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It is difficult for the Cambodian Government to act by themselves to try and eradicate sex trafficking within Cambodia completely. Efforts are being made by the Cambodian Government but they are in need of the extra help from international governments also.

Despite promises by the Cambodian Government to eradicate trafficking rings, people are still being sold in Cambodia for sex and human trafficking (Yan, 2022). The Government of Cambodia are not fully meeting the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking but are making efforts to do so (Saiesha, 2022).

More internationally, the United States fund an international programs that the main aim of them is to prevent trafficking, protect and help victims as well as support prosecutions through giving training for the police and other criminal justice personnel (Administration for children & families 2021). This program supports different countries not just in America, with the overall aim being international development as a whole.

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Micheal Julian Leach, a ‘former ministerial aid at the U.K.’s Department of Trade and Industry’ (Henderson, 2014) was sentenced to 12 years in 2010 for the sex trafficking of 3 Cambodian girls aged between 10 and 15. He was discovered in a guesthouse living with the 3 girls and prostituting them. In 2005, Leach was arrested for impersonating a doctor and sexually abusing children in an orphanage in Phnom Penh but the case fell apart. Leach was allowed to walk free.

In 2001, British Rockstar Gary Glitter moved to Phnom Penh after being convicted of child pornography in England. The Minister of Women's Affairs, at the time, Mu Sochua, urged that he was a danger to the children of Cambodia and made a pleading case for his deportation. Glitter was deported to Vietnam, where he was later arrested for the sexual abuse of 2 girls aged 10 and 11. He turned up again a year later in Cambodia, where he was a guest of an unidentified guest house.

Phnom Penh has become notorious as a safe haven for paedophiles over the past decades. Due to its poverty and poor law enforcement, it has become a magnet to those wanting to commit crimes against children. Cambodian authorities are still allowing individuals with previous sexual convictions to enter their country and live freely. In 2003, 180 foreigners were arrested for child sexual abuse in Cambodia, with up to 40 percent of those having previous convictions of a similar nature in their home country or elsewhere. (Bopha, 2012).

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Cambodia has many legislations and regulations in place to address trafficking of any sort. These include the following:

1. Law on Suppression of Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation: This law was first addressed in 2008 and amended in 2018. It criminalises all forms of trafficking, including sex trafficking, and imposes penalties of up to life imprisonment and fines. It also provides protection and support of victims, including access to healthcare, legal representation, and safe housing.

2. Criminal Code: The Criminal Code of Cambodia criminalises a range of offenses related to sexual exploitation, including prostitution, procurement, and indecent acts.

3. Labour Law: The Labour Law of Cambodia includes provisions that protect workers from exploitation, including forced labour and trafficking.

4. Sub-decree on Minimum Standards for the Protection of Victims of Human Trafficking: This sub-decree sets out guidelines for the protection of victims, including access to healthcare, education, and vocational training.

5. Anti-Trafficking in Persons and Anti-Smuggling of Migrants Law: This law was enacted in 2014 and provides a framework for addressing trafficking and smuggling in Cambodia.

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Outshoorn believed human trafficking mainly occurred for economic reasons such as economic development within a country such as Cambodia in terms of employment. however in Cambodia there is also a need for sex service which can fall victim to woman and children within the country and outside.
this theory demonstrates the concepts on the pushing factors on why individuals are being migrated into countries across the globe such as Cambodia. However, this is done illegally and can put these individuals in danger when travelling to these countries and when they arrive. Due to Cambodia’s economic state, many individuals who have been trafficked are not looked after properly and their living conditions can put their well-being in jeopardy.
following this, migrating into another country illegally can be very costly, in order for an individual to fund the cost of moving countries illegally the only way in which they can achieve this is by selling almost everything they may own as well as all their money. This is highly dangerous and troubling as that individual is then left with nothing which means is 'unlikely they can turn back afterwards'. (Mandic, 2017)

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Cambodia has agreed to several international conventions and protocols related to human trafficking, including the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime and its protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children.

Another international legislation that protects human trafficking is The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This declaration was adopted in 1948 and recognises that all human beings have fundamental human rights that must be protected, including the right to be free from slavery, servitude, and forced labour.

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While legislation on human trafficking is an important step in the action against this crime, there are several challenges associated with its implementation and effectiveness. For example, inadequate enforcement. Law enforcement agencies lack the resources and training to effectively enforce anti-trafficking laws. This can lead to low prosecution rates and a lack of deterrence for traffickers themselves. Another reason is due to limited victim protection. While many laws provide for the protection of trafficking victims, the implementation of these protections can be weak or non-existent. There are also issues when it comes to defining trafficking. Different countries may use different definitions of trafficking, which can lead to confusion and difficulties in implementing and enforcing laws. Finally, the main focus of these trafficking laws is on prosecution rather than addressing the root causes of trafficking and preventing it from occurring in the first place.

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BBC News, 2015. Clothes retailers accused of labour abuses in Cambodia. BBC News [online], 12 March 2015. Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-31842046. (Accessed: March 16, 2023)

Coffey., S. (2018) Seeking justice in cambodia : human rights defenders speak out. Melbourne: MUP e-store. Available from: https://web.s.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzIyMzIyMDZfX0FO0?sid=e06389e1-6fdf-4450-92fa-c1f389ac5415@redis&vid=0&format=EK&rid=1 (Accessed: March 16, 2023)

Hart, J., 2009. Human Trafficking [online]. Google Books. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. Available from: https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=fPdMyZIvboIC&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=most+common+places+for+human+trafficking&ots=fJteKN1N6E&sig=KU-4mY4Klms_7ZscIt2W35TrXCU&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=most%20common%20places%20for%20human%20trafficking&f=false [Accessed 6 Mar 2023].

Kruy, N., Kim, D. and Kakinaka, M., 2010. Poverty and Vulnerability: An Examination of Chronic and Transient Poverty in Cambodia. International Area Review, 13 (4), 3–23. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com.bournemouth.idm.oclc.org/doi/epdf/10.1177/223386591001300401 .(Accessed: March 17, 2023)

Morris, C., 2016. Justice inverted: Law and human rights in Cambodia. In The handbook of contemporary Cambodia. Available from: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315736709-14/civil-society-cambodia-challenges-contestations-louise-coventry?context=ubx (pp. 49-61) (Accessed: March 16, 2023).

Samarasinghe, V., 2008. Female Sex Trafficking in Asia : The Resilience of Patriarchy in a Changing World. New York: Routledge (Routledge International Studies of Women and Place). Available from: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=495984&site=ehost-live (Accessed: 7 March 2023).

Slocomb., M. 2010. An economic history of cambodia in the twentieth century. Singapore: NUS Press. Available from: https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/43/oa_monograph/chapter/2310051/pdf (Accessed: March 15, 2023).

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Human Trafficking is a major worldwide issue that is extremely complex. 'Human trafficking is the the term used in this day and age for modern day slavery. Like African slaves in the past centuries, people are being trafficked around the world. These people are sometimes held captive and forced to work.' (Hart, 2009). In the modern day there is many different types of human trafficking, some of these include sex trafficking, child trafficking, forced labour, organ trafficking and domestic servitude. Sex trafficking is the most common type of trafficking in Cambodia due to it's history in conflict and it's views on specific genders.

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In the past there has been lots of conflict in Cambodia. these wars have led to a dramatic increase in sex trafficking. 'Prior to 1975, many Cambodian women were used as prostitutes for foreign men who came to Cambodia, due to the wars that were taking place in Southeast Asia' (Samarasinghe, 2008). Furthermore, there is a popular Cambodian saying 'Men are gold: women are cloth' (Samarasinghe, 2008). Essentially, this means that the men have a much higher worth than women in the country. Men are allowed to have multiple sexual partners before marriage, but if a woman loses their virginity before marriage it is seen as a woman losing their worth and little respect that they had before.

