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1. In your groups, use the sources provided and read the textbook to find out more about the assigned legacy of Ancient Chinese Civilisation.

2.Create a concept map on the assigned legacy as a group.

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Understanding the Achievement

What is ____ and when was it first created in ancient China?

Why do you think people in ancient China needed ____?

Exploring Its Uses

How was ____ used in ancient times?

Who benefited most from the invention of ____ in ancient China?

Connections and Influence

How did ____ support other inventions or achievements?

How might ____ have spread from China to other parts of the world?

Legacy Today

How do we still use ____ in our lives today?

What modern inventions or tools are linked to ____?

Critical Thinking

If ____ had never been invented, how would life today be different?

What does the invention of ____ tell us about the values and priorities of ancient China?

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The Four Great Inventions of Ancient China, Their Legacy

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Introducing the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China (papermaking, gunpowder, compass, and printing techniques) and their contributions to the world.

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The Four Great Inventions of Ancient China, Their Legacy

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Introducing the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China (papermaking, gunpowder, compass, and printing techniques) and their contributions to the world.

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The Four Great Inventions of Ancient China, Their Legacy

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Introducing the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China (papermaking, gunpowder, compass, and printing techniques) and their contributions to the world.

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The Four Great Inventions of Ancient China, Their Legacy

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Introducing the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China (papermaking, gunpowder, compass, and printing techniques) and their contributions to the world.

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Invention Of PAPER | The Dr. Binocs Show | Best Learning Video for Kids | Fun Preschool Learning

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Modern paper is normally made from wood pulp. Wood is ground up and mixed with water and other chemicals to make a thin liquid called "paper pulp". Paper pulp can be bleached to make paper more white, and dyes can be added to make colored paper. This pulp is pressed into sheets of paper.

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Paper - The History of Paper - Twinkl Teaching Wiki - Twinkl

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Paper is a necessary part of our everyday lives, but have you ever wondered how this material has come to take its place? Read on to discover more about what paper is, how it’s made, and the history of paper.

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Printing is putting words and images on paper by mechanical means. Books and newspapers are made by printing. Usually, the images are formed by ink. The ink is put on paper in machines called printing presses.

Printing is one of the technologies which has changed the world. It is an efficient way to multiply writing, so that copies may be made available to all people. Printing is therefore the continuation of writing by mechanical means.

Writing originated after people had settled in permanent dwellings. It dates from 3,300 , which is over 5000 years ago. A variety of writing systems were invented, long before paper was invented. Clay, papyrus, wood, slate and parchment (prepared animal skins) have all been used. The invention of paper by the Chinese was a step forward.

Early printing

The earliest printing known was in 8th century China and Korea. Whole pages carved on flat wooden blocks were used. Covered with a carbon-based ink, they were pressed onto sheets of paper.

The second stage was to use separate characters by wood carving or casting. This was done in 11th century China and Korea. It failed to be really successful, because of the structure of the Chinese written language, shared at the time by Korea, which had thousands of characters. So the method was not much better than copying by scribes.

Printing was reinvented in 15th century Europe. Development was slow until Johannes Gutenberg made several improvements. In the next century print became the main means of communication between people who needed to keep precise records. With an alphabetic system of writing, print was much more economical than copying, and permitted many times as many copies to be available. This revolution in information technology helped all aspects of life in Europe, at a time when Europe was becoming the dominant region of the world.

Along with a technology for printing words, there were various means for printing graphics. Carving on blocks of wood and engraving on copper were used up until about 1800. After that, a great many inventions arrived, including lithography and ways to print photographs.

Machines to speed printing, cheaper paper, automatic stitching and binding all arrived in the 19th century during the industrial revolution. What had once been done by a few men by hand was now done by limited companies on huge machines. The result was much lower prices, and a much wider readership.

Print and social change

The consequences of print have been considerable. It led to the spread of knowledge, and had many side-effects. Mainly, it took control out of a small class of clerks ( scribes and monks) and put it in the hands of a newly educated readership. Many of the first books were in Latin; some in Greek. Later, almost all books were printed in the vernacular: the language ordinary people spoke. The Bible was one of the first books printed, and one of the first to be translated into the vernacular, against strong opposition from the church. Science was given a great boost by printing, and scientific ideas are still usually first published in print. Several scholars have thought that print even changed the way people thought.

Related pages

Images for kids

In Spanish: Impresión para niños

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Printing Facts For Kids | AstroSafe Search

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Discover Printing in AstroSafe Search Educational section. Safe, educational content for kids 5-12. Explore fun facts!

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A compass is an instrument used for navigation and orientation that shows direction relative to the geographic " cardinal directions", or "points". Usually, a diagram called a compass rose shows the directions north, south, east, and west on the compass face as abbreviated initials.

