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By Seanarae Smith

Foundational Skills are the beginning processes of reading for students in grades K-5. Foundational Skills facilitate students' understanding of important beginning reading concepts such as:

Print concepts

Phonological awareness

Phonics and word recognition

Fluency

In the video below, Anna M. Swenson outlines the building blocks of the reading process. This includes a discussion of the special consideration for braille learners in the standard areas of Print Concepts, Phonological Awareness, Phonics and Word Recognition and Fluency.

Download the transcript.

These beginning reading concepts are grouped into four standards. As children master these essential reading concepts they will become proficient readers (CCSS, 2010, p. 15).

The table below provides a detailed look at the CCSS for Foundational Skills.

Standard Name

Standard Number

Standard Description

Print Concepts

1.

Demonstrate understanding of the organization and basic features of print.

Phonological Awareness

2.

Demonstrate understanding of spoken words, syllables, and sounds.

Phonics and Word Recognition

3.

Know and apply grade-level phonics and word analysis skills in decoding words.

Fluency

4.

Read with sufficient accuracy and fluency to support comprehension.

View the complete CCSS Foundational Skills.

Researchers of the Reading Adventure Time iPad App chose the CCSS in Foundational Skills that were most beneficial to students who use braille to increase their braille literacy skills. Therefore, of the four standards listed in Foundational Skills, phonics and word recognition and fluency were the most appropriate standards to include in the Reading Adventure Time iPad App.

Foundational Skills: Phonics and Word Recognition

Phonics is the ability to connect letters of written language to individual sounds in spoken language. Phonics is an essential skill to help students understand the alphabetic principle which is the understanding that words are composed of letters that represent sounds (National Reading Panel, 2001; Rycik, & Rycik, 2007; Strickland, 2011; Adams, 1990). Word recognition is the ability to determine the pronunciation and meaning of unfamiliar words (Rasinsi & Padak, 2001; Rycik, & Rycik, 2007). It includes the ability to identify words that have been previously encountered (Wormsly & D'Andrea, 1997). To become proficient readers it is important that students understand the relationship between sounds and letters (Rycik & Rycik, 2007).

Foundational Skills Phonics and Word Recognition: Impact for Students Who Read Braille

Young children who will be braille readers have very few if any encounters with braille before they enter school. These young children are not exposed to braille as they go about their daily lives. Therefore, when children who will be braille readers begin formal reading instruction they are at a disadvantage when compared with young children who are sighted (Hatton, Erickson, & Brostek-Lee, 2010). Children who are sighted have numerous encounters with print before formal reading instruction begins. These children are afforded many opportunities to engage in incidental encounters with print (e.g., words on cereal boxes, restaurant billboards, stop signs, etc.).

In this video, Anna M. Swenson demonstrates three practical activities for helping braille students acquire foundational skills.

Download the transcript.

Foundational Skills: Characteristics of Proficient Readers of Phonics and Word Recognition

Proficient readers of Phonics and Word Recognition can quickly and accurately read and identify letters and their corresponding sounds. They apply strategies when reading. They use strategies to decode words. They reread to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words. Proficient readers of Phonics and Word recognition understand that words have a base, prefix, and suffix. They can identify and determine the meaning of common prefixes and suffixes. They apply phonics when reading unfamiliar multisyllabic words.

Foundational Skills: Characteristics of Struggling Readers of Phonics and Word Recognition

Struggling readers of Phonics and Word Recognition have difficulty with letter-sound correspondence. They are not able to quickly and effortlessly decode words. Struggling readers do not understand how to apply strategies when reading words. They may not understand how to apply phonics when reading unknown words. Struggling readers of Phonics and Word Recognition have difficulty blending words. They lack motivation to read and learn new words.

Foundational Skills: Fluency

A fluent reader reads smoothly and expressively with speed and intonation as if he or she were speaking naturally. Reading fluency is essential in literacy development because the reader must possess the ability to accurately and automatically decode words to read sentences in a text (Rasinski, 2006). When the reader does not read fluently the voice does not sound natural. Non fluent reading is slow and choppy. The non-fluent reader tends to read in a monotone voice that lacks expression.

Reading Fluency is closely connected to reading comprehension. As readers are able to easily identify words in a text they can shift their attention from focusing on reading the words to comprehending what the text says.

For students whose primary literacy media is braille, reading fluency is achieved through the use of their hand movement as they read. Fluent braille reading requires students to use their hands in the most efficient way for reading. Researchers have found the most efficient braille reader uses both hands and all four fingers of each hand (Kusajima, 1974; Wormsley & D'Andrea, 1997; Wright, Wormsley, & Kamei-Hannan, 2009).

Foundational Skills Fluency: Impact for Students Who Read Braille

Students who read braille have more braille symbols and rules to learn than students who read print. Therefore, more time and practice in decoding is required for student who read braille. As a result it will take students who read braille longer than students who read print to develop Fluency (Wormsley & D'Andrea, 1997). It is important for all students to be provided with models of proficient readers so that they see examples of how a proficient reader reads. For students who read braille it is important that they be provided with experiences of reading with a proficient braille reader. As the proficient braille reader reads the child's hands should be in contact with both the braille page and the hands of the proficient braille reader (Koenig & Holbrook, 2000).

Foundational Skills: Characteristics of Proficient Readers of Fluency

Proficient readers of Fluency read words with automaticity, resulting in their ability to comprehend information from the text. Proficient braille readers of Fluency read smoothly and efficiently. The most efficient braille readers lightly touch the braille dots applying little pressure. They will read using a two-hand movement pattern and read with four fingers on the page. Good braille readers will quickly and automatically identify braille characters in a brailled text without confusing letters that are similar to other letters. The proficient braille reader exhibits very few if any of the characteristics of hand movements. They scan a brailled text vertically and horizontally in an efficient manner (Koenig & Holbrook, 2000).

Foundational Skills: Characteristics of Struggling Readers of Reading Fluency

Struggling readers in the area of Reading Fluency make large numbers of decoding errors as they read text, they focus heavily on correctly decoding the words in text which results in their inability to comprehend what they have read. They may be able to read words with automaticity but lack the ability to connect words appropriately and add meaningful expression to their reading (Rasinski, 2006).