Sex trafficking was most commonly linked with sex workers. So when the UNTAC left after conflict ended, sex work lowered significantly. 'At the end of 1992 it was estimated that there were 20,000 sex workers in Phnom Penh (the capital city of Cambodia) alone. When the UNTAC left in 1994 it only took two years for the sex worker percentage to drop significantly. By 1996 it was estimated that there were 4000-10,000 females working in around 400 brothels.' (Samarasinghe, 2008). This shows that conflict has had a great influence on the amount of sex trafficking that happens in Cambodia. Furthermore, it is estimated that '1/40 children that are born in Cambodia will eventually be sold into sex slavery.' (Samarasinghe, 2008). This is due to the small population of the country and the influx of sex workers brought into the country when the UNTAC where occupying the area.

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Cambodia has constantly been seen as a country with plenty of economic potential. In the late 1800's the French took over Cambodia and used it for its economic potential. Although, this only lasted for around 60 years. 'There were eyewitness accounts of a way between the French expeditionary forces and the Khmer Viet Minh on human settlement patterns.' (Slocomb, 2010). this was quickly settled, but it does show that there has always been a struggle for independence in Cambodia. This may be because of a few factors. Some of those being that Cambodia is a small country and it is much less developed than the other countries that have interfered with the country.

One of Cambodias main resources was and still is it's forests. 'In 1970 it was estimated that there were 13.5 million hectares of forests that dominate Cambodia. These forests are a high source of income and the forest sectors annual income contributed to 3.7% of it's GDP (Gross Domestic Product). This was because the forests are covered in rich and diverse products. Apart from timber, the forests include firewood, charcoal, bamboo, rattans, honey cardamoms and bark. From 1964-68 there was a very high income because of these products.' (Slocomb, 2010).

In the the 70's there was a large communist movement in Cambodia. this was due to the fact that there were neighbouring countries like North Korea and Vietnam were doing the same. this caused lots of outrage because it was a huge movement in Asian countries because of the influence of Russia. 'Eventually the revolution turned on itself and there were huge rifts caused in Vietnam and Cambodia. There were party ranks that got heavily depleted from bloody surges and many of the Cambodian communists fled to refugee camps in Vietnam.' (Slocomb, 2010). All of this conflict had a heavy part to play in Cambodias economic turmoil.

When it comes to the present day, there have been plenty of changes in Cambodia. most of these changes have been set into motion since 1990. For instance, there was a Declaration of Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia. This highlighted that 'The main responsibility of Cambodias reconstruction and rehabilitation should rest with the Cambodian people and the governments that are formed after free and fair elections. There should be no attempt to impose a development strategy from any outside sources.' (Slocomb, 2010). This was a step in the right direction to change Cambodia from the  once war ridden country. Once the Cold War finished the pressure of communism was eased 'During the civil war their assets were stripped to aid the war. One final battle ensued in the rich hardwood forests of Cambodia in 1998. After, the communist movement was definitively abandoned.' (Slocomb, 2010). Moving into the next century, Cambodians held their own elections to appoint new leaders and each having less violence than the last.

'Much has changes since Cambodia joined the Paris Peace Agreements in 1991 and a number of peace-building initiatives from the United Nations. Although there have been many times where the have stubbornly challenged reform efforts since 1990.' (Morris, 2016).

The history and economy of Cambodia is one of the key reasons why the country is riddled with crime like human trafficking. As previously mentioned, during the wars that ravaged the country many soldiers demanded sexual favours which increased the level of prostitution. When the soldiers left there was less of a demand for those certain jobs. Therefore, many women and children had to find other ways to get by. Furthermore, all the conflict in the country led to many other countries taking advantage of Cambodias natural riches that they could have economically benefited from. All of these attributes have led to the country having to put their wealth and economic presence on hold until the last 30 years.

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In 2019, the Cambodian authorities were able to crack down on 78 cases of sex trafficking and rescued 263 victims. Out of the 263 victims that were rescued, 70 of them were under the age of 15 years old (Dara 2019). This is an incredible statistic of the work being done by the local authorities.

The ministry's secretary of state Chou Bun Eng, has reported that the authorities a re making great efforts in tackling this crime (Dara 2019). It is proven that the increased efforts in investigations throughout Cambodia led to the most amount of crackdowns and convictions compared to any year prior (Dara 2019). These statistics will continue to increase as time goes on as the local authorities are stepping up and working harder to ensure sex trafficking is being stopped and the perpetrators are getting the convictions they deserve.

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Within Cambodia sex trafficking is a major issue within adults and children. Charity organisations are so useful for these situations as it provides aid for the individuals that have been unfortunately involved in sex trafficking as well as giving education to outsiders with signs to look out for to do with sex trafficking.

The main charity/aid organisation in Cambodia is 'Cambodia Against Child Trafficking' also known as 'Cambodia ACT'. Cambodia ACT was established in July 2001, in Khao Yai (Thailand), when representatives from Cambodia convened alongside 'Asia Against Child Trafficking' who agreed to work to fight the ongoing issue of child trafficking in Southeast Asia (ACTs, 2023).

Destiny Rescue is another charity that rescues children from sex trafficking throughout Cambodia and help them from being involved again. The aim of Destiny Rescue is to reintegrate these children back into the appropriate setting and to then focus on the child's future (Rescue n.d.). This organisation is based solely on trying to help these young people make their way back to a 'normal' life that children should be having. In 2022, Destiny Rescue's anti- trafficking work was able to confirm 108 children entered their care, as well as 177 rescues and 3 arrests (Rescue n.d.).

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Education on the sex trafficking in Cambodia is one of the most important parts of the attempt to stop sex trafficking as it gives all individuals a basic knowledge of what you are looking out for. Also, there is information on help and support if you have been a victim within sex trafficking.

Sex trafficking within Cambodia is a clandestine topic, it is not something that is overly spoken about throughout Cambodia (Dyer, 2022). The charity Destiny Rescue have created a team of people ranging from individuals that have been involved in sex trafficking to psychologists, this team is called the 'Freedom Fighter' (Rescue .n.d). Freedom Fighter is used within investigations to add extra help for Destiny Rescue as well as they are a group of people that can educate other young people for what to look out for within things such as the sex trafficking rings.

Traffickers will usually prey on victims who are looking for a better life, so these people will promise the world and offer things such as better job opportunities or romantic relationships to try to reel people in (Centre, 2020). By being educated at a young age, bits of information like this it will decrease the risk of children getting involved within sex trafficking as they at least the basic knowledge of some signs they may be a target for sex trafficking.

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The Cambodian Government has launched the countries first national task force to tackle sex/human trafficking. This new task force will bring together law enforcement groups, government ministries and international agencies to increase the chance of combating the sex trafficking in Cambodia (Delauney 2007). With there being so many small organisations trying to stop trafficking this makes statistics of the success of anti-trafficking efforts harder to be completely accurate (Delauney 2007).

For victims of sex trafficking, there are more noticeable signs of trafficking that are being publicised to reduce the risk of getting caught in the sex trafficking trade. The organisations that are set up to help stop sex trafficking in Cambodia also give out vital information on what the main signs are with someone is being trafficked are.

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The Number of Offences and Victims in Cambodia

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The Number of Offences and Victims in Cambodia

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Cambodia is a source, transit and destination country for human trafficking which makes it a highly dangerous place for vulnerable people. Human trafficking in Cambodia is consistently rising and has therefore been classified by the US State Department as a Tier 2 watchlist country. As a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, human trafficking in Cambodia has worsened and led to the rise of online exploitation of young children and women. Due to the severity of the crime, the true nature and numbers are difficult to gather. However, in 2021, The Department of State identified a total of 364 human trafficking victims after screening for trafficking among 8,370 Cambodian migrants working abroad. A 2018 report by the International Labour Organization shows that there are approximately 16,000 individuals involved in commercial sexual exploitation in Cambodia. This figure is extremely high and a cause for concern as the victims are very vulnerable and therefore trapped.

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From 1975-1991 Cambodia was changed in many different ways. This was due to the fact that there was a 'Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia. In this time prostitution was fair suppressed until the UNTAC (United National Transitional Authority Cambodia) arrived. The UNTAC included mostly males and troops. Their presence increased the demand of female and child prostitution' (Samarasinghe, 2008). Due to the increase of nearly 20,000 mostly male troops it was clear that the levels of prostitution where going to increase.

