing his wife and kid and himself would be faster than a concentration camp

Predictions
I think either Stefan or Jesper will get caught

I think Lisa will be hesitant to kill a German and get either Jesper or Stefan

Links
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews#:~:text=The%20Danish%20resistance%20movement%2C%20with,during%20the%20Second%20World%20War.

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Danish Jews being transported to Sweden

The Danish resistance movement, with the assistance of many Danish citizens, managed to evacuate 7,220 of Denmark's 7,800 Jews, plus 686 non-Jewish spouses, by sea to nearby neutral Sweden during the Second World War.[1] The arrest and deportation of Danish Jews was ordered by the German leader Adolf Hitler, but the efforts to save them started earlier due to the plans being leaked on September 28, 1943 by German diplomat Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz.

The rescue is considered one of the largest actions of collective resistance to aggression in the countries occupied by Germany during the Second World War. As a result of the rescue, and of the following Danish intercession on behalf of the 464 Danish Jews who were captured and deported to the Theresienstadt concentration camp in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, over 99% of Denmark's Jewish population survived the Holocaust.[1]

"Model protectorate" (1940–1943)[edit]

Polish passport used in Denmark up to March 1940. The Jewish holder escaped to Sweden during the war.

On April 9, 1940, Denmark and Norway were invaded by Nazi Germany. Realizing that successful armed resistance was impossible, and wishing to avoid civilian casualties, the Danish government surrendered after a few token skirmishes on the morning of the invasion.

The Nazi government stated that its occupation of Denmark was a measure taken against the Allies and that Germany did not intend to disturb the political independence of the country.[2] Because the Danish government promised "loyal cooperation" with the Germans, the occupation of Denmark was relatively mild at first. German propaganda even referred to Denmark as the "model protectorate",[3] earning the nickname the Cream Front (German: Sahnefront, Danish: Flødeskumsfronten), due to the relative ease of the occupation and copious number of dairy products.[4] King Christian X retained his throne, and the Danish government, the Rigsdag (parliament) and the national courts continued to function. Even censorship of radio and the press was administered by the Danish government, rather than by the occupying German civil and military authorities.

During the early years of the occupation, Danish officials repeatedly insisted to the German occupation authorities that there was no "Jewish problem" in Denmark. The Germans recognized that discussion of the "Jewish question" in Denmark was a possibly explosive issue, which had the potential to destroy the "model" relationship between Denmark and Germany and, in turn, cause negative political and economic consequences for Germany. In addition, the German Reich relied substantially upon Danish agriculture, which supplied meat and butter to 3.6 million Germans in 1942.[5] As a result, when officials in Berlin attempted to implement anti-Jewish measures in Denmark, even ideologically committed Nazis, such as Reich Plenipotentiary Werner Best, followed a strategy of avoiding and deferring any discussion of Denmark's Jews.

In late 1941, during the visit of Danish foreign minister Erik Scavenius to Berlin, German authorities there (including Hermann Göring) insisted that Denmark choose not to avoid its "Jewish problem". A Danish anti-Semitic newspaper used these statements as an opportunity for an attack on the country's Jews; shortly thereafter, arsonists attempted to start a fire at the Great Synagogue in Copenhagen. The Danish state responded robustly; the courts imposed stiff fines and jail sentences on the editors and would-be arsonists, and the government took further administrative action. Denmark's punishment of anti-Semitic crimes during the occupation was interpreted by the German authorities in Denmark as signaling that the government would be uncooperative toward any future measures that might be taken against Denmark's Jews by the occupiers.

In mid-1943, Danes saw the German defeats in the Battle of Stalingrad and in North Africa as an indication that having to live under German rule was no longer a long-term certainty, as it had seemed in 1940. At the same time, the Danish resistance movement was becoming more assertive in its underground press and its increased sabotage activities. During the summer, several nationwide strikes led to armed confrontations between Danes and German troops. In the wake of increased resistance activities and riots, the German occupation authorities presented the Danish government with an ultimatum on August 28, 1943; they demanded a ban on strikes, a curfew, and the punishment of sabotage with the death penalty. Deeming these terms unacceptable and a violation of national sovereignty, the Danish government declared a state of emergency. Some 100 prominent Danes were taken hostage, including the Chief Rabbi Max Friediger and a dozen other Jews. In response, the Danish government resigned on August 29, 1943. The result was direct administration of Denmark by the German authorities; this direct form of rule meant that the "model protectorate" had come to an end—and with it, the protection the Danish government had provided for the country's Jews.