Resources

Educational Materials

Expanded Dolch Word Cards: American Printing House for the Blind, catalog # 1-03560-00.

Word PlayHouse: American Printing House for the Blind, catalog #1-03562-00.

Making Words 1st Grade: 100 Hands-On Lessons for Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, and Spelling by Patricia M. Cunningham and Dorothy P. Hall (2009). Pearson Education, Inc. The series of Making Words books includes kindergarten through grade five.

Websites
National Braille Press (NBP) Children's Book Club Seedlings Braille Books for Children Dolly Parton's Imagination Library The American Action Fund for Blind Children and Adults Kenneth Jernigan Library National Library Service
Articles and Books

Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.

Hatton, D. D., Erickson, K. A., & Lee, D. B. (2010). Phonological Awareness of Young Children with Visual Impairments. Journal Of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 104(12), 743-752.

Koenig, A. J., & Holbrook, M. (2000). Ensuring High-Quality Instruction for Students in Braille Literacy Programs. Journal Of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 94(11), 677.

Kusajima, T. (1974). Visual reading and braille reading: An experimental investigation of the physiology and psychology of visual and tactual reading. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

National Reading Panel. (2001). Put Reading First: Kindergarten Through 3 Grade.

Rasinski, T. (2006). Reading fluency instruction: Moving beyond accuracy, automaticity, and prosody. Reading Teacher, 59(7), 704-706. doi:10.1598/RT.59.7.10

Rasinski, T., & Padak, N. (2001). From phonic to fluency: Effective teaching of decoding and reading fluency in the elementary school. New York: Longman.

Rycik, M., & Rycik, J. (2007). Phonics and word identification: Instruction and intervention, K-8. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Strickland, D. (2011). Teaching phonics today: Word study strategies through the grades. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Wormsley, D., & D'Andrea, F. M. (1997). Instructional strategies for braille literacy. New York, NY: AFB Press.

Wright, T., Wormsley, D. P., & Kamei-Hannan, C. (2009). Hand Movements and Braille Reading Efficiency: Data from the Alphabetic Braille and Contracted Braille Study. Journal Of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 103(10), 649-661.

This project was funded by the US Department of Education, Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA), 84.235E Special Projects and Demonstrations for Providing Vocational Rehabilitation Services to Individuals with Severe Disabilities. The project is titled: Braille Brain: A Braille Training Program for pre/in-service Teachers of Students with Visual Impairments (TSVI), paraprofessionals, and other educational team members (H235E190002).

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READING: Foundational Skills for Reading - Paths to Literacy

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Paths to Literacy READING: Foundational Skills for Reading. For teachers, families, and others interested in literacy for children and youth with visual impairments

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Fluency, one of the five areas recognized by the National Reading Panel, is a goal for all beginning readers, whether they use print or braille. We recognize fluency when children read accurately at a normal rate of speed, observe punctuation marks, and use expression appropriate to the meaning of the text. Comprehension is a vital component of fluent reading, since without understanding, reading that may sound fluent is simply word calling. Because the braille code adds an extra layer of complexity to the reading process, some braille readers may take longer to achieve fluency than their sighted peers who read print. However, results from the ABC Braille Study described later in this article indicate that this lag is temporary, and most children who read braille master the code with relative ease, given appropriate instruction (Emerson, Holbrook, & D'Andrea, 2009). It is important to include fluency-building activities in instruction for young braille readers from the very beginning and to maintain high expectations for their progress in reading.

Research shows a correlation between fluency and comprehension for typically sighted children who read print (Marcell, B. 2011-12). Initially, all beginning readers must read with "divided attention", decoding words and reading for meaning simultaneously (Clay, 1991). However, sighted students often begin making the transition from phonetic decoding (sounding out most words) to automatic recognition of many whole words during their first grade year (Steinman, LeJeune, & Kimbrough, 2006; Wormsley, 2006). By second grade, many of them are able to read print fluently at their instructional level and devote the majority of their attention to the meaning of the text.

Beginning braille readers must also read with divided attention, but their thinking is divided in more ways than that of print readers. Not only do they need to decode and read for meaning at the same time, they also need to pay attention to the intricacies of the braille code when decoding and think about their hand and finger movements as they track across lines of text. Children who are learning braille also lack access to picture clues and may have more limited background knowledge and concepts to aid in comprehension.

How does braille differ from print for beginning readers?

When working with beginning braille readers, it is helpful for classroom teachers, parents, and other members of a student's educational team to understand the structure of the braille code and how it impacts the reading process. Briefly, braille differs from print in the following ways for beginning readers:

* Number of symbols: In addition to the letters of the alphabet, the braille code includes 189 space-saving contractions (e.g., special symbols for "ch", "tion", and "en") and short form words (e.g., The word "tomorrow" is spelled "tm"). This means that braille learners have significantly more symbols to learn than their sighted counterparts. Many braille readers do not master the complete braille code until third grade, so they are still assimilating new symbols long after their sighted peers have learned all their letters and begun to read fluently. It should be noted, however, that contractions can help with decoding, since they represent common letter groupings found in words.

* Similar and reversed characters: Nearly every character in braille is a top-bottom, left-right reversal of one or more other characters. Some reversals are normal for beginning braille readers, although they do not remain a long-term problem for most children. In the examples of reversed or similar contractions below, the full braille cell with numbered dots
appears on the left. Contractions are shown in parentheses.

* Multiple meanings for individual characters: Because of the limited number of ways to arrange one to six dots in the braille cell, a single braille shape often has more than one meaning, depending on its position in the braille cell, in a word, or in a sentence. Also, punctuation marks are the same size and shape as letters and contractions, which can be initially confusing to early readers. The example below shows that the same shape represents both an opening quotation mark and the letter "h" when it is written in different parts of the braille cell. This explains why beginning readers often begin a line of dialog with the /h/ sound before they realize the first character is in the lower part of the cell, making it a quotation mark. Many other characters play multiple roles in the braille code, and children assimilate these gradually through supported instruction and extensive reading practice.