The magnetic compass was first invented as a device for divination as early as the Chinese Han Dynasty (since about 206 BC), and later adopted for navigation by the Song Dynasty Chinese during the 11th century. The first usage of a compass recorded in Western Europe and the Islamic world occurred around the early 13th century.

When the compass is used, the rose can be aligned with the corresponding geographic directions, so, for example, the "N" mark on the rose really points to the north. Frequently, in addition to the rose or sometimes instead of it, angle markings in degrees are shown on the compass. North corresponds to zero degrees, and the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90 degrees, south is 180, and west is 270. These numbers allow the compass to show azimuths or bearings, which are commonly stated in this notation.

Magnetic compass

The magnetic compass is the most familiar compass type. It functions as a pointer to "magnetic north", the local magnetic meridian, because the magnetized needle at its heart aligns itself with the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts a torque on the needle, pulling the North end or pole of the needle approximately toward the Earth's North magnetic pole, and pulling the other toward the Earth's South magnetic pole. The needle is mounted on a low-friction pivot point, in better compasses a jewel bearing, so it can turn easily. When the compass is held level, the needle turns until, after a few seconds to allow oscillations to die out, it settles into its equilibrium orientation.

In navigation, directions on maps are usually expressed with reference to geographical or true north, the direction toward the Geographical North Pole, the rotation axis of the Earth. Depending on where the compass is located on the surface of the Earth the angle between true north and magnetic north, called magnetic declination can vary widely with geographic location. The local magnetic declination is given on most maps, to allow the map to be oriented with a compass parallel to true north. The location of the Earth's magnetic poles slowly change with time, which is referred to as geomagnetic secular variation. The effect of this means a map with the latest declination information should be used. Some magnetic compasses include means to manually compensate for the magnetic declination, so that the compass shows true directions.

The first compasses in ancient Han dynasty China were made of lodestone, a naturally magnetized ore of iron. The compass was later used for navigation during the Song Dynasty of the 11th century. Later compasses were made of iron needles, magnetized by striking them with a lodestone. Dry compasses began to appear around 1300 in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world. This was supplanted in the early 20th century by the liquid-filled magnetic compass.

Modern compasses

Magnetic compass

Modern compasses usually use a magnetized needle or dial inside a capsule completely filled with a liquid (lamp oil, mineral oil, white spirits, purified kerosene, or ethyl alcohol is common). While older designs commonly incorporatedinside the capsule to allow for volume changes caused by temperature or altitude, some modern liquid compasses utilize smaller housings and/orGear Review: Kasper & Richter Alpin Compass, OceanMountainSky.Com</ref> The liquid inside the capsule serves to damp the movement of the needle, reducing oscillation time and increasing stability. Key points on the compass, including the north end of the needle are often marked with phosphorescent, photolcent, or self-luminous materials to enable the compass to be read at night or in poor light. As the compass fill liquid is noncompressible under pressure, many ordinary liquid-filled compasses will operate accurately underwater to considerable depths.

Many modern compasses incorporate a baseplate and protractor tool, and are referred to variously as " orienteering", "baseplate", "map compass" or "protractor" designs. This type of compass uses a separate magnetized needle inside a rotating capsule, an orienting "box" or gate for aligning the needle with magnetic north, a transparent base containing map orienting lines, and a bezel (outer dial) marked in degrees or other units of angular measurement. The capsule is mounted in a transparent baseplate containing a direction-of-travel (DOT) indicator for use in taking bearings directly from a map.

Other features found on modern orienteering compasses are map and romer scales for measuring distances and plotting positions on maps, luminous markings on the face or bezels, various sighting mechanisms (mirror, prism, etc.) for taking bearings of distant objects with greater precision, "global" needles for use in differing hemispheres, adjustable declination for obtaining instant true bearings without resorting to arithmetic, and devices such as inclinometers for measuring gradients. The sport of orienteering has also resulted in the development of models with extremely fast-settling and stable needles for optimal use with a topographic map, a land navigation technique known as terrain association.

The military forces of a few nations, notably the United States Army, continue to issue field compasses with magnetized compass dials or cards instead of needles. A magnetic card compass is usually equipped with an optical, lensatic, or prismatic sight, which allows the user to read the bearing or azimuth off the compass card while simultaneously aligning the compass with the objective (see photo). Magnetic card compass designs normally require a separate protractor tool in order to take bearings directly from a map.

The U.S. M-1950 military lensatic compass does not use a liquid-filled capsule as a damping mechanism, but rather electromagnetic induction to control oscillation of it magnetized card. A "deep-well" design is used to allow the compass to be used globally with a card tilt of up to 8 degrees without impairing accuracy. As induction forces provide less damping than fluid-filled designs, a needle lock is fitted to the compass to reduce wear, operated by the folding action of the rear sight/lens holder. The use of air-filled induction compasses has declined over the years, as they may become inoperative or inaccurate in freezing temperatures or extremely humid environments due to condensation or water ingress.