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“Human trafficking involves the use of force, fraud, or coercion to obtain some type of labor or commercial sex act. Every year, millions of men, women, and children are trafficked worldwide” (Campaign, 2022). Including our focus country, Cambodia. The sale of individuals with the aim of slave labor, sex exploitation, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others is known as human trafficking. Obtaining a partner in the case of a forced marriage or the removal of organs or tissues, including those used in surrogacy and ova removal, fall under this category. Human trafficking is related to several issues. These can involve organ harvesting, prostitution, forced marriage, and forced labour.

Modern slavery and smuggling - Human trafficking is a form of modern slavery. This occurs when victims are transported inside or across nations so they can be abused (Crane, 2020). This sometimes occurs as a result of smuggling, which is the illegal importation or exportation of goods. Regardless of a person's colour or gender, this may happen to them (Carrapico, 2021). A person being trafficked might be the result of several factors. They may have been abducted or forced, they may have been fleeing cruelty or poverty, or they may have just been attempting to better their lives and provide for their families. Debt may be a trap that individuals fall into. The tourist sector is particularly susceptible to modern slavery and human trafficking due to a number of variables. Because of the regular visitor turnover, hotels and airports are relatively anonymous places where trafficking victims might pass unnoticed.

Human trafficking for sex exploitation is referred to as sex trafficking. When victims are coerced into non-consensual sexual actions in a kind of sexual slavery, it has been referred to as a sort of contemporary slaverY (CDC, 2022).

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Tools That Teach: What is Human Trafficking?

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Human rights have dramatically changed Cambodia, just like many other countries in the last 100 years. Due to multiple different countries being involved in the leadership of Cambodia the human rights would have changed each time. At some points these ideas and laws may have contradicted each other. As stated above, many neighbouring countries have taken advantage of Cambodia for it's riches in the past. Some of the weather figures took this as an opportunity for wealth. One example being, 'Benny Widyono was a leading member of the United Nations Transactional Authority in Cambodia. His father was a businessman who exploited the lives of tobacco farmers' (Coffey, 2018). Clearly exploiting people is breaks many human rights laws.

Although, ,any human rights issues have been improved since Cambodia joined the 1991 Paris Peace Accords and other UN accords. However, there are still plenty of issues in Cambodia involving human rights. One of these issues include forced labour for big name brands. 'Several high end high street fashion brands have been uncovered by Human Rights Watch as it uncovered alleged abuses at Cambodian garment factories' (BBC, 2015). This shows that although Cambodia has generally improved, it's human rights and criminal justice system need to be improved to stop situations like these happening.

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Many people can be a victim of sex trafficking and exploitation. Victims can be unwilling and forced into trafficking, however, they can also choose to be trafficked as a desperate attempt to get some money. Cambodia’s main victims are women, children and migrants. Women who live in poverty with little/no education are severely vulnerable to being trafficked and volunteering themselves to be trafficked for a source of income. Poor and desperate families often sell their children for sexual exploitation in order to have some money to live. Children can also be abducted and sold from 3rd parties. UNICEF estimates that approximately 35% of sex workers in Cambodia are children under the age of 18. Migrants who are undocumented are at risk for being sexually exploited and forced into labour as their whereabouts is unknown and therefore can be easily hidden.

The World Vision report has stated that a survey done on Cambodian sex trafficked victims has shown that only 25% of victims were trafficked by a stranger. Two thirds were trafficked by someone they knew (family member or neighbour). This makes it highly dangerous for vulnerable victims as they can be trafficked by anyone, whether they are related or not. This can also mean that these cases are more likely to go unreported due to fear of their loved-one finding out and going to prison.

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As previously mentioned, throughout the last century there has been lots of turmoil due to political views and potential business opportunities for the rich. Furthermore, the amount of wars that have resulted in a change of leadership has resulted in different nations taking advantage of Cambodias riches. Most of this wealth was not reciprocated back into Cambodias economy. Therefore, due to their history Cambodia have not had as much economic wealth because of other nations taking advantage of their economic potential.

Because of these previous issues Cambodia is ridden with poverty. 'Poverty has been declared as a serious issue in Cambodia. It is clear that it has increasingly declined over the last decade' (Kruy et al, 2010). This shows that although Cambodia overcomed it's lack of independence, it is still negatively effecting their economy. On average, '24.8% of Cambodian households are classed as poor households' (Kruy et al, 2010). This means overall, nearly a quarter of the households in the country have a major issue with poverty. Therefore, the residents of these households may have to find loopholes in the law to feed their families. One large topic of controversy that this may lead to is human trafficking. Either being trafficked to another country for better opportunities of making money or, sex trafficking. Sex trafficking is fairly common in Cambodia and can be made worse by the lack of gender equality. As said before one example of this is the Cambodian saying 'Men are gold: women are cloth' (Samarasinghe, 2008). This saying shows that women are seen as almost expendable compared to men and this can lead to women used in highly illegal sex trafficking schemes to make money.

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Case Study into Vietnamese women in Cambodia 

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Case Study into Vietnamese women in Cambodia 

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‘The Dangers of oversimplification- A case study of Vietnamese Women in Cambodia’ by Joanna Busza, looks into the trafficking of Vietnamese women in Cambodia for Sex. The study took place is Svay Pak Village, Phnom Penh, an area known for sex work within Cambodia. At the start of the study in 2000, there were 24 brothels employing an estimated 320 women, however by March 2002, there were 17 remaining with approximately 279 sex workers. The lower numbers are due to decreasing client numbers. Vietnamese sex workers have been particularly popular in Cambodia because of stereotypes which position them as sexually adventurous and uninhibited. Due to long standing ethnic tensions between the Vietnamese and Khmer, the Vietnamese sex workers are regarded as less worthy of respect than Khmer women.

Young women followed migration routes from Southern provinces in Vietnam, to specific brothels in Svay Pak where brothel managers would pay their families up to $3000 US dollars. The women would then remain in these brothels for between 6 months and 2 years to work off this debt. They would house an average of 14 clients a week each.

Through interviews with the Vietnamese Sex workers it was discovered that many of them shared a background of poverty, which encouraged them to go to Svay Pak to help their families economically. However, not all women forwarded their money to their family, for some, they viewed their life in Svay Pak as an opportunity to become financially independent. For some women, their life in Svay park was not a choice. At least 6 participants of the study reported having been tricked into sex work. The women had agreed to migrate to Cambodia with the promise of alternative work such as waitressing or being a maid. However, on arrival realised the money they owed for transportation costs could only realistically be reaped through brothel work. (Busza, 20

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Many of the Vietnamese women and children who migrate to Cambodia to engage in sex trafficking are the victims of debt-based compulsion. According to Nonprofits Organisations, some Vietnamese victims are transported by criminal gangs through Cambodia before they are taken advantage of in Thailand and Malaysia (Maher et al., 2015).

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Buying Children in Cambodia | Nefarious Documentary Clip

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According to the U.S. Department of State's 2021 Trafficking in Persons Report, Cambodia convicted 107 traffickers in 2019, and 138 traffickers in 2020. In 2021 the Department of State found the Government prosecuted 109 suspected traffickers involved in 64 cases under the anti-trafficking law. Four of these cases involved sex trafficking, 37 involved forced labour, and 23 involved various forms of exploitation. The number of prosecutions and convictions are often much lower than the true number of traffickers, as many cases of sex trafficking in Cambodia go unreported and thus, undocumented. As it is such a dangerous crime, it can be hidden and disguised so the perpetrators don’t get caught. Additionally, the corruption and lack of resources within the criminal justice system means there is a hindrance in the prosecution of these traffickers.

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Chab Dai

‘Chab Dai’ means joining hands in Khmer, the Cambodian language, therefore this charity aims to join together Cambodia with the rest of the world to help restore and protect at every level. Through the work of this charity, in 2020, 123 survivors of human trafficking were repatriated back to Cambodia and 17 brokers of human trafficking were arrested. This organisation also aims to educate communities on trafficking to ensure fewer numbers of people are targeted. In 2020, 793 individuals attended meetings and training with Chab Dai. The charity also provides counselling for survivors of human trafficking to ensure that throughout their reintroduction into their community they are supported. (Chab Dai, 2020)

Ally Global Foundation

This organisation helps with the prevention and aftercare of children who experience trafficking. They provide a safe place to find healing and long term aftercare for children who have been rescued from abuse or trafficking. Through the organisation, the children will receive counselling, care, education and vocational training to find independence. ( Ally Organisation, 2019).