* Lack of redundancy: Most print letters include a number of characteristics that help children learn to identify them. A capital "A", for example, has a triangular shape, a point at the top, two "legs" at the bottom, and a horizontal line across the middle. In contrast, braille characters include relatively few identifying characteristics. If a child misses one dot in a letter or contraction while reading, the meaning of the character totally changes.

Research Findings

Contrary to what might be expected, recent research suggests that braille contractions do not have a negative impact on reading progress for children who are blind with no additional disabilities. The results of the Alphabetic Braille and Contracted Braille Study (the ABC Braille Study), a five-year research project that studied the reading progress of children in relation to the number of contractions they had learned, supports the early introduction of contractions as rapidly as students can master them (Emerson, Holbrook, & D'Andrea, 2009). Specific research findings from this study related to braille readers in kindergarten through grade 4 include:

* Children who knew more contractions were better spellers.
* There was no difference in reading speed between beginning readers who knew many contractions and those who knew few. The researchers noted that the reading speed of both groups was significantly slower than that of their print-reading peers.
* Children made relatively few braille errors, such as reversals, when reading aloud, implying that mastery of the braille code was not a major obstacle for most students. Their miscues tended to be more typical of the decoding errors made by sighted readers.
* "Students [with no additional disabilities] who were introduced to more contractions earlier in instruction performed better on reading measures, such as vocabulary, decoding, and comprehension." (Emerson, Holbrook, & D'Andrea, 2009, p. 610) It should be noted that although the ABC Braille Study participants had no disabilities except their blindness, many children with additional disabilities also learn braille contractions successfully.

Strategies to Help Beginning Braille Readers Develop Fluency

Due to the increased cognitive load for beginning braille readers, the automatic recognition of words necessary for fluency may occur somewhat later than for print readers. This is certainly not true for all young children who use braille, but teachers can work on fluency for those who do read more slowly using a variety of instructional strategies.

* Talk to children about fluency, and demonstrate what fluent reading sounds like. Model appropriate rate, phrasing, and expression.

* Select books that are at students' instructional or independent reading level. If you find a student is struggling to read, provide additional support through echo reading (teacher reads first, then child reads the same passage), reading together, or taking turns reading.

* Always preview books that children will be using in a guided reading group or other general education activities. Introduce them to new contractions, vocabulary, and concepts, and give them a chance to read the book through at least once with support.

* Expect students to reread books until they achieve fluency. Check to be sure their fingers are on the word they are reading, even if they have memorized the text. It is far more beneficial for children to read fewer books fluently than to stumble through many books without taking the time to practice them. Create a tactile record with the student to keep track of the books he or she has read fluently. For example, have the student write the title of each book on an index card and attach it to the wall in a "train" of increasing length.

* Expect children to read at home every night. Early readers should practice rereading familiar books, rather than new ones. If the book is short, specify how many times the child should read it.

* Team with the general education teacher during reading groups and assessments. Explain errors related to the braille code, so the teacher can differentiate them from decoding errors.

* Teach students to recognize common words in contracted form quickly and accurately, such as the 220 words from the Dolch list.

* If children are reversing or confusing letters and contractions, provide intensive targeted practice with these characters in isolation using short worksheets, flashcards, and games. Focus on one confusing pair at a time, providing on-going review of those the student has mastered to be sure they are over-learned.

* Build children's reading stamina by increasing the amount of time they are expected to read in one sitting.

* Record students' reading and have them critique their own fluency, perhaps using a student rubric. Provide them with purposeful opportunities to read aloud, such as reading to a younger sibling, participating in a readers' theater production, or visiting another classroom and reading a book as part of a braille presentation.

Watching a kindergartner's fingers move haltingly across a line of braille, it is sometimes difficult to imagine that in a few years' time, those same fingers will be flying across the page. The key to developing fluency is making sure children read (and reread) a lot, until the symbols and rules of the braille code become automatic. To achieve this, students need access to a wide variety of motivating reading materials and opportunities to make some of their own choices about what they read. In time, motivation and practice will lead not only to fluency, but also to the more important goals of understanding and enjoyment.

References

Clay, M.M. (1991). Becoming literate: The construction of inner control. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Emerson, R.W., Holbrook, M.C., & D'Andrea, F.M. (2009). Acquisition of literacy skills by young children who are blind: Results from the ABC Braille Study. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 103(10), 610-624.

Marcell, B. (2011-12). Putting fluency on a fitness plan: Building fluency's meaning-making muscles. The Reading Teacher, 65 (4), 242-249.

Steinman, B. A., LeJeune, B.J., and Kimbrough, B.T. (2006). Developmental stages of reading processes in children who are blind and sighted. Journal of Blindness and Visual Impairment. 100(1): 36-46.

Wormsley, D. (2006, November). Using the functional approach to teach braille literacy. Presentation at the Virginia Workshop on blindness and Visual Impairments. Hampton, Virginia.

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Flying Fingers: Fluency Instruction for Beginning Braille Readers - Paths to Literacy

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Paths to Literacy Flying Fingers: Fluency Instruction for Beginning Braille Readers. For teachers, families, and others interested in literacy for children and youth with visual impairments

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Improving Braille Reading Fluency: The Bridge to Comprehension

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Teaching Students with Visual Impairments

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It is important to document print reading rates to evaluate reading efficiency and academic achievement in order to determine the appropriateness of print as the primary literacy medium. The TVI should document whether the student is completing tasks efficiently through print, making academic progress within a reasonable time compared to sighted peers. The students reading should be assessed using the reading media of choice and using low vision devices.

Although ongoing short passage assessments are helpful, they don't indicate if visual fatigue is a concern for the student. For this reason it is important to evaluate the student's reading when reading lengthier passages and/or collaborate with classroom teachers to evaluate how a student performs when taking longer assessments. If a student experiences fatigue by the end of the day, it may be helpful to evaluate the student in the morning and compare to the reading level at the end of the day.