Deportation order and rescue[edit]

Without the uncooperative Danish government to impede them, Denmark's German occupiers began planning the deportation to Nazi concentration camps of the 7,800 or so Jews in Denmark. German diplomat Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz unsuccessfully attempted to assure safe harbor for the Danish Jews in Sweden; the Swedish government told Duckwitz it would accept the Danish Jews only if approved by the Nazis, who ignored the request for approval. On September 28, 1943, Duckwitz leaked word of the plans for the operation against Denmark's Jews to Hans Hedtoft, chairman of the Danish Social Democratic Party. Hedtoft contacted the Danish Resistance Movement and the head of the Jewish community, C. B. Henriques, who in turn alerted the acting chief rabbi, Marcus Melchior. At the early morning services, on September 29, the day prior to the Rosh Hashanah services, Jews were warned by Rabbi Melchior of the planned German action and urged to go into hiding immediately and to spread the word to all their Jewish friends and relatives.

The early phases of the rescue were improvised. When Danish civil servants at several levels in different ministries learned of the German plan to round up all Danish Jews, they independently pursued various measures to find the Jews and hide them. Some simply contacted friends and asked them to go through telephone books and warn those with Jewish-sounding names to go into hiding. Most Jews hid for several days or weeks, uncertain of their fate.

From October 1943 the boat Gerda III of the Danish Lighthouse and Buoy Service was used to ferry Jewish refugees from German-occupied Denmark to neutral Sweden. With a group of some ten refugees on board for each trip the vessel set out for her official lighthouse duties, but detoured to the Swedish coast. The little ship and her crew (Skipper Otto Andersen, John Hansen, Gerhardt Steffensen and Einar Tønnesen), ferried some 300 Jews to safety.

Although the majority of Danish Jews were in hiding, it is likely that most would have been caught eventually if safe passage to Sweden had not been secured. Sweden had earlier been receiving Norwegian Jews with some sort of Swedish connection. But the actions to save the Norwegians were not entirely efficient, due to the lack of experience in how to deal with the German authorities. When martial law was introduced in Denmark on August 29, the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs (UD) realized that the Danish Jews were in immediate danger. In a letter dated August 31, the Swedish ambassador in Copenhagen was given clearance by the Chief Legal Officer Gösta Engzell (who had represented Sweden at the 1938 Évian Conference, held to discuss Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazi regime) to issue Swedish passports in order to "rescue Danish Jews and bring them here."[6] On October 2, the Swedish government announced in an official statement that Sweden was prepared to accept all Danish Jews in Sweden. It was a message parallel to an earlier unofficial statement made to the German authorities in Norway.[6] Groups such as the Elsinore Sewing Club (Danish: Helsingør Syklub) sprang up to covertly ferry Jews to safety.[7]

The Danish physicist Niels Bohr, whose mother was Jewish, made a determined stand for his fellow countrymen in a personal appeal to the Swedish king and government ministers.[8] King Gustav V granted him an audience after a persuasive call from Greta Garbo, who knew Bohr.[9] He was spirited off to Sweden, whose government arranged immediate transport for him to the United States to work on the then top-secret Manhattan Project. When Bohr arrived on Swedish soil, government representatives told him he had to board an aircraft immediately for the United States. Bohr refused. He told the officials—and eventually the king—that until Sweden announced over its airwaves and through its press that its borders would be open to receive the Danish Jews, he was not going anywhere. Bohr wrote of these events himself.[10] As related by the historian Richard Rhodes,[8] on September 30 Bohr persuaded Gustaf to make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum, and on October 2 Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to receive the Jewish refugees. Rhodes and others historians[8] interpret Bohr's actions in Sweden as being a necessary precursor without which mass rescue could not have occurred. According to Paul A. Levine, however—who does not mention the Bohr factor at all—the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs acted on clear instructions given much earlier by Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson and Foreign Minister Christian Günther, following a policy already established in 1942.[11]