Some military compasses, like the U.S. M-1950 (Cammenga 3H) military lensatic compass, the Silva 4b Militaire, and the Suunto M-5N(T) contain the radioactive material tritium ( ₁H ³) and a combination of phosphors. The U.S. M-1950 equipped with self-luminous lighting contains 120 mCi (millicuries) of tritium. The purpose of the tritium and phosphors is to provide illumination for the compass, via radioluminescent tritium illumination, which does not require the compass to be "recharged" by sunlight or artificial light. However, tritium has a half-life of only about 12 years, so a compass that contains 120 mCi of tritium when new will contain only 60 when it is 12 years old, 30 when it is 24 years old, and so on. Consequently, the illumination of the display will fade.

Mariner's compasses can have two or more magnets permanently attached to a compass card, which moves freely on a pivot. A lubber line, which can be a marking on the compass bowl or a small fixed needle, indicates the ship's heading on the compass card. Traditionally the card is divided into thirty-two points (known as rhumbs), although modern compasses are marked in degrees rather than cardinal points. The glass-covered box (or bowl) contains a suspended gimbal within a binnacle. This preserves the horizontal position.

Thumb compass

A thumb compass is a type of compass commonly used in orienteering, a sport in which map reading and terrain association are paramount. Consequently, most thumb compasses have minimal or no degree markings at all, and are normally used only to orient the map to magnetic north. Thumb compasses are also often transparent so that an orienteer can hold a map in the hand with the compass and see the map through the compass.

Gyrocompass

A gyrocompass is similar to a gyroscope. It is a non-magnetic compass that finds true north by using an (electrically powered) fast-spinning wheel and friction forces in order to exploit the rotation of the Earth. Gyro compasses are widely used on ships. They have two main advantages over magnetic compasses:

they find true north, i.e., the direction of Earth's rotational axis, as opposed to magnetic north,

they are not affected by ferromagnetic metal (including iron, steel, cobalt, nickel, and various alloys) in a ship's hull. (No compass is affected by nonferromagnetic metal, although a magnetic compass will be affected by any kind of wires with electric current passing through them.)

Large ships typically rely on a gyrocompass, using the magnetic compass only as a backup. Increasingly, electronic fluxgate compasses are used on smaller vessels. However, magnetic compasses are still widely in use as they can be small, use simple reliable technology, are comparatively cheap, are often easier to use than GPS, require no energy supply, and unlike GPS, are not affected by objects, e.g. trees, that can block the reception of electronic signals.

Solid state compasses

Small compasses found in clocks, mobile phones, and other electronic devices are solid-state compasses, usually built out of two or three magnetic field sensors that provide data for a microprocessor. Often, the device is a discrete component which outputs either a digital or analog signal proportional to its orientation. This signal is interpreted by a controller or microprocessor and either used internally, or sent to a display unit. The sensor uses highly calibrated internal electronics to measure the response of the device to the Earth's magnetic field.

GPS receivers used as compasses

GPS receivers using two or more antennae mounted separately and blending the data with an inertial motion unit (IMU) can now achieve 0.02° in heading accuracy and have startup times in seconds rather than hours for gyrocompass systems. The devices accurately determine the positions (latitudes, longitudes and altitude) of the antennae on the Earth, from which the cardinal directions can be calculated. Manufactured primarily for maritime and aviation applications, they can also detect pitch and roll of ships. Small, portable GPS receivers with only a single antenna can also determine directions if they are being moved, even if only at walking pace. By accurately determining its position on the Earth at times a few seconds apart, the device can calculate its speed and the true bearing (relative to true north) of its direction of motion. Frequently, it is preferable to measure the direction in which a vehicle is actually moving, rather than its heading, i.e. the direction in which its nose is pointing. These directions may be different if there is a crosswind or tidal current.

GPS compasses share the main advantages of gyrocompasses. They determine true North, as opposed to magnetic North, and they are unaffected by perturbations of the Earth's magnetic field. Additionally, compared with gyrocompasses, they are much cheaper, they work better in polar regions, they are less prone to be affected by mechanical vibration, and they can be initialized far more quickly. However, they depend on the functioning of, and communication with, the GPS satellites, which might be disrupted by an electronic attack or by the effects of a severe solar storm. Gyrocompasses remain in use for military purposes (especially in submarines, where magnetic and GPS compasses are useless), but have been largely superseded by GPS compasses, with magnetic backups, in civilian contexts.

Specialty compasses

Apart from navigational compasses, other specialty compasses have also been designed to accommodate specific uses. These include:

Qibla compass, which is used by Muslims to show the direction to Mecca for prayers.

Optical or prismatic hand-bearing compass, most often used by surveyors, but also by cave explorers, foresters, and geologists. These compasses generally use a liquid-damped capsule and magnetized floating compass dial with an integral optical sight, often fitted with built-in photoluminescent or battery-powered illumination. Using the optical sight, such compasses can be read with extreme accuracy when taking bearings to an object, often to fractions of a degree. Most of these compasses are designed for heavy-duty use, with high-quality needles and jeweled bearings, and many are fitted for tripod mounting for additional accuracy.