​The student's overall academic achievement should be considered as well as how the student has performed on state competency tests, and other standardized achievement tests. The magnitude of the gap between the student's reading and the student's sighted peers should be considered when determining appropriate reading media. Some possible solutions identified on p. 262 of Foundations of Low Vision: Clinical and Functional Perspectives by AFB, could include one of the following:

Continue print as the primary literacy medium and add additional literacy tools, such as audio books and live reader services, to the supplement print reading and writing.

Continue with print as the primary literacy medium but provide targeted and intense reading skills instruction to improve reading efficiency and achievement.

Begin instruction in braille reading and writing while continuing to use print and other options to make academic gains until braille becomes either the primary or a secondary literacy medium.

There are many reading rate charts that are available by searching the internet. Fountas & Pinnell, a commonly reading assessment tool used in schools identifies the following expected Oral Reading Rates (Words per Minute) at grade and instructional levels:

End of 1st grade (J-K), 75-100 WPM

End of 2nd - 3rd grade (L-M-N-), 90-120 WPM

End of 3rd grade (N-O-P), 100-140 WPM

End of 4th grade (Q-R-S), 120-160 WPM

End of 5th grade (T-U-V), 140-180 WPM

End of 6th grade (W-X-Y), 160-200 WPM

End of 7th - 8th grade (Y-Z), 180-220 WPM

These averages appear slightly higher than other reading charts and reflect rates of students with unimpaired vision. The following describes the typical oral and silent reading rates for students without visual impairments found in Foundations of Low Vision: Clinical and Functional Perspectives by Corn and Koenig.

1st grade - 60WPM oral reading - less than 81 WPM silent reading

2nd grade - 70 WPM oral reading - 82-108 WPM silent reading

3rd grade - 90 WPM oral reading - 109-130 WPM silent reading

4th grade - 120 WPM oral reading - 131-147 WPM silent reading

5th grade - 120 WPM oral reading - 148-161 WPM silent reading

6th grade - 150 WPM oral reading - 162 - 174 WPM silent reading

7th grade - 150 WPM oral reading - 175-185 WPM silent reading

8th grade - 186-197 WPM silent reading

9th grade - 198-209 WPM silent reading

10th grade - 210-224 WPM silent reading

11th grade - 225-240 WPM silent reading

12th grade - 241-255+ WPM silent reading

In general, to measure a student's oral reading rate and to get the number of words read per minute, record the number of seconds the student needs to read the passage. Divide the number of words in the passage by the number of seconds needed to read each selection, then multiply the quotient by 60 to determine words per minute. Alternatively, divide the number of words in the passage by the number of minutes spent reading to determine the words per minute.
​It is very common for students with visual impairments to have a slower reading rate but the team should look at whether the student is making adequate progress from year to year and whether they can compete with sighted peers.

Additional Resources...

Basic Reading Inventory ("Johns") is a popular informal reading inventory. Large Print and Braille reading lists and reading passages are now available from APH. It helps determine a student's instructional, independent, and frustration reading levels & listening levels based on speed, accuracy, and comprehension. This tool helps determine the most effective literacy modalities for students with visual impairments.

A great resource on conducting Learning Media Assessments is the Texas School for the Blind (TSBVI) Learning Media Assessment.

Functional Vision & Learning Media Assessment (FVLMA) is an assessment tool, available from APH, that helps practitioners gather, store, track, and analyze information regarding students' functional vision and appropriate learning media.

Conducting a FVLMA Recorded Presentation

This presentation provides a walk-through of the process and steps of conducting a Functional Vision Evaluation and Learning/Reading Media Assessment. Key points include interpreting the eye report, materials to use in the assessment, conducting interviews and observations as well as strategies for direct assessment and writing a professional and thorough report that is informative to all audiences. Next steps are also covered including the importance of a low vision assessment, determining the need for additional assistive technology and implications for service.
Objectives:

Effectively interpret eye reports

Select appropriate materials for conducting the FVELMA

Develop strategies for assessment,

Write professional FVLMA reports that include key components

Apply information gained to determine next steps

Includes:

Recorded PowerPoint Show Presentation

Transcript

Presentation handout for note taking

Printables & Links to Resources discussed in presentation

Request a Certificate of Completion
To receive a certificate of completion for 1 contact hour (1 CE hour credit), complete the short Conducting the FVLMA quiz on Google Forms and receive a score of at least 80%. Don't worry. If you don't pass, you can look over your notes or re-watch the presentation and retake the test! If you have any difficulty accessing the form, please contact me so we can troubleshoot!
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*Please contact me if you need to purchase using a purchase order. I am happy to help guide you in the process of adding Teaching Students with Visual Impairments as an approved vendor for your school or program or you can visit the product support page for information on using a PO.

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It is important to document print reading rates to evaluate reading efficiency and academic achievement in order to determine the appropriateness of print as the primary literacy medium. The TVI should document whether the student is completing tasks effi

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Reading Comprehension for Braille readers

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Reading Comprehension for Braille readers

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Abstract

The purpose of this chapter was to examine literature on braille reading comprehension to identify instructional strategies used to increase reading comprehension. Only 12 studies met inclusion criteria, highlighting a void in the literature. Three small groups of literature emerged examining (a) factors affecting braille reading comprehension, (b) comparisons between students reading braille and students with normal vision reading print, and (c) instructional strategies to increase braille reading comprehension. These studies were situated in an existing model of reading comprehension to describe the status of reading research for braille readers and provide direction for future research.

Teaching children to read is a major goal of education, and there has been a specific focus in the United States, since the passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 2001, on using evidence-based strategies to teach reading. Considerable resources were committed to research on reading, resulting in the report from the National Reading Panel (NRP) from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD, 2000). The NRP used meta-analytic tools to review the evidence in five skills thought necessary for reading proficiency: (a) phonemic awareness, (b) phonics, (c) fluency, (d) vocabulary, and (e) text comprehension. Reading comprehension is often seen as the ultimate goal of reading instruction. In fact, the NRP wrote, "Comprehension is critically important to development of children's reading skills and therefore their ability to obtain an education" (NICHD, 2000, pp. 4-1).