The Jews were smuggled and transported out of Denmark over the Øresund strait from Zealand to Sweden—a passage of varying time depending on the specific route and the weather, but averaging under an hour on the choppy winter sea. Some were transported in large fishing boats of up to 20 tons, but others were carried to freedom in rowboats or kayaks. The ketch Albatros was one of the ships used to smuggle Jews to Sweden. Some refugees were smuggled inside freight rail cars on the regular ferries between Denmark and Sweden, this route being suited for the very young or old who were too weak to endure a rough sea passage. Danish Resistance Movement operatives had broken into empty freight cars sealed by the Germans after inspection, helped refugees onto the cars, and then resealed the cars with forged or stolen German seals to forestall further inspection.

Fishermen charged on average 1,000 Danish kroner per person for the transport, but some charged up to 50,000 kroner. The average monthly wage at the time was less than 500 kroner, and half of the rescued Jews belonged to the working class. Prices were determined by the market principles of supply and demand, as well as by the fishermen's perception of the risk. The Danish Resistance Movement took an active role in organizing the rescue and providing financing, mostly from wealthy Danes who donated large sums of money to the endeavor. In all the rescue is estimated to have cost around 20 million kroner, about half of which were paid by Jewish families and half from donations and collections.[12]

During the first days of the rescue action, Jews moved into the many fishing harbors on the Danish coast to await passage, but officers of the Gestapo became suspicious of activity around harbors (and on the night of October 6, about 80 Jews were caught hiding in the loft of the church at Gilleleje, their hiding place having been betrayed by a Danish girl who was in love with a German soldier).[13] Subsequent rescues had to take place from isolated points along the coast. While waiting their turn, the Jews took refuge in the woods and in cottages away from the coast, out of sight of the Gestapo.

Some of the refugees never made it to Sweden; a few chose to commit suicide; some were captured by the Gestapo en route to their point of embarkation; some 23 were lost at sea when vessels of poor seaworthiness capsized; and still others were intercepted at sea by German patrol boats. Danish harbor police and civil police often cooperated with the rescue effort. During the early stages, the Gestapo was undermanned and the German army and navy were called in to reinforce the Gestapo in its effort to prevent transportation taking place; but by and large the German military troops proved less than enthusiastic in the operation and frequently turned a blind eye to escapees. The local Germans in command, for their own political calculations and through their own inactivity, may have actually facilitated the escape.[14][15]

Arrests and deportations[edit]

In Copenhagen the deportation order was carried out on the Jewish New Year, the night of October 1–2, when the Germans assumed all Jews would be gathered at home. The roundup was organized by the SS who used two police battalions and about 50 Danish volunteer members of the Waffen SS chosen for their familiarity with Copenhagen and northern Zealand. The SS organized themselves in five-man teams, each with a Dane, a vehicle, and a list of addresses to check. Most teams found no one, but one team found four Jews on the fifth address checked. A bribe of 15,000 kroner was rejected and the cash destroyed. The arrested Jews were allowed to bring two blankets, food for three or four days, and a small suitcase. They were transported to the harbour, Langelinie, where a couple of large ships awaited them. One of the Danish Waffen-SS members believed the Jews were being sent to Danzig.[16]

On October 2, some arrested Danish communists witnessed the deportation of about 200 Jews from Langelinie via the ship Wartheland. Of these, a young married couple were able to convince the Germans that they were not Jewish, and set free. The remainder included mothers with infants; the sick and elderly; and chief rabbi Max Friediger and the other Jewish hostages who had been placed in the Danish internment camp, Horserød, on August 28–29. They were driven below deck without their luggage while being screamed at, kicked and beaten. The Germans then took anything of value from the luggage. Their unloading the next day in Swinemünde was even more inhumane, though without fatalities. There the Jews were driven into two cattle cars, about one hundred per car. During the night, while still locked in the cattle cars, a Jewish mother cried that her child had died. For comparison the Danish communists were packed into cars with "only" fifty people in each; nevertheless, they quickly began to suffer from heat, thirst and lack of ventilation; furthermore, they had nothing to drink until they were given filthy water on October 5, shortly before being unloaded in Danzig.[17]