Trough compasses, mounted in a rectangular box whose length was often several times its width, date back several centuries. They were used for land surveying, particularly with plane tables.

Limitations of the magnetic compass

The magnetic compass is very reliable at moderate latitudes, but in geographic regions near the Earth's magnetic poles it becomes unusable. As the compass is moved closer to one of the magnetic poles, the magnetic declination, the difference between the direction to geographical north and magnetic north, becomes greater and greater. At some point close to the magnetic pole the compass will not indicate any particular direction but will begin to drift. Also, the needle starts to point up or down when getting closer to the poles, because of the so-called magnetic inclination. Cheap compasses with bad bearings may get stuck because of this and therefore indicate a wrong direction.

Magnetic compasses are influenced by any fields other than Earth's. Local environments may contain magnetic mineral deposits and artificial sources such as MRIs, large iron or steel bodies, electrical engines or strong permanent magnets. Any electrically conductive body produces its own magnetic field when it is carrying an electric current. Magnetic compasses are prone to errors in the neighborhood of such bodies. Some compasses include magnets which can be adjusted to compensate for external magnetic fields, making the compass more reliable and accurate.

A compass is also subject to errors when the compass is accelerated or decelerated in an airplane or automobile. Depending on which of the Earth's hemispheres the compass is located and if the force is acceleration or deceleration the compass will increase or decrease the indicated heading. Compasses that include compensating magnets are especially prone to these errors, since accelerations tilt the needle, bringing it closer or further from the magnets.

Another error of the mechanical compass is turning error. When one turns from a heading of east or west the compass will lag behind the turn or lead ahead of the turn. Magnetometers, and substitutes such as gyrocompasses, are more stable in such situations.

Construction of a magnetic compass

Magnetic needle

A magnetic rod is required when constructing a compass. This can be created by aligning an iron or steel rod with Earth's magnetic field and then tempering or striking it. However, this method produces only a weak magnet so other methods are preferred. For example, a magnetised rod can be created by repeatedly rubbing an iron rod with a magnetic lodestone. This magnetised rod (or magnetic needle) is then placed on a low friction surface to allow it to freely pivot to align itself with the magnetic field. It is then labeled so the user can distinguish the north-pointing from the south-pointing end; in modern convention the north end is typically marked in some way.

Needle-and-bowl device

If a needle is rubbed on a lodestone or other magnet, the needle becomes magnetized. When it is inserted in a cork or piece of wood, and placed in a bowl of water it becomes a compass. Such devices were universally used as compass until the invention of the box-like compass with a 'dry' pivoting needle sometime around 1300.

Points of the compass

Originally, many compasses were marked only as to the direction of magnetic north, or to the four cardinal points (north, south, east, west). Later, these were divided, in China into 24, and in Europe into 32 equally spaced points around the compass card. For a table of the thirty-two points, see compass points.

In the modern era, the 360-degree system took hold. This system is still in use today for civilian navigators. The degree system spaces 360 equidistant points located clockwise around the compass dial. In the 19th century some European nations adopted the "grad" (also called grade or gon) system instead, where a right angle is 100 grads to give a circle of 400 grads. Dividing grads into tenths to give a circle of 4000 decigrades has also been used in armies.

Most military forces have adopted the French "millieme" system. This is an approximation of a milli-radian (6283 per circle), in which the compass dial is spaced into 6400 units or "mils" for additional precision when measuring angles, laying artillery, etc. The value to the military is that one angular mil subtends approximately one metre at a distance of one kilometer. Imperial Russia used a system derived by dividing the circumference of a circle into chords of the same length as the radius. Each of these was divided into 100 spaces, giving a circle of 600. The Soviet Union divided these into tenths to give a circle of 6000 units, usually translated as "mils". This system was adopted by the former Warsaw Pact countries (e.g. Soviet Union, East Germany), often counterclockwise (see picture of wrist compass). This is still in use in Russia.

Compass balancing (magnetic dip)

Because the Earth's magnetic field's inclination and intensity vary at different latitudes, compasses are often balanced during manufacture so that the dial or needle will be level, eliminating needle drag which can give inaccurate readings. Most manufacturers balance their compass needles for one of five zones, ranging from zone 1, covering most of the Northern Hemisphere, to zone 5 covering Australia and the southern oceans. This individual zone balancing prevents excessive dipping of one end of the needle which can cause the compass card to stick and give false readings.

Some compasses feature a special needle balancing system that will accurately indicate magnetic north regardless of the particular magnetic zone. Other magnetic compasses have a small sliding counterweight installed on the needle itself. This sliding counterweight, called a 'rider', can be used for counterbalancing the needle against the dip caused by inclination if the compass is taken to a zone with a higher or lower dip.