It is important to understand what is meant when discussing reading comprehension. The RAND Reading Study Group defined comprehension as, "the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language" (Snow, 2002, pp. 11). To illustrate their definition, the RAND Reading Study Group developed a model of reading comprehension positioning reader, text, and activity within a larger sociocultural context. This model acknowledges possible variability in each of these four areas. Of particular importance to this review is variability in readers' abilities and motivations. Deficits in specific areas of cognitive ability or existing knowledge can affect the level of interaction with text and, therefore, affect readers' ability to construct meaning from text. Although the model presents relevant interactions at a broad level and can be thought of as a general heuristic regarding the relationship between the reader and text, this model does not identify specific cognitive processes involved in reading comprehension.

Perfetti, Landi, and Oakhill (2005) generated a cognitive model of reading (see Fig. 6.1). This model recognizes the bidirectional interactive nature of word reading and linguistics in the processing of written text along with the activation of prior knowledge required for comprehension. The model is broadly based on the simple view of reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986). In this simple view, reading comprehension is defined as the product of decoding skills and listening comprehension skills. Perfetti et al. (2005) expanded upon the "simple view of reading" by recognizing the importance of specific knowledge structures (e.g., vocabulary and declarative), subprocesses supporting language processing (e.g., phonology, morphology, and syntax), and the active application of specific processes that support comprehension (e.g., inference making). The model also distinguishes between two different levels of text representations: a text-based representation and a situation model (e.g., Kintsch and Rawson, 2005, Perfetti et al., 2005). The text-based representation conveys the underlying meaning of the text's explicit information, whereas the situation model involves the intertwining of the reader's background knowledge with the text-based representation to form a deep representation of the text. Thus, the situation model is a more meaningful representation that goes beyond the text-based information (Kintsch, 1998), is cumulative, and evolves as one progresses through the text.

The model proposed by Perfetti et al. (2005) is composed of four major components: word identification, comprehension processes, linguistic system, and prior knowledge. Word identification refers to bottom-up processes necessary for decoding and automatic word identification. Comprehension processes are top-down processes involved in creating a global context, or situation model, from which meaning is extracted. The linguistic system reflects knowledge of the English language including vocabulary, syntax, and morphology. Prior knowledge reflects any and all background information readers possess that might influence their efficiency in the other two areas. An important aspect of the model is the interaction among all four systems, represented graphically by double-headed arrows. These interactions are essential (Snow, 2002) and are the reason why deficits in any area can affect the entire process of reading. While there are several differences between reading print and braille, we believe that comprehending text does not differ significant between input systems (print vs. braille). Therefore, we will use the Perfetti model as a heuristic to evaluate the extent to which braille studies have evaluated key factors responsible for both mean differences between typically developing and braille readers and individual differences within students who read braille.

Braille is a code that allows children who are blind to access print materials. However, there are significant differences between print and braille. Braille is a unique code in which each character is made from a combination of six dots. There are two forms of braille: uncontracted and contracted. Uncontracted braille assigns a unique dot configuration to each letter in the English alphabet. Contracted braille represents common whole words and common letter combinations with one or two braille cells, removing the one-to-one correspondence between print letters and braille characters. Table 6.1 provides some examples of braille symbols and their meanings. For example, the symbol for the letter h can also represent the whole word have in contracted braille if it is preceded and followed by a space. If preceded by a dot 5, it can represent the word here on its own or as part of a longer word as in adhere. Being made of only six dots, there are limited configurations for braille characters. As a result, many braille contractions share the same shape but in a different location within the cell. Some braille contractions even share the exact same configuration, requiring syntax and context to discriminate the character. For example, the same configuration is used for the number eight, the word his, an opening quotation mark, or a question mark. Meaning depends on the local context.

As the individual characters become more difficult to discriminate, words become harder to read, because the unit of recognition in braille is the individual braille character (Nolan & Kederis, 1969). Reading one character at a time may increase the cognitive load of students who read braille (Steinman, LeJeune, & Kimbrough, 2006). To read a word made up of several cells, braille readers need to identify individual characters consecutively, activating individual phonemic units along the way. This sequential, one cell at a time perception may strain orthographic and phonological processing (Adams, 1990). Sometimes braille contractions match common letter groupings in print. For instance, ing is represented by a single braille cell, so when reading the word sing, braille readers can still benefit from the activation of a familiar letter combination. However, braille rules often favor the use of contractions even when jeopardizing correct pronunciation, as in the use of the contraction for the in the word them. Additionally, spelling patterns that exist in print are not always maintained in braille, as in the differences between adhere and adhered (see Table 6.1). It is important to highlight these differences, because, as Daneman (1988) confirmed, braille is read character by character instead of in larger units, and this perceptual feature of braille limits the rate at which it can be read.

Reading rates of children who read braille are and have been of major concern in the research literature (e.g., Nolan and Kederis, 1969, Wall Emerson et al., 2009). This research has documented that reading rates of braille readers are approximately half or less of the speed of their age-matched, sighted peers (Lusk and Corn, 2006, Wall Emerson et al., 2009, Wright et al., 2009). Researchers have also described disparities between the reading comprehension ability and chronological age of students who read braille (Dodd and Conn, 2000, Wall Emerson et al., 2009). In fact, the gap between chronological age and reading age in students who are blind is approximately 3 years (Gillon & Young, 2002).

Unfortunately, the body of research on teaching reading to children who read braille is limited. Ferrell (2006) conducted a literature review identifying 19 studies of reading interventions for children with visual impairments published from 1963 to 2003; none have been replicated. From these studies, Ferrell distinguished nine promising conclusions regarding literacy instruction, only two of which address braille reading comprehension specifically: comprehension decreases when other stimuli compete for students' attention, and deleting words does not affect comprehension.