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The complexity of sex trafficking in Cambodia is deep-rooted. This is because of the challenges it faces when it is addressed. There is a lack of support for the victims of sex trafficking as they may not have access to healthcare and safe housing etc. There is little education on trafficking and how traffickers operate, increasing the number of vulnerable, potential victims. Due to the complexity of the crime, it is increasingly hard to trace and prosecute traffickers. This is because trafficking has developed in such a way (online exploitation and increased use of technology) that it has become easier to hide, go unseen and trace the source. As many victims of trafficking can’t report the crime due to fear and not having the resources to do so, many traffickers get away with their crimes, allowing them to traffic other people as well, thus justice is not being served, and the crime itself is still in operation.

To effectively address sex trafficking in Cambodia, an inclusive approach is needed, including prevention, protection, and prosecution. This includes raising awareness and education around the crime, providing resources and support for victims, addressing the root causes of vulnerability, such as poverty and discrimination, and strengthening the criminal justice system to ensure accountability for the traffickers is taken and prosecution can then take place.

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When conducting their research (Hernandez & Rudolf) it was found that the largest percentage of victims that are illegally trafficked were/ are from Eastern European countries or south Asian countries like Cambodia. Individuals are trafficked or migrated into specific countries due to the high desperate demand for better financial income.
Speaking on this, different countries are in demand for different aspects from trafficked individuals, for example, illegal organisations in France pray on individuals for sex services mainly while countries like Cambodia use trafficked victims for financial gain which can consist off forced labour.
relating to this, there has been an increase in modern slavery victims across the globe with 36% increase in a year. In the UK alone there was a reported '6,993 potential victims referred into the government system' (BBC, 2019).

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Each country has its own definition of sex trafficking, which makes it difficult to eradicate the crime. To put it another way, what is permitted in one country could not be in another. Human trafficking is a felony that entails forcing or coercing a person to perform sexual activities for monetary gain or to provide labour or services. Coercion can be psychological or physical, covert or overt.
Owing to the complexity of the crime, traffickers frequently operate under the radar, and people who are trafficked are unlikely to recognise themselves as victims and frequently take responsibility for their circumstances. Because victims seldom reveal their circumstances, it is harder to pinpoint the crime in this context.

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Further problems with trafficking and migration within Cambodia have since surfaced in many Trafficking prevention organisations such as the 'United States Department of State.
more over, Cambodia has around 131,000 individuals experiencing modern day slavery, being forced into forced labour and sex services within the country. As well as sex trafficking and forced labour, Cambodia also has a major issue with marriage asylum and organ trafficking. theories like Outshoorn and Hernandez & Rudolf helps organisations, criminologists and police understand the importance on spotting signs off trafficking within different countries. For example in Cambodia sex trafficking mainly takes place in person in hotels or brothels, meaning police and organisations can easily find and help victims within Cambodia. However, due cambodia's economic state, many individuals are lured into the country with 'unsuspecting jobs...with false promises of well paid work into slave compounds' (The Diplomat, 2023). Cambodian authorities have received a high increase with human trafficking cases within the last year alone, with '707 human trafficking complaints over the last year' (The Diplomat, 2023).

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-ASEAN Post Team, 2019. Cambodia’s paedophiles and the internet (online). The ASEAN Post. Available from: https://theaseanpost.com/article/cambodias-paedophiles-and-internet (Accessed Date: 16 Mar 2023)

-International Labour Organization, 2018. Comments (online). www.ilo.org. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID (Accessed Date: 10 Mar 2023)

-Joren, G., 2014. Somaly Mam: The Holy Saint (and Sinner) of Sex Trafficking (online). Newsweek Magazine. Available from: https://www.newsweek.com/2014/05/30/somaly-mam-holy-saint-and-sinner-sex-trafficking-251642.html (Accessed Date: 10 Mar 2023)

-Real Stories, 2018. Cambodian Girls (Trafficking Documentary) - Real Stories. YouTube (online). Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k57s5Dq_yK4 (Accessed Date: 4 Mar 2023)

-UNICEF, 2022. Victims of trafficking find hope through education (online). www.unicef.org. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/cambodia/stories/victims-trafficking-find-hope-through-education (Accessed Date: 10 Mar 2023)

-US Department of State, 2022. Cambodia - United States Department of State (online). United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/cambodia/#:~:text=In%202021%2C%20the%20government%20prosecuted (Accessed Date: 10 Mar 2023)

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Cambodia - United States Department of State
*Mandic, D. (2017) Trafficking and Syrian refugee smuggling: Evidence from the Balkan Route. social inclusion, Volume 5, issue 2.
*DiRienzo, E, Cassandra. Das, Jayoti. (2017) Human trafficking and country borders. Georgia State University: international criminal justice review.
Focus on Human Trafficking Shifts From Cambodia to Myanmar – The Diplomat

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Cambodia (Tier 3)

The Government of Cambodia does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so, even considering the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on its anti-trafficking capacity; therefore Cambodia was downgraded to Tier 3. Despite the lack of significant efforts, the government took some steps to address trafficking, including continuing to arrest, prosecute, and convict traffickers, proactively screening for and identifying victims, and assisting in the repatriation of Cambodian trafficking victims and those vulnerable to trafficking abroad. However, endemic corruption continued to impede overall law enforcement operations, holding traffickers accountable, and victim service provision. Authorities did not investigate or hold criminally accountable any officials involved in the large majority of credible reports of complicity, in particular with unscrupulous business owners who subjected thousands of men, women, and children throughout the country to human trafficking in entertainment establishments, brick kilns, and online scam operations. Therefore, officials also failed to proactively identify trafficking victims among these highly vulnerable populations. The government did not provide adequate protection services for victims domestically or overseas and relied heavily on foreign donors and NGOs to provide much-needed care.

PRIORITIZED RECOMMENDATIONS:

Investigate and prosecute trafficking offenses and convict, while respecting due process, and adequately penalize sex and labor traffickers, including complicit officials, with significant prison sentences.

Increase funding to anti-trafficking law enforcement units and disburse it in advance of investigations, rather than by reimbursement.

Fully implement victim identification guidelines and train officials in all areas of the country on its provisions.

Allocate increased resources to anti-human trafficking police to better facilitate the monitoring of defendants released under judicial supervision pending trial.

Increase or start unannounced labor inspections in high-vulnerability professions, especially at brick kilns, entertainment venues, construction sites, and plantations, with a focus on identifying debt bondage and holding business owners accountable to the law.

Increase law enforcement efforts against online scam operations, including allegations of forced labor, and against officials complicit in such operations and associated trafficking crimes.

Increase the availability of services for male victims, especially men and boys exploited in commercial fishing abroad.

Incentivize domestic and foreign victims' participation in criminal and civil proceedings, including by establishing a victim's fund and granting permission to work, temporary residency, or other relevant immigration status to foreign victims wishing to remain in country during proceedings.

Implement a system for monitoring, collecting, and reporting data on anti-trafficking prosecution and victim protection efforts and disseminate data among the relevant government agencies in a manner that protects victims' identities and privacy.

Eliminate recruitment or placement fees charged to workers by Cambodian labor recruiters and ensure they are instead paid by employers.

Increase inspection and oversight of lending institutions, including private micro-finance organizations, to reduce vulnerability to debt-based coercion among economically disadvantaged communities.

Allow restitution upon conviction of the trafficker and establish and train the relevant officials on procedures for calculating and granting restitution.

Establish and allocate resources to implement systematic procedures at diplomatic missions to assist Cambodian victims abroad, including in countries without Cambodian diplomatic representation.

Amend regulations on labor recruitment licensure and contract requirements to include strengthened language on worker protections and labor rights.

Strengthen efforts to inspect private labor recruitment agencies and their sub-licensed brokers for fraudulent recruitment and other trafficking indicators.

Incorporate NGO input into the policy for formally transferring custody of child victims.