Compass correction

Like any magnetic device, compasses are affected by nearby ferrous materials, as well as by strong local electromagnetic forces. Compasses used for wilderness land navigation should not be used in proximity to ferrous metal objects or electromagnetic fields (car electrical systems, automobile engines, steel pitons, etc.) as that can affect their accuracy. Compasses are particularly difficult to use accurately in or near trucks, cars or other mechanized vehicles even when corrected for deviation by the use of built-in magnets or other devices. Large amounts of ferrous metal combined with the on-and-off electrical fields caused by the vehicle's ignition and charging systems generally result in significant compass errors.

At sea, a ship's compass must also be corrected for errors, called deviation, caused by iron and steel in its structure and equipment. The ship is swung, that is rotated about a fixed point while its heading is noted by alignment with fixed points on the shore. A compass deviation card is prepared so that the navigator can convert between compass and magnetic headings. The compass can be corrected in three ways. First the lubber line can be adjusted so that it is aligned with the direction in which the ship travels, then the effects of permanent magnets can be corrected for by small magnets fitted within the case of the compass. The effect of ferromagnetic materials in the compass's environment can be corrected by two iron balls mounted on either side of the compass binnacle.

A similar process is used to calibrate the compass in light general aviation aircraft, with the compass deviation card often mounted permanently just above or below the magnetic compass on the instrument panel. Fluxgate electronic compasses can be calibrated automatically, and can also be programmed with the correct local compass variation so as to indicate the true heading.

Using a magnetic compass

A magnetic compass points to magnetic north pole, which is approximately 1,000 miles from the true geographic North Pole. A magnetic compass's user can determine true North by finding the magnetic north and then correcting for variation and deviation. Variation is defined as the angle between the direction of true (geographic) north and the direction of the meridian between the magnetic poles. Variation values for most of the oceans had been calculated and published by 1914. Deviation refers to the response of the compass to local magnetic fields caused by the presence of iron and electric currents; one can partly compensate for these by careful location of the compass and the placement of compensating magnets under the compass itself. Mariners have long known that these measures do not completely cancel deviation; hence, they performed an additional step by measuring the compass bearing of a landmark with a known magnetic bearing. They then pointed their ship to the next compass point and measured again, graphing their results. In this way, correction tables could be created, which would be consulted when compasses were used when traveling in those locations.

Mariners are concerned about very accurate measurements; however, casual users need not be concerned with differences between magnetic and true North. Except in areas of extreme magnetic declination variance (20 degrees or more), this is enough to protect from walking in a substantially different direction than expected over short distances, provided the terrain is fairly flat and visibility is not impaired. By carefully recording distances (time or paces) and magnetic bearings traveled, one can plot a course and return to one's starting point using the compass alone.

Compass navigation in conjunction with a map ( terrain association) requires a different method. To take a map bearing or true bearing (a bearing taken in reference to true, not magnetic north) to a destination with a protractor compass, the edge of the compass is placed on the map so that it connects the current location with the desired destination (some sources recommend physically drawing a line). The orienting lines in the base of the compass dial are then rotated to align with actual or true north by aligning them with a marked line of longitude (or the vertical margin of the map), ignoring the compass needle entirely. The resulting true bearing or map bearing may then be read at the degree indicator or direction-of-travel (DOT) line, which may be followed as an (course) to the destination. If a magnetic north bearing or compass bearing is desired, the compass must be adjusted by the amount of magnetic declination before using the bearing so that both map and compass are in agreement. In the given example, the large mountain in the second photo was selected as the target destination on the map. Some compasses allow the scale to be adjusted to compensate for the local magnetic declination; if adjusted correctly, the compass will give the true bearing instead of the magnetic bearing.

The modern hand-held protractor compass always has an additional direction-of-travel (DOT) arrow or indicator inscribed on the baseplate. To check one's progress along a course or azimuth, or to ensure that the object in view is indeed the destination, a new compass reading may be taken to the target if visible (here, the large mountain). After pointing the DOT arrow on the baseplate at the target, the compass is oriented so that the needle is superimposed over the orienting arrow in the capsule. The resulting bearing indicated is the magnetic bearing to the target. Again, if one is using "true" or map bearings, and the compass does not have preset, pre-adjusted declination, one must additionally add or subtract magnetic declination to convert the magnetic bearing into a true bearing. The exact value of the magnetic declination is place-dependent and varies over time, though declination is frequently given on the map itself or obtainable on-line from various sites. If the hiker has been following the correct path, the compass' corrected (true) indicated bearing should closely correspond to the true bearing previously obtained from the map.