Since 2003, there has been more research on braille reading. The Alphabetic Braille and Contracted (ABC) Braille Study was a prospective nonrandomized, 5-year descriptive longitudinal study conducted between 2002 and 2007. Researchers used quantitative and qualitative methods to answer broad questions about literacy development, literacy attitudes, and literacy experiences of children who read braille. From these data, Wall Emerson et al. (2009) found vocabulary, measured by the Brigance (1999), to be highly correlated with overall reading ability, as measured by the Johns Basic Reading Inventory (Johns, 2001). In the last year of the study, 47.2% of the participants were performing below grade level in vocabulary, and, across all years of the study, approximately 60% of the participants were reading below grade level. Descriptive statistics supported the conclusion that participants using uncontracted braille had poorer vocabulary and lower reading levels than participants in similar grades using contracted braille. Although graded word lists and passages were followed by comprehension questions, descriptive comprehension data were reported for 10 of the 42 participants, so the ABC Braille Study (Wall Emerson et al., 2009) did not meet inclusion criteria for this review.

Researchers conducting the ABC Braille Study collected data on subskills of reading and overall reading performance, but not specific strategies used to teach reading. Wormsley (2011) developed an approach to braille reading instruction for children with mild cognitive disabilities called the Individualized Meaning-centered Approach to Braille Literacy Education (I-M-ABLE). This approach focuses on key vocabulary instruction using highly motivating words, phonics, contractions, and teaching efficient hand use. Although there is no experimental research on I-M-ABLE, progress-monitoring data have been published to illustrate the effectiveness of this approach with individual students (Campbell, 2011).

There is a shortage of experimental research on braille reading. However, to move forward with research in this field, we must have a better understanding of what is known about reading. We could not locate a published model of braille reading processes; however, there is extensive research on reading processes in typically developing students and students with learning disabilities. Although there are several key differences between the reading of print and the reading of braille, it seems reasonable at this stage in our understanding of braille reading to learn from research in other disability areas. The purpose of this review was to examine the existing literature to determine what factors impact braille reading comprehension. Consequently, articles identified by this review will be discussed within the context of the model of reading comprehension described by Perfetti et al. (2005).

Evidence-based practices for students with visual disabilities

Gilmore oral reading test

Position paper: Intelligence testing of individuals who are blind or visually impaired

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Reading Comprehension for Braille Readers: An Empirical Framework for Research

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The purpose of this chapter was to examine literature on braille reading comprehension to identify instructional strategies used to increase reading c...

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Every book is a world.

Opening that world starts with you - but no pressure. If you're not yet comfortable reading aloud, here's a good place to start. It's a learning process.

Even if you are comfy, here's a good place to start with making reading aloud easier and more fun for both you and your child.

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Ten Tips for Reading Aloud to a Blind Child - Great Expectations

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Reading a book aloud to a blind or visually impaired child takes practice. Here are 10 tips to help you capture the emotion, energy and images on the page.

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Jim Panzee is in a terrible mood for no good reason. His friends try to help, but maybe he just needs a day to feel grumpy?

Featured book: Grumpy Monkey
Theme: Emotions
Activities: Focus on emotions, body language, facial expressions, and more.

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Grumpy Monkey Activity Page - Great Expectations

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Grumpy Monkey activities, crafts, games and more! Find fun and interactive activities to enhance your blind child's early literacy skills.

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Pete the Cat Activity Page - Great Expectations

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Pete the Cat activities, crafts, games and more! Find fun and interactive activities to enhance your blind child's early literacy skills.

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Dragons Love Tacos Activity Page - Great Expectations

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Dragons Love Tacos activities, crafts, games and more! Find fun and interactive activities to enhance your blind child's early literacy skills.

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Babies are first introduced to words on board books - sturdy picture books with simple text. These board books are a combination of print and braille - the same books that sighted children read, but adapted with braille labels. Sighted parents read to their blind toddler, teach them about books, and encourage them to find the braille bumps. These experiences are an important first step to becoming literate, but also give children the chance to expand their imaginations and giggle a little along the way.

Showing 1 to 12 of 16 items

Showing 1 to 12 of 16 items

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Babies are first introduced to words on board books - sturdy picture books with simple text. These board books are a combination of print and braille - the same books that sighted children read, but adapted with braille labels.

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National Braille Press is distributing free bags of beginning braille materials to families with blind and visually impaired children, ages birth to seven, across the U.S. and Canada. The distribution process is a collaborative effort with educators and early intervention professionals.

Note: Limited to one braille bag per blind child per lifetime.

To foster a love of books and reading at an early age;

To support families of preschool blind children and help them spread the word that braille is an effective method of reading and writing;

To introduce visually impaired children to a means of independent reading;

To help parents learn "just enough" braille to assist their child as they grow;

To give parents the knowledge and language they need to advocate for braille instruction when their blind child enters school;

To promote an early expectation of personal achievement through literacy.

1. An age-appropriate print/braille book for three age groups, in English or Spanish: birth-3 (red bags), 4-5 (blue bags), and 6-7 (green bags);

2. A coupon for choosing two of the three following free items: a set of large print/braille playing cards; an additional print/braille book; a copy of Just Enough to Know Better -a braille primer for sighted parents;

3. A print/braille alphabet card, showing the braille symbol for each letter A-Z and each number 0-9;

4. Because Books Matter, a guide for parents on why and how to read books with their young blind child;

5. Because Pictures Matter, a guide for parents on using, finding, and creating tactile imagery;

6. A tactile graphic or flag;

7. A tactile ball (red bags only);

8. Wikki Stix, a product that allows a child to make tactile pictures (blue or green bags only);

9. Tactile Alphabet Letter sheets, showing upper- and lowercase print letters in raised-line format (blue bags only);

10. Tactile Number sheets (green bags only);

11. A braille caravan block.

Start-up funds for the ReadBooks! program came from Mellon Charitable Trust. A significant grant from Readers Digest Partnership for Sight Foundation launched the program across the country. Funding from the following foundations enables us to continue to reach every blind child in the country: Lavelle Fund for the Blind, Inc., BNY Mellon Charitable Giving Program/Arthur F. Blanchard Trust, Delta Gamma Foundation, Moses Kimball Fund, Harold C. Schott Foundation, Edith Glick Shoolman Foundation, and Verizon Foundation.

Anyone who knows, works with, or cares for a blind child, aged birth to seven, can participate in the program.