PROSECUTION

The government maintained law enforcement efforts. The 2008 Law on the Suppression of Human Trafficking and Commercial Sexual Exploitation criminalized sex trafficking and labor trafficking and prescribed penalties of seven to 15 years' imprisonment for offenses involving an adult victim and 15 to 20 years' imprisonment for those involving a child victim; these penalties were sufficiently stringent and, with respect to sex trafficking, commensurate with those prescribed for other serious crimes, such as rape. NGOs reported that, in practice, the government did not issue criminal penalties under the anti-trafficking law for labor traffickers; instead, it utilized the labor law to issue fines and/or short jail sentences of six days to one month, which did not represent sufficient punishment to deter future crimes or provide justice for victims.

The government did not maintain a centralized record or database of investigations and judicial proceedings, therefore overall law enforcement data was incomplete, precluding the ability to compare investigations, prosecutions, and convictions from previous years. Unlike in the previous reporting period, the police did not report comprehensive data on anti-trafficking investigations conducted in 2021. According to some media reports, authorities arrested 370 suspected traffickers, which included 332 labor brokers, but the government did not report an update on these arrests. In 2021, Ministry of Justice (MOJ) personnel manually collected prosecution and conviction data from each district court throughout the country. Nevertheless, as in the prior reporting period, judicial authorities may have included cases of rape and other crimes outside the standard definition of trafficking in their reported data; therefore, the true number of trafficking prosecutions and convictions was likely lower than reported. In 2021, the government prosecuted 109 suspected traffickers involved in 64 cases under the anti-trafficking law; four of these cases involved sex trafficking, 37 involved forced labor, and 23 involved unspecified forms of exploitation. The government convicted 38 traffickers, including one for sex trafficking and 35 for forced labor. Of these cases, in April 2021, authorities arrested and convicted a two-star military general and six other traffickers for exploiting 28 nationals from the People's Republic of China (PRC); the court sentenced the military general to four years' imprisonment. In comparison to this data, in 2020 the police reported authorities arrested 94 suspects-48 suspects involved in 37 cases of "non-sexual human trafficking" and 46 suspects involved in 21 cases of sex trafficking. The government prosecuted 348 cases of trafficking in 2020, but the government did not disclose the number of individuals prosecuted; it also convicted 440 traffickers. However, some of the cases reported in 2020 likely did not meet the definition of human trafficking under international law and also accounted for cases from prior years.

The pandemic continued to hinder government efforts to prosecute perpetrators and heighten awareness of trafficking among officials. Cambodian courts shut down between April and May 2021, temporarily halting judicial activity including anti-trafficking investigations, and then resumed operations at a reduced capacity for several months afterwards. The government reported it cooperated with the governments of the United States, Thailand, and the PRC on human trafficking investigations; it also maintained memoranda of understanding (MOUs) outlining cross- border anti-trafficking investigations with Thailand and Vietnam, as well as an extradition treaty with the former. The government continued to cooperate with the United States through a law enforcement task force dedicated to combating online child sexual exploitation and other child sex crimes. In 2021, the police arrested four individuals for online child sexual exploitation under the anti-trafficking law after U.S. law enforcement referred nine potential cases.

Nationwide, law enforcement authorities often did not take appropriate action against suspected or convicted traffickers. Judicial police lacked the resources to monitor defendants released on "judicial supervision" pending trial, allowing some to flee prior to their trial dates, which only left courts the option to convict offenders in absentia. Authorities rarely issued arrest warrants for absconded defendants unless NGOs were available to assist in tracking and apprehending them. Further compounding this challenge, Cambodian criminal procedural code featured no guidelines, monitoring provisions, or language outlining specific law enforcement duties with regard to judicial supervision.

Citing resource constraints, prosecutors and investigating judges did not advance all of the trafficking cases for which police had supplied evidence. Local experts continued to report that cases involving foreign suspects were more likely to result in trafficking convictions than cases involving Cambodian suspects, for whom charges were often reduced to less serious offenses. NGOs reported law enforcement did not adequately respond to reports of trafficking allegations in remote or less developed areas of the country due to capacity limitations.

Endemic corruption at many levels of government continued to severely limit the ability of individual officials to make progress in holding traffickers accountable. In some cases, local or provincial authorities neglected cases of complicity, so national authorities intervened to investigate and prosecute such cases. During the reporting period, NGOs reported trafficking victims accused Cambodian officials of colluding with labor brokers to commit human trafficking crimes. NGOs alleged police and other officials were complicit in online scam operations that forced hundreds of PRC, Southeast Asian, and other foreign nationals to work in call centers in Sihanoukville and other locations. Observers alleged prosecutors and judges accepted bribes in return for dismissal of charges, acquittals, and reduced sentencing. Corrupt officials often thwarted progress in cases where the perpetrators were believed to have political, criminal, or economic ties to government officials. Despite consistent credible allegations of complicity in human trafficking crimes, the government did not prosecute or convict the large majority of complicit government employees. Law enforcement raids on sex trafficking establishments were sometimes unsuccessful due to advance warning from working-level police. Some police reportedly protected sex trafficking establishments in exchange for monthly payments from the business owners or sexual favors from the victims. Authorities often overlooked, denied, or downplayed labor abuses-including forced child labor-in factories and at brick kilns and colluded with brick manufacturers to arrest, jail, and return indentured laborers who had attempted to escape.

The government-in collaboration with and funding from NGOs and other donors-provided training to police, prosecutors, judges, and other government officials. These trainings included 256 sessions and workshops on anti-trafficking laws, investigative techniques, and evidence collection for 12,814 law enforcement officers and seven trainings for 286 participants on victim identification and protection guidelines. Despite these trainings, many police-particularly in rural areas-remained unaware of how to conduct anti-trafficking work, as most did not receive training on basic law enforcement techniques. Moreover, law enforcement and judicial officials lacked the necessary equipment to handle trafficking cases appropriately, including vehicles, computer and communications equipment, and forensic tools. Additionally, the government required the funding of all anti- trafficking investigative work to be conducted through reimbursement, forcing individual police units to personally cover relevant expenses. NGO contacts reported some officers waited months for this reimbursement, which was sometimes not repaid in full, and that the ensuing financial hardships made some police units more susceptible to corruption. Local organizations and some officials continued to stress an urgent need for more sophisticated evidence collection techniques-including more undercover investigations-to decrease reliance on witness testimony and improve efforts to detect and combat sex trafficking. MOJ officials reported their concern that revising the law or issuing new regulations to specifically authorize undercover investigation authority in trafficking cases could lead to abuse of power by the police.

PROTECTION

The government maintained limited victim protection efforts. Despite having victim identification guidelines developed by the Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans, and Youth Rehabilitation (MOSAVY) in 2017, law enforcement agencies' victim identification, referral, and repatriation efforts remained disparate and underdeveloped. Due to insufficient victim identification efforts, authorities penalized potential foreign victims for unlawful acts traffickers compelled them to commit, such as immigration violations. Nevertheless, the government identified a total of 364 trafficking victims in 2021 after screening for trafficking among 8,370 Cambodian migrants working abroad. In comparison, the government identified 417 victims in 2020. Similar to the previous reporting period, however, overall victim identification figures may have included victims of crimes that did not meet standard definitions of sex trafficking or forced labor.

MOSAVY continued to operate a migrant transit center in the border city of Poipet where transit center officials-including trained social workers-screened for and identified an unknown number of trafficking victims among adult and child migrants at the center. After transit officials screened migrants for trafficking, they provided an unreported number of victims with reintegration services or referred them to NGO shelters. In December 2021, the government opened a new migrant transit center in Battambang Province, but officials did not report how many trafficking victims they identified or assisted in this center. Government social affairs officials regularly accompanied police during law enforcement activities, such as raids, to provide assistance to identified victims; if they were not present, police were trained to screen for victims before referring them to a social affairs office. Local police sometimes referred victims directly to NGOs, who reported the overall referral process was quick and victims could access NGO-run shelters within hours of being identified. Despite this process, the government continued to implement a regulation barring NGOs from representing individuals seeking formal recognition as trafficking victims. Under this arrangement, victims were required to approach the Ministry of Interior (MOI) for the formal identification needed to access protection services. Some anti-trafficking NGOs reported a lack of cooperation with the authorities, which hindered the operations of key anti-trafficking NGOs.