Rescued by Folke Bernadotte[edit]

Only some 580 Danish Jews failed to escape to Sweden. Some of these remained hidden in Denmark to the end of the war, a few died of accidents or committed suicide, and a handful had special permission to stay. The vast majority, 464 of the 580, were captured and sent to the Theresienstadt concentration camp in German-occupied Czechoslovakia. After these Jews' deportation, leading Danish civil servants persuaded the Germans to accept packages of food and medicine for the prisoners; furthermore, Denmark persuaded the Germans not to deport the Danish Jews to extermination camps. This was achieved by Danish political pressure, using the Danish Red Cross to frequently monitor the condition of the Danish Jews at Theresienstadt. A total of 51 Danish Jews—mostly elderly—died of disease at Theresienstadt, but in April 1945, as the war drew to a close, 425 surviving Danish Jews (a few having been born in the camp) were among the several thousand Jews rescued by an operation led by Folke Bernadotte of the Swedish Red Cross who organized the transporting of interned Norwegians, Danes and western European inmates from German concentration camps to hospitals in Sweden. Around 15,000 people were taken to safety in the White Buses of the Bernadotte expedition.[18] The casualties among Danish Jews during the Holocaust were among the lowest of the occupied countries of Europe. Yad Vashem records only 102 Jews from Denmark who were murdered in the Shoah.[citation needed]

Myth of the Danes and the yellow star[edit]

King Christian X did not wear a yellow star in support of the Danish Jews, despite an urban legend to the contrary.

It has been popularly reported that the Nazis ordered all Danish Jews to wear an identifying yellow star, as was done elsewhere in Nazi-controlled territories. In some versions of the story, King Christian X opted to wear such a star himself and the Danish people followed his example, thus making the order unenforceable.[19]

The story is a myth.[20][21] In fact the story about the King and the Star and other similar myths originated in the offices of the National Denmark America Association (NDAA) where a handful of Danish nationals opened a propaganda unit called "Friends of Danish Freedom and Democracy", which published a bulletin called The Danish Listening Post. This group hired Edward L. Bernays, "The father of Public Relation and Spin", as a consultant.[22][23][24] Whether Bernays was the inventor of the story about the King and the yellow star is not known.

Although the Danish authorities cooperated with the German occupation forces, they and most Danes strongly opposed the isolation of any group within the population, especially the well-integrated Jewish community. The German action to deport Danish Jews prompted the Danish state church and all political parties except the pro-Nazi National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark (NSWPD) immediately to denounce the action and to pledge solidarity with the Jewish fellow citizens. For the first time they openly opposed the occupation. At once the Danish bishops issued a hyrdebrev—a pastoral letter to all citizens. The letter was distributed to all Danish ministers, to be read out in every church on the following Sunday. This was in itself very unusual, for the Danish church is decentralized and non-political.

The unsuccessful German deportation attempt and the actions to save the Jews were important steps in linking the resistance movement to broader anti-Nazi sentiments in Denmark. In many ways, October 1943 and the rescuing of the Jews marked a change in most people's perception of the war and the occupation, thereby giving a "subjective-psychological" foundation for the myth.

A few days after the roundup, a small news item in the New York Daily News reported the myth about the wearing of the Star of David. Later, the story gained its popularity in Leon Uris's novel Exodus and in its movie adaptation. The political theorist Hannah Arendt also mentions it during the discussion of Denmark in her book of reportage, Eichmann in Jerusalem.[25] It persists to the present, but it is unfounded.