Information for parents or caregivers.

Information for teachers and agency professionals.

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National Braille Press is distributing free bags of beginning braille materials to families with blind and visually impaired children, ages birth to seven, across the U.S. and Canada. The distribution process is a collaborative effort with educators and early intervention professionals. Note: Limited to one braille bag per blind child per lifetime.

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Research over the past decade has demonstrated that students with intellectual disabilities (ID) benefit from the same proven literacy interventions that are effective for other struggling readers however, there is a significant research-to-practice gap in the field. Students with ID are routinely denied scientifically-based reading interventions based on the outdated belief that this population of children is unable to master foundational literacy skills, including phonics and phonemic awareness. This presentation will examine the most current research on teaching students with ID to be proficient readers, including the specific scope and sequence of skills that begins with print awareness and progresses through the five essential components of reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. The session will focus on evidence-based, practical assessment and intervention strategies specifically tailored to the unique learning needs of students with ID, including those who use Augmentative Alternative Communication (AAC).

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Teaching Students with Visual Impairments

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By: Carmen Willings
teachingvisuallyimpaired.com
June 9, 2019

Students who are blind or visually impaired will may need adaptations to access the language arts program. Literacy and reading skills are foundational skills that will allow the student to access all areas of the curriculum. It is the role of the Teacher of Students with Visual Impairments (TVI) to determine the student's primary reading mode. Although the student should develop strong auditory skills, it is essential for the student to learn to read print and/or braille.

In reading aloud, the teacher reads aloud from a book. Reading aloud to the students should be a daily occurrence for students of all ages as studies have shown that it positively impacts students success in learning to read. Prior to reading the book, provide a summary of the story. Also explain vocabulary that may be unfamiliar to the students. This will give the students a chance to identify the word, place it in context and remember it. Concentrating on concept and vocabulary development will assist students with learning disabilities including those with visual impairments. As you read the story, point to key words on each page to help students make the connection between print and spoken words. If the student is a braille learner, someone knowledgeable in the braille code should ensure the student is able to be exposed to these same opportunities. Remember to read with inflection and intonation.

When presenting the selected reading to the students, discuss with them that you are going to read a book and for what purpose (e.g. learn more about the topic, to read a certain style, etc.) Discuss the title and describe the picture. Encourage students to answer literal question (review and update answers after story is read). Ask students to predict who, what, where, when, and why events happen. Consider having a story helper to hold the book and help turn the pages.

Before you begin a story, read the title and ask your student what the story might be about. Take some time to recall similar experiences that you and your student have had that relate to the story. Present the objects from the story. Encourage the students to explore the materials and make educated guesses about what the story will be about. As you read aloud to your student, you can help them develop a sense of "book behavior" or basic conventions of reading. These behaviors are things like holding a book right-side-up, turning one page at a time, and reading from top to bottom and left to right, using page numbers, and taking care of the books.

Incorporate concepts during this time by talking about how thick/thin the book is, whether or not it is big or small and if it is hard or soft bound. Be sure to describe pictures to the students to help them interpret the pictures, and take time to enjoy the pictures on each page. While reading predictable stories, leave off the ends of sentences and let the student attempt to finish them. After reading aloud, act out stories with the student. When you have advanced to longer stories and books that cannot be completed in one reading session, be sure to finish the story the next time or over several successive readings.

Shared reading provides an opportunity for the student to participate in reading with a reader that reads with fluency and expression. When you are reading together with a student who is learning braille, be sure that the student's fingers are in contact with the braille as you read. Encourage the student to use a light touch ("Smooshing" the braille will make it unreadable!) and not to "scrub" the braille. Also, encourage the student to smoothly "track" along the lines with the pads of the fingers on both hands from left to right as you read. In the beginning, it is not necessary for the student's fingers to be on the same words as you are reading - this will come later with more formal instruction. As the student gets older and more experienced with books, you may want to read only when they are tracking. This way the student will begin to understand that to read braille, you must keep your hands moving! After a shared reading experience, the student should be encouraged to re-read the story independently either silently or aloud.
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Make sure the student has all books in an appropriate medium. If it is braille, provide the book to the teacher well in advance to allow time to produce it in braille.

If there are key vocabulary words or repetitive phrases, you may need to assist the student in locating those words as they are read.

In independent reading, the student is in charge of reading independently, using strategies to decode unfamiliar words. Students should select books that they can read at the independent level and avoid books that are at the instructional or frustration level. The goal is to build fluency in reading. Time should be set aside for daily opportunities to read independently whether during the course of the school day, at home, or both.

After reading the story, have students identify characters, setting, and events in the story. Have students retell or re-enact the story. Discuss if the story was fantasy or reality. Recognize main incidents, plot, and how problems are solved, relate to personal experiences. Compare/Contrast to different versions of the story

Encourage students recall information and retell sequence of events. Compare and contrast it to others stories that have been read. Tell main idea of selection that has been read. Ask "wh" questions about the story. Generate or list questions regarding the main idea. Compare information from books, magazines, newspapers and on-line resources about unit topic. Create maps, diagrams, charts, and graphs to convey information learned about topic.

Encourage students to recall important ideas and respond to questions. Scaffold the questions and provide multiple choice if necessary. Be accepting of answers - reflect on responses and expand. Ask students "wh" questions about the story (incorporate questions about characters, setting and events in the story). Ask students to determine the main idea of the story (Use title page, photos, captions, and illustrations to help develop comprehension). Discuss main incidents, plot, and how problems are solved, relating this to personal experiences.

Building vocabulary can be natural when discussing items related to the current topic or identifying words in the stories, poems, and songs. The following is a list of ways to develop vocabulary: Make a list of words from the book, poem or song. Determine meaning of unknown words through use of classroom dictionary. Look in thesaurus to identify words that have similar and opposite meanings.

Discuss similarities and differences between: characters; between events in the story and their lives; between current books and other books on the topic or other books by the author, etc.

Rogow, Sally. Language, Literacy and Children with Special Needs. Pippin Publishing, 1997. This book focuses on the importance of supporting students with special needs so they can participate and be integrated into the educational mainstream. Rogow outlines a variety of approaches that will help teachers ensure that learning happens for everyone.