MOSAVY reported it provided services to 404 Cambodian and foreign trafficking victims, including from the PRC, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Singapore, and Indonesia. In comparison in 2020, MOSAVY referred 220 Cambodian victims and "other vulnerable migrants" to NGO services. The government could provide trafficking victims with a food allowance, living stipend for three months, job training, and reintegration assistance, but-as in the previous reporting period-MOSAVY relied heavily on financial support from NGOs to cover these services. The government did not have the capacity or resources available to provide adequate protection services, including shelter, to trafficking victims; it therefore continued to rely heavily on donor countries, international organizations, and NGOs to provide or support provision of such services to trafficking victims. MOSAVY maintained guidelines outlining minimum standards for residential care of trafficking victims. MOSAVY also managed long-term care and other assistance for child trafficking victims who could not reintegrate into their communities. The government, however, did not facilitate formal transfer of the custody of child trafficking victims to NGOs, leaving NGOs that accepted child victims into their care vulnerable to court action. Provisions allowing for financial settlements in lieu of harsher sentencing further discouraged some families from consenting to temporary guardianship at shelters; absent family consent, government officials, at times, returned children to high-risk environments, leaving them vulnerable to re-victimization. The government authorized public health facilities to provide free medical services to all migrant workers in Cambodia, including foreign trafficking victims; this policy relieved NGOs of the financial burden of providing medical care to this vulnerable population. Despite the prominence of male labor trafficking victims, government assistance for this population remained limited, including shelters. However, the government continued to cooperate with an NGO to provide services to male victims exploited in the Thai commercial fishing industry. The Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training (MOLVT) also provided vocational training and other programs to identify job opportunities for male trafficking victims from the commercial fishing industry, but it did not report how many victims benefited from these programs. Service provider NGOs noted that an acute lack of reintegration services and cultural stigma surrounding the experience of forced labor at sea catalyzed re-trafficking among fishermen returning home.

The government continued to provide basic care to or assist in the repatriation of Cambodian victims who were exploited abroad but relied on donor organizations to finance the repatriation. Cambodian diplomatic missions overseas also lacked adequate funding and capacity to provide basic assistance to or repatriate victims; some victims were reportedly unable to secure assistance from Cambodian consular services overseas due to unattended hotlines and unresponsive staff. Victims identified in countries without Cambodian diplomatic representation had access to even less support. In Malaysia, Cambodian officials repatriated 376 migrant workers back to Cambodia, 39 of whom officials identified as trafficking victims. The government finalized an agreement with Thailand to establish standard operating procedures (SOPs) on the repatriation and reintegration of Cambodian trafficking victims. In August 2021, the government-in cooperation with Thai authorities- identified and repatriated 21 Cambodian trafficking victims from Thailand; the government referred them for resettlement assistance. From January to September 2021, the Ministry of Interior (MOI) worked with PRC authorities to repatriate more than 300 Cambodian women who were recruited through false promises of work in the PRC and forced into marriages with PRC nationals; many of these women were likely trafficking victims. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation (MFAIC) facilitated the return of 10,406 undocumented Cambodian migrant workers from the PRC, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam; this compared to 10,574 returned Cambodian migrant workers during the previous reporting period. After MOSAVY conducted preliminary interviews of these returnees, it referred all of them to local NGOs for care and reintegration assistance, but-as in the previous reporting period-it did not report identifying any trafficking victims among them. The number of Cambodian returnees who experienced forced labor and sex trafficking abroad was likely much higher than reported due to insufficient victim identification procedures, as well as an increasing tendency among these groups to return via informal migration channels.

The government did not require trafficking victims to participate in trafficking investigations or prosecutions in order to receive protection services. There were no legal provisions to offer work permits, temporary residency, or other immigration status to foreign victims wishing to remain in Cambodia to participate in civil or criminal proceedings. The government required the repatriation of foreign victims, except in rare cases, and did not provide legal alternatives to their removal regardless of whether they would face hardship or retribution upon return to their countries of origin. While awaiting repatriation, the government generally allowed foreign victims temporary residence at NGO shelters. During the previous reporting period, MOJ instructed provincial courts to implement a child-friendly judicial program allowing for video- conferencing technology as an alternative to direct cross-examination of victims in front of the accused; it did not, however, report if courts universally implemented this program in 2021. As in previous years, Cambodia's weak and corrupt judicial system and the lack of adequate victim and witness protection, exacerbated by a lengthy trial process and fear of retaliation by traffickers, hindered victims' willingness to cooperate in many cases. NGOs reported victims preferred out- of-court settlements over court proceedings as the fastest way to obtain monetary compensation. Cambodian law outlined channels for victim restitution, yet restitution through direct cash payments was commonly used as a method to settle criminal cases. However, restitution was difficult to obtain due to a legal requirement delaying payment until after the completion of a trafficker's jail term; convicted traffickers' frequent abscondment further complicated this arrangement. Observers noted Cambodia lacked a standard operating procedure for determining how to calculate restitution or compensation. Victims rarely received the amount promised, and many victims' families settled out of court with traffickers or accepted bribes to drop the relevant charges. Nevertheless, the government cooperated with two NGOs to secure $83,200 in restitution for trafficking victims, including cases of child sexual exploitation, in 2021.

PREVENTION

The government maintained prevention efforts. The National Committee for Counter Trafficking (NCCT) and its secretariat coordinated anti- trafficking activities, continued to implement a 2019-2023 national anti-trafficking action plan, and initiated a mid-year review of the action plan to evaluate its achievements and remaining challenges. The NCCT produced an annual report documenting the government's holistic anti-trafficking efforts. The NCCT chaired 274 meetings in 2021 with various ministries to elevate the importance of human trafficking within the government; it did not report how many meetings it conducted in the previous reporting period. The NCCT regularly invited trafficking survivors to attend meetings and workshops in order to improve policies through survivors' experiences and recommendations. The secretariat of the NCCT maintained six working groups to monitor the efforts of the interagency committee, as well as those of its provincial subcommittees. Subsidiary provincial committees to counter trafficking (PCCT), four of which continued to receive modest central government funds, coordinated efforts at the local level to mirror the activities of the NAP. Each PCCT maintained customized provincial-level action plans outlining how to report cases of trafficking to police, victim protection efforts, and prevention activities. The NCCT and various PCCTs-in cooperation with relevant ministries and NGO partners-conducted 156 anti-trafficking trainings for 5,720 government officials in 2021. A Monitoring Working Group (MWG) strengthened the work of the NCCT at the provincial level by meeting with provincial officials and assessing areas of improvement, but it did not report how many times the MWG traveled to the provinces or how many officials it engaged. The Minister of Women's Affairs and the NCCT Vice Chair co-hosted a bilateral meeting on human trafficking with a foreign government in October 2021, which was attended by senior Cambodian government officials. The government provided anti-trafficking training to Cambodian diplomatic personnel as a part of their orientation prior to deploying abroad. The NCCT provided anti-trafficking training to two units of Cambodian peacekeepers before their deployment to Lebanon and the Central African Republic. The government did not report its anti- trafficking budget in 2021, unlike in 2020 when it reported a budget of approximately 2.2 billion riels ($543,080). NGOs reported the government's weak funding for anti-trafficking activities led some NGOs to cover the expenses of government activities.

The government-in collaboration with various donors and NGOs- disseminated information about trafficking laws, safe migration, child labor, and strategies to combat trafficking to law enforcement, other government personnel, and the general population. The government organized 192 anti-trafficking awareness raising campaigns across the country, incorporated anti-trafficking messaging in thousands of public events (such as town halls and community council meetings), and senior officials spoke publicly about human trafficking. In 2021, the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports-in cooperation with NGOs-implemented a school curriculum to educate students and teachers about human trafficking. The Anti-Human Trafficking Juvenile Police (AHTJP) and MOI continued to operate a hotline for victims and witnesses to report human trafficking crimes; the government publicized the hotline on government websites and social media sites, required guesthouses and hotels in all 25 provinces to publicize the hotline, and worked with an NGO focused on child sex trafficking to place placards of the hotline number in taxis and tuk-tuks throughout the country. The government reported the hotline received 21 calls-the same number of calls during the last reporting period-but none of them were human trafficking cases. The AHTJP also continued to utilize its social media site for the public to report suspected incidents of human trafficking, but it did not report how many cases it received. The Ministries of Labor and Foreign Affairs operated hotlines for Cambodians working abroad to seek assistance and report cases of human trafficking; the Cambodian embassy in Thailand received 1,109 calls, the embassy in South Korea received 186 calls, and the embassy in Japan received 540 calls. However, the government did not report if any of these calls resulted in the identification of trafficking victims.