"Righteous among the nations"[edit]

At their initial insistence, the Danish resistance movement wished to be honored only as a collective effort by Yad Vashem in Israel as being part of the "Righteous Among the Nations";[26] only a handful are individually named for that honor. Instead, the rescue of the Jews of Denmark is represented at Yad Vashem by a tree planting to the King and the Danish Resistance movement—and by an authentic fishing boat from the Danish village of Gilleleje.[27] Similarly, the US Holocaust Museum in Washington, D.C., has on permanent exhibit an authentic rescue boat used in several crossings in the rescue of some 1400 Jews.

Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz, the German official who leaked word of the round-up, is also on the Yad Vashem list.[28][29]

Partial list of Danish rescuers[edit]

While only a few Danes, mostly non-resistance members who happened to be known by the Jew he or she helped, made the Yad Vashem list, there were several hundreds, if not a few thousands, of ordinary Danes who took part in the rescue efforts. They most often worked within small spontaneously organized groups and "under cover". Known only by their fictitious names they could generally not be identified by those who were helped and thus not meet the Yad Vashem criteria for the "Righteous Among the Nations" honor. Below is a partial list of some of the more significant rescuers, both within and outside the formal resistance movement, whose names have surfaced over the years:[30][31][32][33][34]

Fanny Arnskov

Knud Dyby

Ellen Marie Christensen

Aage and Gerda Bertelsen

Richard and Vibeke Ege

Jørgen Gersfelt

Gunnar Gregersen

Ejler Haubirk

Steffen Hansen

Ole Helwig

Leif B. Hendil

Erik Husfeldt

Signe (Mogensen) Jansen

Robert Jensen

Jørgen Kieler

Elsebeth Kieler

Erling Kiær

Karl Henrik Køster

Thormod Larsen

Gurli Larsen

Jens Lillelund

Steffen Lund

Ebba Lund

Ellen W. Nielsen

Svend Otto Nielsen ("John")

Robert Petersen

Paul Kristian Brandt Rehberg

Ole Secher

Find Sandgren

Svenn Seehusen

Erik Stærmose

Henny Sunding

Laust Sørensen

Henry Thomsen

Henry Rasmussen

Børge Rønne

Mogens Staffeldt

Hilbert Hansen

Explanations[edit]

Memorial in "Denmark Square", Jerusalem

Different explanations have been advanced to explain the success of efforts to protect the Danish Jewish population in the light of less success at similar operations elsewhere in Nazi-occupied Europe:[15][35][36][37]

The German Reich plenipotentiary of Denmark, Werner Best, despite instigating the roundup via a telegram he sent to Hitler on October 8, 1943, did not act to enforce it. He was aware of the efforts by Duckwitz to have the roundup cancelled, and knew about the potential escape of the Jews to Sweden, but he turned a blind eye to it, as did the Wehrmacht (which was guarding the Danish coast), in order to preserve Germany's relationship with Denmark.[38] According to the account of a survivor, Best himself had warned the survivor to escape.[39]

Logistically, the operation was relatively simple. Denmark's Jewish population was small, both in relative and absolute terms, and most of Denmark's Jews lived in or near Copenhagen, only a short sea voyage from neutral Sweden (typically 5 to 10 kilometres (3 to 6 mi)). Although hazardous, the boat ride was easier to conceal than a comparable land journey.

Since the mid-19th century, a particular brand of romantic nationalism had evolved in Denmark. The traits of this nationalism included emphasis on the importance of "smallness", close-knit communities, and traditions—this nationalism being largely a response to Denmark's failure to assert itself as a great power and its losses in the Gunboat War and the Second War of Schleswig. Some historians, such as Leni Yahil (The Rescue of Danish Jewry: Test of a Democracy, 1969), believe that the Danish form of non-aggressive nationalism, influenced by Danish spiritual leader N. F. S. Grundtvig, encouraged the Danes to identify with the plight of the Jews, even though small-scale anti-Semitism had been present in Denmark long before the German invasion.[40]

Denmark's Jewish population had long been thoroughly integrated into Danish society, and some members of the small Jewish community had risen to prominence. Consequently, most Danes perceived the Nazis' action against Denmark's Jews as an affront to all Danes, and rallied to the protection of their country's citizens.[citation needed]

The deportation of Jews in Denmark came one year after the deportations of Jews in Norway. That created an outrage in all of Scandinavia, alerted the Danish Jews, and pushed the Swedish government to declare that it would receive all Jews who managed to escape the Nazis.[41]

See also[edit]

Denmark in World War II

Rescue of the Bulgarian Jews

History of Jews

Nazi war crimes

Number the Stars (1989), a work of historical fiction about the escape of Danish Jews to Sweden during World War II.