A compass should be laid down on a level surface so that the needle only rests or hangs on the bearing fused to the compass casing - if used at a tilt, the needle might touch the casing on the compass and not move freely, hence not pointing to the magnetic north accurately, giving a faulty reading. To see if the needle is well leveled, look closely at the needle, and tilt it slightly to see if the needle is swaying side to side freely and the needle is not contacting the casing of the compass. If the needle tilts to one direction, tilt the compass slightly and gently to the opposing direction until the compass needle is horizontal, lengthwise. Items to avoid around compasses are magnets of any kind and any electronics. Magnetic fields from electronics can easily disrupt the needle, preventing it from aligning with the Earth's magnetic fields, causing inaccurate readings. The Earth's natural magnetic forces are considerably weak, measuring at 0.5 Gauss and magnetic fields from household electronics can easily exceed it, overpowering the compass needle. Exposure to strong magnets, or magnetic interference can sometimes cause the magnetic poles of the compass needle to differ or even reverse. Avoid iron rich deposits when using a compass, for example, certain rocks which contain magnetic minerals, like Magnetite. This is often indicated by a rock with a surface which is dark and has a metallic luster, not all magnetic mineral bearing rocks have this indication. To see if a rock or an area is causing interference on a compass, get out of the area, and see if the needle on the compass moves. If it does, it means that the area or rock the compass was previously at is causing interference and should be avoided.

Images for kids

In Spanish: Brújula para niños

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A compass is a device that indicates direction. It is one of the most important instruments for navigation.

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What is the history of compasses? - Twinkl Homework Help

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Instant access to our Singapore MOE curriculum aligned interactive series of lesson plans, worksheets, PowerPoints and assessment tools.

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Knowledge of gunpowder quickly spread across Asia and Europe. This might have happened because of the Mongol conquests in the 1200s. Written recipes for gunpowder appeared in the Middle East between 1240 and 1280. In Europe, a recipe was written by Roger Bacon in 1267.

Gunpowder was used in wars from at least the 900s. It powered weapons like fire arrows, bombs, and the fire lance. Later, in the 1200s, guns appeared. While guns replaced fire lances, other gunpowder weapons like rockets and fire arrows continued to be used. Bombs also kept developing into modern weapons like grenades and mines.

Gunpowder was also used for fun things like fireworks. It helped with building projects like mining and digging tunnels.

As guns improved, large artillery pieces, called bombards, became common in the 1400s. Countries like the Duchy of Burgundy led the way. By the 1600s, firearms were very important in early modern warfare in Europe.

Better cannons that fired heavier shots led to new types of forts. These were called star forts or bastions. Old city walls and castles were no longer strong enough for defense. Gunpowder technology also spread to the Islamic world, India, Korea, and Japan. The "Gunpowder Empires" of the early modern period were the Mughal Empire, Safavid Empire, and Ottoman Empire.

In the 1800s, gunpowder was used less in warfare. This was because " smokeless powder" was invented. Today, gunpowder is often called " black powder" to tell it apart from modern gun propellants.

How Gunpowder Started in China

Gunpowder was first made in China. It was a big discovery that changed warfare and many other things.

Early Discoveries

Gunpowder was invented in China sometime in the first 1000 years AD. The earliest possible mention of it was in 142 AD. A Chinese alchemist named Wei Boyang wrote about a mix of three powders. He said they would "fly and dance" very strongly. He was looking for ways to live forever, not to make weapons.

In 492 AD, alchemists noticed that saltpeter burned with a purple flame. This helped them clean the substance better. During the Tang dynasty, alchemists used saltpeter to process other chemicals.

The first clear mention of gunpowder in China was in the Tang dynasty. One recipe from 808 AD combined sulfur, saltpeter, and a herb. About 50 years later, a Taoist text warned about dangerous mixes. One mix of sulfur, realgar (a chemical), saltpeter, and honey caused burns and fires. Alchemists called this discovery "fire medicine" (huoyao). This name is still used for gunpowder in China today.

The oldest surviving recipe for gunpowder is from 1044 AD. It's in a military book called Wujing Zongyao. This book showed many old or unusual Chinese weapons. This means gunpowder was used in weapons long before modern guns. These early gunpowder weapons had strange names. Some were "flying incendiary club for subjugating demons" or "ten-thousand fire flying sand magic bomb." Over time, these weapons became simpler. The main types were gunpowder arrows, bombs, and guns.

First Weapons: Fire Arrows

Early gunpowder didn't have enough saltpeter to explode. But it was very flammable. So, early weapons used it to cause fires and shock. One of the first such weapons was the fire arrow. The first possible use of fire arrows was in 904 AD. An officer named Zheng Fan used them to burn a city gate. He and his troops then rushed into the city.

Arrows with gunpowder were very useful. The air rushing around the arrow as it flew helped the gunpowder burn strongly.

Rocket Power!

At first, fire arrows were just arrows with gunpowder bags tied to them. But later, they became projectiles that were pushed by gunpowder themselves. These were early rockets. We don't know exactly when this happened.