The government did not have a ban on the imposition of worker-paid recruitment or placement fees. Observers noted the high costs, complex administrative requirements, and restrictive provisions inherent to the formal migration process drove a majority of Cambodian labor migrants to pursue informal pathways to working abroad. The MOLVT held 75 training sessions for recruitment agencies and labor brokers on ethical recruitment practices to protect the rights of migrant workers. The government worked in cooperation with an international organization to conduct labor inspections of garment factories, but a COVID-19 outbreak in February 2021 suspended in-person inspections, and the government had to rely on virtual assessments for the remainder of the year. Nevertheless, MOLVT and MOI officials conducted 2,966 inspections at factories and other businesses where they found 28,863 foreign workers, of whom 466 were without legal work documentation; the government fined the businesses a total of 233 million riels ($58,520) for labor violations. The MOLVT maintained offices at the provincial level to monitor recruitment agencies and address complaints from workers, including potential incidents of trafficking; however, it did not report how many complaints these offices received in 2021. The government also did not conduct inspections of recruitment agencies that were allegedly involved in trafficking crimes.

The MOLVT did not report providing pre-departure orientation to Cambodians migrating abroad for work, unlike in 2020 when it reported providing orientation to 20,360 Cambodians. Many Cambodians were reportedly unaware of how to apply for travel documentation or how much it should cost-leaving them at higher risk of travel through informal, more vulnerable means-and the government did not take sufficient steps to publicize that information. In 2021, the NCCT reported Cambodian soldiers and police along the Thai border prevented 3,581 Cambodian migrant workers from entering Thailand, 1,325 of whom were women and 131 were children; however, the NCCT did not report if it screened these migrants for trafficking or referred them to protection services. Officials provided food to 1,270 Cambodian migrant workers at risk of or identified as trafficking victims in Thailand and helped two workers resolve a labor dispute with a foreign employer. In South Korea, Cambodian officials made 87 visits to worksites with Cambodian workers and resolved 137 labor disputes, while in Japan Cambodian officials made 27 visits to worksites with a significant number of Cambodian workers and helped resolve 74 labor disputes. The government did not report if officials identified any trafficking victims among these labor dispute cases. The government maintained two labor recruitment agreements with Saudi Arabia, a domestic worker recruitment agreement with Hong Kong, and a bilateral cooperative agreement with India. The MFAIC continued to implement consular screening measures to reduce the sex and labor trafficking of Cambodian women via forced and fraudulent marriages, including by assessing applicants against trafficking victim profiles jointly developed with the PRC in 2016. However, the MFAIC did not report identifying potential victims during these screenings. The government also continued implementing a regulation passed in 2018 requiring foreign men to pay a fee if intending to return to their home countries with a Cambodian spouse; because this regulation only applied to air travel, observers reported an increase in the number of Cambodian women traveling through unsafe overland channels for marriage migration to the PRC.

The MOLVT maintained an action plan aimed at reducing child labor and debt bondage in the service, agricultural, mining, and energy sectors by 2025 through awareness raising, legal action, and collaboration with civil society funded in part through the national budget. MOLVT officials continued to deny the existence of child labor-including forced child labor-and debt-based coercion within the brick industry. The MOLVT visited 170 brick kilns and sugar and cassava plantations where officials identified 350 cases of vulnerable children living on the kilns and plantations; it provided these children with educational opportunities and other forms of assistance, but it did not identify any trafficking victims. NGOs claimed police were often unaware that detection of crimes at brick kilns fell under their investigative purview; the AHTJP confirmed they viewed brick kiln inspections as under the MOLVT's purview and would only investigate kilns if the MOLVT referred a case to them. The AHTJP did not report any such referrals during the reporting period. Authorities often conducted inspections with advance notification to the kiln owners, enabling them to avoid fines or conceal abuses by removing children from the kilns before an inspection. In 2021, the government-in cooperation with NGOs-led a study to identify the needs of bilingual Khmer-Thai Cambodian children living in Cambodia's Koh Kong Province and Thailand's Trat Province; the goal of the study was to improve access to education for these children as they moved across the border with their migrant parents and to reduce the risk of trafficking and child labor. In July 2021, the government launched a new action plan to prevent and respond to online child sexual exploitation for 2021-2025, but the government did not report additional details about actions it took to implement the plan. The Ministry of Tourism, in collaboration with the NCCT, made efforts to reduce the demand for commercial sex acts through workshops for staff in the tourism sector and government officials on child sexual exploitation in the tourism industry; it also continued to produce public-facing materials targeting potential consumers of commercial sex with children. However, as in prior years, the government generally focused on deterring foreign perpetrators of child sex tourism, rather than targeting the local population that constituted the main source of demand for commercial sex with children in Cambodia.

TRAFFICKING PROFILE

As reported over the past five years, human traffickers exploit domestic and foreign victims in Cambodia, and traffickers exploit victims from Cambodia abroad. NGOs and labor unions reported in 2020 that foreign labor brokers are fraudulently recruiting foreign migrants, including from Bangladesh, the PRC, and Nepal, to work in PRC- invested and other construction sites in Cambodia where some are indebted to recruitment firms and experience passport confiscation. In 2021, the media reported that traffickers also subject PRC, Southeast Asian, and other country nationals to forced criminality in online scam operations run by local PRC-organized criminal groups in call centers located in Cambodia. Cambodian adults and children migrate to other countries within the region and increasingly to the Middle East for work; traffickers force many to work on fishing vessels, in agriculture, in construction, in factories, and in domestic service-often through debt-based coercion-or exploit them in sex trafficking. Migrants using irregular migration channels, predominantly with the assistance of unlicensed brokers, are at an increased risk of trafficking, although those using licensed recruiting agents also become victims of forced labor or sex trafficking. Companies operating under the auspices of the Japanese government's "Technical Intern Training Program" have exploited Cambodian nationals in forced labor in food processing, manufacturing, construction, and fishing. Children from impoverished families are vulnerable to forced labor, often with the complicity of their families, including in domestic service and forced begging or street vending in Thailand and Vietnam. Undocumented Cambodian labor migrants working in Thailand-who constituted an estimated 30-40 percent of the 1.5 to 2 million Cambodians there before the pandemic-are at high risk of trafficking due to their immigration status, as are undocumented Cambodians working in Vietnam. The pandemic affected established migration patterns and certain sectors in 2020, such as construction, which placed some vulnerable groups at greater risk of trafficking than in previous years. Between February 2020 to February 2021, more than 150,000 Cambodian labor migrants returned to Cambodia from other countries, primarily Thailand, due to industry closures caused by the pandemic.

Traffickers continue to recruit significant numbers of Cambodian men and boys in Thailand to work on fishing boats and exploit them in forced labor on Thai-owned and -operated vessels in international waters. Cambodian victims escaping from their traffickers have been identified in Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mauritius, Papua New Guinea, Senegal, and South Africa. Cambodian men working on Thai-owned and -operated fishing vessels report deceptive recruitment tactics, severe physical abuse, underpayment or nonpayment of wages, restricted access to medical care, and confinement at sea for years at a time without permission to come ashore. Traffickers recruit women and some girls from rural areas under false pretenses to travel to the PRC to enter into marriages with PRC-national men. These women incur thousands of dollars of debt to brokers facilitating the transaction; the men force some of these women to work in factories or exploit them in sex trafficking to repay this debt. Some parents reportedly receive between $1,500 and $3,000 from marriage brokers to send their daughters to the PRC for marriage. Cambodian women serving willingly as illegal surrogates for PRC families are vulnerable to confinement and domestic servitude. Stateless persons, namely in ethnic Vietnamese communities, are at higher risk of trafficking due to lack of identity documentation necessary for access to formal employment, education, marriage registration, the court system, or the right to own land.