"All individuals, regardless of their abilities or disabilities, have the right to an opportunity to learn to read and write in order to increase and enhance their educational opportunities, vocational success, communicative competence, self-empowerment capabilities, and independence." ​- Center for Literacy and Disability Studies

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Reading Instruction for Students who are Blind or Visually Impaired

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Students who are blind or visually impaired will typically need adaptations to access printed information throughout the language arts program. Literacy and reading skills are foundational skills that will allow the student to access all areas of the curr

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💕10 Tips for Teaching Blind or Visually Impaired Students // Special Education

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The average classroom is designed for fully sighted students. But according to the CDC, nearly 3 percent of children under the age of 18 are blind or visually impaired. Some of these children attend schools specifically for teaching blind students, but others enroll in their local public or private schools. As a teacher, you may wonder how to accommodate these students to give them the best chance to succeed. That's why we've asked some experts to offer practical tips you can use every day.

What does it mean to be blind or visually impaired?

When you hear the term "blind," you likely think of someone who has no vision at all. But that's just one part of the visual spectrum. Here are some other terms you should know.

Partially sighted: A person who is partially sighted has some vision in one or both eyes. This term is frequently used in educational settings.

Low vision: This term describes a person with poor vision that cannot be fully corrected with glasses or contacts. In some cases, the person can see things up close but not at a distance, or vice versa. Others have poor visual acuity across the entire spectrum.

Legally blind: A legally blind person has vision that cannot be corrected to better than 20/200 in at least one eye. It also refers to those who have a field of sight of 20 degrees or less.

Totally blind: One who is blind has total loss of sight.

Students may fall anywhere along this spectrum, so it's important to know more about their specific level of impairment. They may have an IEP or 504 on file, so study it carefully to learn what you can do to help them do well in your classroom.

Source: USA Today

A Note About Language

The debate continues about "person-first" vs. "identify-first" language, and the correct terms to use to describe those who are differently abled. Some organizations and people prefer the terms "blind person" or "visually impaired person." Others encourage the use of "person who is blind" or "person with visual impairment." In this article, we've used both forms, since you're likely to encounter them both in the real world. We recommend asking affected students in your classroom if they have a preference, and follow their lead.

Meet the Experts

Charlene Laferrera, MEd, is a Certified Teacher of the Visually Impaired (TVI). She's spent 30+ years working in various school systems, including the Perkins School for the Blind, with students ranging in age from birth to 22 years of age.

Magali Gueths, MEd, has been a Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist (COMS) for 20+ years, working in various locations and school districts. Magali has a fully blind son, so she innately understands the needs of blind and visually impaired students.

10 Practical Tips for Teaching Blind or Visually Impaired Students

Source: Perkins School for the Blind

Charlene and Magali assembled this list of tips for teachers who work with students who are blind or visually impaired. Overall, they stressed the importance of ensuring these students always have access to COMS or certified TVIs in their schools. They also offer these day-to-day actions for helping blind or visually impaired students succeed.

1. Always use names

Always use a visually impaired student's first name when addressing them. This way they will know you are talking to them and not someone else. When passing them in hallways, instead of saying, "Hi," have people announce their names, as blind or visually impaired students may not be able to recognize faces. For example: "Hi Sara, it's Mrs. Murphy. How are you today?" Prompt fellow students to do the same because this fosters connection in the school community.

2. It's OK to use words that reference sight

Don't avoid words like "see" and "look." Just like their sighted peers, these words should be part of a blind or visually impaired student's vocabulary to connote how they see, whether by touch, bringing things close, or in normal conversation, like saying "see you later!"

3. Don't gesture, always verbalize

When writing on the board, always verbalize what you are writing so the student has access to that information and can follow along. Use positional and directional concepts like above/under, on top, behind/in front of, left/right, etc., and use descriptive sentences like "The ball is next to the door" instead of "The ball is over there." Avoid words and phrases like "here," "there," "over here," "over there," and gestures that provide direction, e.g., pointing to a location without verbalizing what is being pointed to because visually impaired students cannot see that.

4. Avoid asking if a student can see something

Don't ask a student, "Can you see this?" They often can see it, but that does not mean that they can access it or read it. Instead ask, "Can you find X?" or "Can you identify all the words and numbers without guessing?" or "Can you see some parts of the board better than others?"

5. Correct seating is crucial

Always favor the stronger side of the student's vision due to visual field deficits. For example, if the student only uses his left eye, they would need to sit on the right side of the classroom away from the windows. Seating facing a light source (sun, windows) should ideally be at their back.

6. Contrast, contrast, contrast!

When teaching visually impaired or blind students, use contrast for everything. Think, "bold, big, and simple!" Use bright balls in contrast with the floor at the gym. Stairs should have at least the first and last steps taped with a contrasting color (typically yellow) at the edge of the step.

7. Follow the leader

When in line, direct their attention to the child in front of them using color of clothing or hair and have them model/follow what that child is doing (stopping, walking straight, turning, etc.), always moving slowly for safety.

8. Be a confident sighted guide

If you need to be a sighted guide for a preschooler, offer two fingers or your wrist for them to hold. You are not holding them unless it is for their safety. For older students, they hold just above your elbow with their dominant hand.

9. Safety first

Students need to understand the "rules of the road" and always use the right-hand side of hallways or the right railing. Use boundaries like cones in the gym, lines on the pavement to follow from school to the playground, etc. If there are changes to the classroom, walk the student through alone so they know where things are.

10. Examine your own beliefs

Be aware of your own acceptance and your beliefs surrounding what a student who is blind or visually impaired can do both in your classroom and as a professional. Your acceptance of a student who has a visual impairment will serve as an example to all the students in your class.

What practical tips do you have to offer those who are teaching visually impaired or blind students? Come share your thoughts and ask for advice in the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook.

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10 Tips for Teaching Blind or Visually Impaired Students

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When teaching visually impaired or blind students, these simple suggestions from experts in the field can make a world of difference.