In 969 AD, two Song generals invented a fire arrow that used gunpowder tubes to push it. They showed it to the emperor in 970 AD. However, some historians think rockets didn't exist before the 1100s. This is because the gunpowder recipes from the Wujing Zongyao weren't strong enough for rockets. Other historians say there's little proof of rockets before 1200. They think rockets were used in war only after the mid-1200s. Rockets were used by the Song navy in a military practice in 1245.

In 975 AD, the Song dynasty used fire arrows to destroy an enemy fleet. In 994 AD, the Liao dynasty attacked the Song with 100,000 soldiers. The Song used fire arrows to push them back. In 1000 AD, a soldier showed his own gunpowder arrows and early bombs. He was greatly rewarded.

The emperor's court was very interested in gunpowder. They encouraged new inventions and shared military technology. For example, in 1002 AD, a local soldier showed his fireballs and gunpowder arrows. The emperor ordered that the plans be printed and shared.

The Song court rewarded military inventors. This led to many new inventions. Gunpowder and fire arrow production grew a lot in the 1000s. The court built large gunpowder factories in the capital city of Kaifeng. In 1083, the emperor sent 100,000 gunpowder arrows to one army base and 250,000 to another.

There is less proof of gunpowder in the Liao dynasty and Western Xia. But in 1073, the Song emperor banned trading sulfur and saltpeter across the Liao border. This suggests the Liao knew about gunpowder and wanted its ingredients.

A picture of fire arrow launchers from the Wubei Zhi (1621). This launcher is made from baskets.

Explosive Bombs

Gunpowder bombs were mentioned as early as the 1000s. In 1000 AD, a soldier showed his "gunpowder pots" (early bombs that shot fire). In the military book Wujing Zongyao (1044), bombs like the "thunderclap bomb" were described. But detailed stories of their use appeared later, in the 1100s.

The Jurchen people formed the Jin dynasty in 1115. They allied with the Song and quickly became powerful. They defeated the Liao dynasty. The Song-Jin alliance then broke, and the Jin attacked the Song.

For the first time, two major powers had strong gunpowder weapons. The Jin attacked the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1126. The Song defenders used gunpowder arrows, fire bombs, and a new weapon called the "thunderclap bomb." One person wrote that these bombs "threw them into great confusion. Many fled, screaming in fright."

The Jin army left Kaifeng but returned later with their own gunpowder bombs. These were made by Song artisans they had captured. Records show the Jin used gunpowder arrows and trebuchets to throw bombs. The Song used gunpowder arrows, fire bombs, thunderclap bombs, and a new "molten metal bomb." The Jin captured Kaifeng despite these defenses.

The molten metal bomb was used again in 1129. A Song general used them against Jin forces. He said, "Wherever the gunpowder touched, everything would disintegrate without a trace."

The Fire Lance: A Proto-Gun

The Song capital moved to Hangzhou. The Jin followed, and fighting continued. This led to the first "proto-gun," the fire lance. It was first used by Song forces against the Jin in 1132. Most Chinese scholars think the fire lance appeared during these wars. But an old silk painting from the 900s might show an earlier fire lance.

The siege of De'an in 1132 was important. The gunpowder in the fire lances was called "fire bomb medicine." This might mean a new, stronger gunpowder recipe was used. It could also mean they recognized gunpowder's special use in war.

Fire lances were used against soldiers into the Ming dynasty. In 1163, Song commander Wei Sheng built war carts with fire lances sticking out. These carts protected trebuchets that threw fire bombs. By the 1200s, fire lances were even used by cavalry.

Gunpowder technology also spread to naval warfare. In 1129, the Song emperor ordered all warships to have trebuchets for throwing gunpowder bombs. Older weapons like fire arrows were also used.

In 1159, a Song fleet used gunpowder arrows to set fire to hundreds of Jin ships. In 1161, Song boats ambushed a Jin transport fleet. They launched thunderclap bombs, causing many Jin soldiers to drown in the Yangtze River.

One description of the thunderclap bomb used in naval battles says: "It was made with paper (carton) and filled with lime and sulphur. These thunderclap bombs came dropping down from the air, and upon meeting the water exploded with a noise like thunder, the sulphur bursting into flames." The smoke and lime blinded the enemy.

Thunderclap bombs were used again in 1206-1207 during the Jin siege of Xiangyang. Both sides had gunpowder weapons. The Song used fire arrows, fire bombs, and thunderclap bombs. The thunderclap bombs made Jin soldiers and horses panic. The Song even launched a night attack using boats with gunpowder arrows and thunderclap bombs. This caused a huge panic among the Jin troops.

Stronger Bombs: Iron Shells

The invention of the iron bomb was very important. A story says a fox hunter named Iron Li invented it around 1189. He used a ceramic explosive to scare foxes into his nets. While this story is fun, it's not clear why it led to iron bombs.