The proprietors of brick kilns subject many of the more than 10,000 Cambodians living at such kilns, including nearly 4,000 children, to multigenerational debt-based coercion, either by buying off their pre- existing loans, or by requiring them to take out new loans as a condition of employment or to cover medical expenses resulting from injuries incurred while working. NGO reports in 2016, 2019, and 2021 have confirmed cases of child labor-including forced child labor-in brick kilns, as children are forced to work alongside their parents through debt-based coercion. An NGO study conducted in 2017 found nearly all of brick kilns surveyed throughout the country featured indicators of forced labor via debt-based coercion. An extensive, largely unregulated network of predatory micro-finance organizations and private creditors contributes to this arrangement by proactively advertising loans to families in vulnerable communities and connecting them with the kilns. Rural farming families are at higher risk of this form of forced labor due to economic hardships ensuing from climate change; unseasonal rain patterns and subsequent loss of crops push many farmers to take out large loans for new irrigation or pesticide systems, and brick kiln owners often purchase these loans as a means of securing and retaining their labor. Extended rainy seasons also delay the brick-drying process, reducing these bonded kiln workers' pay and forcing many to become further indebted to the kiln owners. To dissuade workers from fleeing abusive conditions, some kiln owners reportedly allow only select members of family units to be absent for public holidays or to seek medical care at any given time. Some workers report continued confinement and forced labor in the kilns long after they have repaid their debts. Cambodian families may also experience conditions indicative of forced labor in the clay extraction process required for brick making. Traffickers exploit children as young as 13 in domestic servitude and in brothels to pay off family debts accrued through this system. Communities displaced by illegal logging operations supplying the brick kilns with timber for fuel may be at elevated risk of trafficking, including in logging itself and elsewhere as a result of ensuing economic hardships. In previous years, North Koreans working in Cambodia may have been forced to work by the North Korean government. Pursuant to a 2017 UN Security Council resolution requiring the repatriation of all North Korean nationals earning income overseas by the end of 2019, subject to limited exceptions, the government reportedly repatriated North Korean labor migrants covered under the relevant provision.

All of Cambodia's 25 provinces are sources for human trafficking. Sex trafficking is largely clandestine; Cambodian and ethnic Vietnamese women and girls move from rural areas to cities and tourist destinations, where criminals exploit them in sex trafficking in brothels and, more frequently, clandestine sex establishments at beer gardens, massage parlors, salons, karaoke bars, retail spaces, and non-commercial sites. In recent years, the rapidly growing and largely unregulated presence of PRC national-owned casinos, entertainment establishments, and other commercial enterprises in Preah Sihanouk Province led to an increase of local sex trafficking and forced labor among Cambodian women and girls, although Cambodia's 2020 ban on online gambling and the subsequent shuttering of many PRC national-owned casinos and other entertainment establishments has reduced such trafficking. Cambodian men form the largest source of demand for children exploited in sex trafficking; however, men from elsewhere in Asia, Australia, Europe, South Africa, and the United States travel to Cambodia to engage in child sex tourism, increasingly facilitated through social media contact. Thousands of urban children left behind by families migrating abroad for work are particularly vulnerable to sex trafficking and forced labor. The prevalence of child sex trafficking and child sex tourism reportedly declined in 2020 due to reduced international travel and pandemic- related quarantine requirements. However, NGOs and law enforcement officials reported the pandemic increased incidents of online child sexual exploitation in 2020, and incidents continued to increase through 2021. Vietnamese women and children, many of whom are victims of debt- based coercion, travel to Cambodia and are exploited in sex trafficking. NGOs report that criminal gangs transport some Vietnamese victims through Cambodia before they are exploited in Thailand and Malaysia. Traffickers in Cambodia are most commonly family or community members or small networks of independent brokers. Some Cambodian orphanages purchase local children from economically disadvantaged families and subject them to malnutrition and unclean living conditions in their facilities for the purpose of attracting and profiting from charitable donations; some of these children are at further risk of sex trafficking and domestic servitude as a result of poor government oversight of adoption processes.

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Cambodia - United States Department of State

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The Government of Cambodia does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so, even considering the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on its anti-trafficking capacity; therefore Cambodia was downgraded to Tier 3.

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-International Humanitarian Law Database, 2008. Law on suppression of human trafficking and sexual exploitation (online). Icrc.org. Available from: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/national-practice/law-suppression-human-trafficking-and-sexual-exploitation-2008#:~:text=On%2015%20February%202008%20Cambodia (Accessed Date: 16 Mar 2023)

-US Department of State, 2022. Cambodia (online). United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/cambodia/ (Accessed Date: 16 Mar 2023)

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Dyer, C., 2022. Cambodia - United States Department of State [online]. United States Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/cambodia/#:~:text=Vietnamese%20women%20and%20children%2C%20many. (Accessed 09 Mar 2023)

Yan, L. K., Nathan Paul Southern and Huang, 2022. Cambodia’s modern slavery nightmare: the human trafficking crisis overlooked by authorities [online]. the Guardian. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/03/cambodias-modern-slavery-nightmare-the-human-trafficking-crisis-overlooked-by-authorities. (Accessed 09 Mar 2023)

Saiesha, 2022. Addressing Human Trafficking in Cambodia [online]. The Borgen Project. Available from: https://borgenproject.org/addressing-human-trafficking-in-cambodia/. (Accessed 10 Mar 2023)

ACTs, C., 2023. Cambodia Against Child Trafficking (Cambodia ACTs) - End Slavery Now [online]. endslaverynow.org. Available from: https://www.endslaverynow.org/cambodia-against-child-trafficking-cambodia-acts (Accessed 11 Mar 2023)

Guest, 2016. Preventing Family Migration and Child Trafficking in Cambodia [online]. Holt International. Available from: https://www.holtinternational.org/preventing-family-migration-child-trafficking-cambodia/ (Accessed 11 Mar 2023)

Rescue, D., n.d. Rescuing children from sex trafficking in Cambodia [online]. Destiny Rescue. Available from: https://www.destinyrescue.org/our-work/where-we-work/cambodia/. (Accessed 11 Mar 2023)

Centre, T., 2020. How It Happens – The Canadian Centre To End Human Trafficking [online]. The Centre. Available from: https://www.canadiancentretoendhumantrafficking.ca/how-it-happens/#:~:text=Many%20traffickers%20prey%20on%20victims (Accessed 12 Mar 2023)

Administration for children & families, 2021. Federal Government Efforts to Combat Human Trafficking [online]. www.acf.hhs.gov. Available from: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/archive/otip/fact-sheet/federal-government-efforts-combat-human-trafficking#:~:text=USAID%20funds%20international%20programs%20that. (Accessed 12 Mar 2023)

Delauney, G., 2007. Trafficking crackdown in Cambodia. news.bbc.co.uk [online], 6 April 2007. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6532181.stm (Accessed 14 Mar 2023)

Dara, M., 2019. Victims saved from human, sex trafficking rises 148% [online]. www.phnompenhpost.com. Available from: https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/victims-saved-human-sex-trafficking-rises-148 (Accessed 14 Mar 2023).

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To conclude, although Cambodia currently has legislation in place in order to try and prevent trafficking within their country, more needs to be done to try and eradicate this issue in the future. Law enforcement agencies need to be provided with the appropriate resources and training to enforce the laws, and increase conviction rates. As seen in the Leach case, the enforcement agencies need to stop individuals with previous convictions of sex crimes or crimes against children from entering the country, as these people are likely to engage in trafficking. By increasing the enforcement on trafficking in Cambodia, it should begin to decrease the rate of trafficking. Alongside law enforcement, charity agencies are key to preventing future trafficking incidents. Charities can provide education for the youths of Cambodia on how to avoid trafficking and what to do if they find themselves in that situation. By educating children on the warning signs, then this should begin to raise awareness and reduce the number of victims. Charities can also provide support to those who are previous victims of trafficking, through counselling and being returned to their family/a safe place, this should stop victims from being trafficked again. With this combination of increased law enforcement and charity involvement within communities, in the future this should help to prevent future trafficking experiences within Cambodia.