The Only Way

Notes[edit]

1. ^ a b Leo Goldberger: The Rescue of the Danish Jews: Moral Courage Under Stress, New York University Press, 1987, preface pages XXLinked 2014-04-29

2. ^ Goldberger, Leo, ed. (1987). The Rescue of the Danish Jews: Moral Courage Under Stress. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3010-2.

3. ^ Shirer, William L. (1956). The Challenge of Scandinavia. London: Robert Hale.

4. ^ Poulsen, Henning (1 January 1991). "Die Deutschen Besatzungspolitik in Dänemark". In Bohn, Robert; Elvert, Jürgen; Rebas, Hain; Salewski, Michael (eds.). Neutralität und Totalitäre Aggression (in German). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 379. ISBN 978-3-515-05887-2. Retrieved 20 April 2016.

5. ^ Yahil, Leni, The rescue of Danish Jewry: test of a democracy. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1969, p.118

6. ^ a b Levine, Paul A. From Indifference to Activism: Swedish Diplomacy and the Holocaust: 1938–1944, Uppsala 1996.

7. ^ Ann Byers (2011). Rescuing the Danish Jews: A Heroic Story from the Holocaust. Enslow Publishers, Inc. pp. 57–66. ISBN 978-0-7660-3321-4.

8. ^ a b c Each of these citations describe the political activity of Bohr in the Nazi era.

Niels Bohr: Collected Works. The Political Arena (1934–1961), Niels Bohr, Léon Rosenfeld, Finn Aaserud, Elsevier, 2005, p. 14

The Rescue of the Danish Jews: Moral Courage under Stress, Leo Goldberger, New York University Press, 1987, p. 10

The Destruction of the European Jews. Raul Hilberg, Yale University Press, 2003, vol. 2, p. 596

Niels Bohr's Times, in Physics, Philosophy, and Polity. Abraham Pais, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991, p. 488

Resistance Fighter: A Personal History of the Danish Resistance. Jørgen Kieler, Gefen Publishing House Ltd, 2001, pp. 91–93

9. ^ Bret, David. Garbo: Divine Star. The Robson Press, 2013.

10. ^ Bohr, Niels; Aaserud, Finn (2005). The Political Arena (1934-1961). Elsevier. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-444-51336-6. Retrieved 27 May 2011.

11. ^ Goldberger, Leo (1987). The Rescue of the Danish Jews: moral courage under stress. New York University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-8147-3011-9. Retrieved 27 May 2011.

12. ^ "Hjælpen til de danske jøder – hvorfor hjalp så mange, og hvad var risikoen?". folkedrab.dk. 23 September 2015. Retrieved 4 April 2018.

13. ^ Christian Tortzen, Gilleleje Oktober 1943, Copenhagen: Fremad, 1970

14. ^ Paulssen Gunnar S (1995). "The bridge over the Oeresund: The historiography on the expulsion of Jews from Nazi-occupied Denmark". J. Contemp. Hist. 30 (3): 431–464. doi:10.1177/002200949503000304. S2CID 162324125.

15. ^ a b Hans Kirchhoff (1995). "Denmark: a light in the darkness of the Holocaust? A reply to Gunnar S. Paulsson". Journal of Contemporary History. 30 (3): 465–479. doi:10.1177/002200949503000305. JSTOR 261158. S2CID 154067012.

16. ^ Christensen, C. B.; Poulsen, N. B.; Smith, P. S., Under hagekors og Dannebrog: danskere i Waffen SS 1940–45, p. 254–257, Aschehoug, 2006 (Hardcover, ISBN 978-87-11-11843-6). (in Danish)

17. ^ Nielsen, Martin, Rapport fra Stutthof, p. 26–36, Gyldendal, 1947. (in Danish)

18. ^ "Count Folke Bernadotte".

19. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. "King Christian X of Denmark". ushmm.org. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 13 December 2016.

20. ^ Vilhjálmsson, V. Ö. ”The King and the Star”. In Bastholm Jensen, Mette & Jensen, Steven B. (Ed) Denmark and the Holocaust. Institute for International Studies, Department for Holocaust and Genocide Studies 2003, pp. 102–117

21. ^ Vilhjálmsson, V. Ö. "Christian X og jøderne: Hovedrolleindehavere i dansk krigspropaganda”. Rambam 19 (2010), 68-85. (An English summary at the rear of the article)

22. ^ Bernays, Edward L. (1965). Biography of an Idea: Memoirs of Public Relations Counsel. Simon & Schuster. p. 606. Retrieved 23 May 2011. I offered to help organize the Friends of Danish Freedom and Democracy, made up for the most part of Americans of Danish ...

23. ^ Hasselriis, Caspar Henrik Wolffsen (1959). Helligdag: erindringer (in Danish). Udgivet af Dansk samvirke hos E. Munksgaard. p. 143. Retrieved 23 May 2011. ... at han vilde engagere den kendte Public Relations Ekspert Edward L. Bernays til at være Raadgiver. ... Resultatet blev Dannelsen af »American Friends of Danish Freedom and Democracy«, et Navn f oreslaaet af Mr. Bernays, som mente, ...

24. ^ Jensen, Mette Bastholm; Jensen, Steven L. B. (2003). Denmark and the Holocaust. Institute for International Studies, Department for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. ISBN 978-87-989305-1-8. Retrieved 23 May 2011. The "Father of Public Relations and Spin" and nephew of Sigmund Freud Edward L. Bernays (1890–1995), was also hired by the Friends of Danish Freedom and Democracy as a ...

25. ^ Arendt, Hannah (2006). Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. Penguin. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-14-303988-4. Retrieved 28 June 2018. When the Germans approached them rather cautiously about introducing the yellow badge, they were simply told that the King would be the first to wear it...

26. ^ "The Rescue of Denmark's Jews - www.yadvashem.org". www.yadvashem.org. Retrieved 4 April 2018.

27. ^ "Resistance and Rescue - www.yadvashem.org". www.yadvashem.org. Retrieved 4 April 2018.

28. ^ Germany — Duckwitz, Georg Ferdinand

29. ^ For an alternative interpretation of Duckwitz's role in the rescue of the Danish Jews, see: [1] Vilhjálmsson, Vilhjálmur Ö. "Ich weiss, was ich zu tun habe" RAMBAM 15:2006

30. ^ Flender, Harold. Rescue in Denmark, W.H. Allen, London, 1963

31. ^ Goldberger, Leo. The Rescue of the Danish Jews, New York University Press, 1987

32. ^ Dethlefsen, Henrik. De Illegale Svergiesruter, Odense Universitetsforlag, Odense, Denmark, 1993

33. ^ Werner, Emmy E. A Conspiracy of Decency, Westview Press, 2002

34. ^ "Modstandsdatabasen - Forside". modstand.natmus.dk. Retrieved 4 April 2018.

35. ^ Leni Yahil, The Rescue of Danish Jewry, Test of a Democracy, 1966

36. ^ Joergen Haestrup, Til Landets bedste, 1966

37. ^ Leo Goldberger (ed.). The Rescue of the Danish Jews, 1987

38. ^ Dansk Jødisk Museum Archived 2011-07-18 at the Wayback Machine

39. ^ Bodin Saphir, Alexander (21 October 2018). "The tip-off from a Nazi that saved my grandparents". BBC News. Retrieved 29 January 2022.

40. ^ Buckser, Andrew. "Rescue and Cultural Context During the Holocaust: Grundtvigian Nationalism and the Rescue of the Danish Jews". Shofar 19(2), 2001.

41. ^ Judiska Museet i Stockholm

References[edit]

Bak, Sofie Lene: Nothing to Speak Of: Wartime Experiences of the Danish Jews. U. of Chicago (Museum Tuscalum Press) 2010, ISBN 978 87 635 3958 6.

Bertelsen, Aage. October '43. New York: Putnam, 1954.

Buckser, Andrew. "Rescue and Cultural Context During the Holocaust: Grundtvigian Nationalism and the Rescue of the Danish Jews". Shofar 19(2), 2001. JSTOR 42943190.

Goldberger, Leo, ed. (1987). The Rescue of the Danish Jews: Moral Courage Under Stress. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3010-2.

Gulmann, Søren & Karina Søby Madsen. The Elsinore Sewing Club. Forlaget fantastiske fortællinger, 2018. ISBN 978 87 996656 2 4.

Herbert, Ulrich: Best. Biographische Studien über Radikalismus, Weltanschauung und Vernunft 1903–1989. Habilitationsschrift. Dietz, Bonn 1996, ISBN 3-8012-5030-X.

Kieler, Jørgen. Hvorfor gjorde vi det. [Why did we do it?]. Copenhagen, Denmark, Gyldendal, 1993.

Levine, Paul A. (1996). From Indifference to Activism: Swedish Diplomacy and the Holocaust 1938–1944. Uppsala.

Lampe, David (1957). The Danish Resistance. New York: Ballantine Books.

Lampe, David (1957). The Savage Canary: The Story of the Resistance in Denmark. London: Cassell.

Pundik, Herbert: Die Flucht der dänischen Juden 1943 nach Schweden. Husum, 1995. ISBN 3-88042-734-8.

Pundik, Herbert (1998). In Denmark It Could Not Happen: The Flight of the Jews to Sweden in 1943. Hewlett, NY: Gefen.

Stræde, Therkel (1993). October 1943: The Rescue of the Danish Jews From Annihilation. with H. Rovsing Olsen. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Museum of Danish Resistance 1940–1945.

Vilhjálmsson, Vilhjálmur Örn (2006) "Ich weiss, was ich zu tun habe". Rambam 15:2006 (English abstract at the end of the article).

Vilhjálmsson, Vilhjálmur Örn and Blüdnikow, Bent. "Rescue, Expulsion, and Collaboration: Denmark's Difficulties with Its World War II Past". Jewish Political Studies Review 18:3–4 (Fall 2006).

Werner, Emmy E. (2002). Conspiracy of Decency: The Rescue of the Danish Jews during World War II. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Yahil, Leni (1969). Rescue of Danish Jewry: Test of a Democracy. Translated by Morris Gradel. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.

External links[edit]

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: The Rescue of the Jews of Denmark

"The Fate of the Danish Jews"

Denmark and the Holocaust - an article in Yad Vashem resource center, by Carol Rittner

Rescue, Expulsion, and Collaboration:Denmark's Difficulties with its World War II Past. (By Vilhjálmur Örn Vilhjálmsson and Bent Blüdnikow)

The tip-off from a Nazi that saved my grandparents

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Why I liked the book, I liked the book because it was interesting and I learned about Jewish culture and history like rosh hashanah which I most likely would not have learned about if not for the book. The book was very detailed and told a great story on how it was to live in a German occupied country in World War II it was very interesting with all the details and kept me interested. What I didn't like about the book was it was slow at the start and then went fast at the end which was kind of annoying but not too bad. I didn't like how Lisa went to put a gun under the floorboard and found more guns under it, it never went anywhere which was also annoying because now I want to know who it belonged to.

In my opinion it was a good book not one that I wouldn't read again because some of the points in the book rely on surprise like Lisa burning which gave me chills and if I read the book again it wouldn't be as good because I wouldn't get those chills which for me was part of the experience of reading the book, if I knew the dad was going to kill himself and his family my eyes wouldn't open and make me more invested in the book it would just be a small side part.