The first iron bomb appeared in 1221 at the siege of Qizhou. This time, the Jin army had the better technology. The Song commander, Zhao Yurong, described the Jin's iron bombs. He said they were "like gourds, but with a small mouth. They are made with pig iron, about two inches thick, and they cause the city's walls to shake."

These bombs blew apart houses and battered towers. Defenders were blasted from their positions. The Jin captured Qizhou. Zhao Yurong later found that the "bones and skeletons were so mixed up that there was no way to tell who was who."

The First Guns: Hand Cannons

The early fire lance is seen as the ancestor of firearms. But it wasn't a true gun because it didn't shoot a projectile. A true gun uses gunpowder to push a bullet or cannonball out of a tube.

In 1259, a "fire-emitting lance" appeared. It was made from a large bamboo tube with a "pellet wad" inside. When fired, it shot the pellet wad out. This pellet wad might be the first true bullet. Fire lances then changed from bamboo or paper tubes to metal ones. This helped them handle the strong pressure of gunpowder.

From fire lances came other gunpowder weapons. Some shot poisonous gas and porcelain shards. Others shot sand and chemicals. Some, like the "phalanx-charging fire gourd," shot lead pellets.

The oldest picture that might show a hand cannon is a rock carving from 1128. This is much earlier than any found cannons. So, the idea of a cannon might have existed since the 1100s. However, some experts disagree.

Actual hand cannons (huochong) have been found from the 1200s. The oldest clearly dated gun is the Xanadu Gun from 1298. It was found at the Mongol summer palace in Inner Mongolia. It's small, weighing just over six kilograms.

Another old gun, the Heilongjiang hand cannon, is thought to be from 1288. In 1287, soldiers used hand cannons against a rebel camp. The cannons "caused great damage" and made the enemy fight each other. In 1288, these "gun-soldiers" could carry the hand cannons on their backs. This battle was also the first time the word chong was used for metal firearms.

The Wuwei Bronze Cannon, found in 1980, might be the oldest and largest cannon from the 1200s. It's 100 centimeters long and weighs 108 kilograms. It had an iron ball inside. Some historians think guns appeared by 1220. Others say around 1280 for a "true" cannon.

It seems likely that the gun was invented sometime in the 1200s.

How Mongols Used Gunpowder

The Mongols played a big part in spreading gunpowder technology. They were good at using foreign experts, including Chinese artisans. These artisans traveled with Mongol armies far into the west and east. However, there are not many written records from the Mongols themselves. Some historians doubt the Mongols' role in spreading gunpowder. But others believe the Mongol Empire used gunpowder weapons and were "the first gunpowder empire."

Fighting the Jin Dynasty

The Mongols first invaded the Jin dynasty in 1211. They fully conquered it by 1234. In 1232, the Mongols attacked the Jin capital of Kaifeng. They used gunpowder weapons along with other siege methods. A Jin scholar wrote that "bombs rained down as [the enemy] advanced."

The Jin defenders also used gunpowder bombs and fire arrows. One bomb was called the "heaven-shaking-thunder bomb." A witness wrote that when Mongol troops met one, "several men at a time would be turned into ashes."

The History of Jin describes this bomb: "The heaven-shaking-thunder bomb is an iron vessel filled with gunpowder. When lighted with fire and shot off, it goes off like a crash of thunder that can be heard for a hundred li [about 50 km], burning an expanse of land more than half a mu [a small area], and the fire can even penetrate iron armor." These bombs exploded and sent iron pieces flying, killing people and horses from far away.

The Jin also used an improved fire lance called the flying fire lance. It had a tube made of 16 layers of paper. It was filled with charcoal, iron pieces, sulfur, and saltpeter. When fired, flames shot out more than three meters. Mongol soldiers were very afraid of the flying fire lance and the heaven-shaking-thunder bomb.

Kaifeng held out for a year before the Jin emperor fled. Even after the Jin emperor died in 1234, one loyal general used metal to make explosives against the Mongols. But the Mongol Empire could not be stopped. By 1234, both the Western Xia and Jin dynasties were conquered.

Fighting the Song Dynasty

The Mongol army then moved south. In 1237, they attacked the Song city of Anfeng. They used "gunpowder bombs [huo pao] to burn the [defensive] towers." These bombs were very large. "Several hundred men hurled one bomb, and if it hit the tower it would immediately smash it to pieces." The Song defenders rebuilt their towers and fought back with their own bombs.

By the mid-1200s, gunpowder weapons were very important for the Song army. In 1257, a Song official said a city arsenal should have hundreds of thousands of iron bombshells. He also said it should make thousands more each month. He was disappointed to find very few bombs in one arsenal.

Luckily for the Song, the Mongol leader died in 1259. The war paused until 1269, when Kublai Khan led the Mongols. The Mongols then attacked the twin fortress cities of Xiangyang and Fancheng. This was one of the longest sieges ever, lasting from 1268 to 1273.

In 1273, the Mongols got help from two Muslim engineers. They built new trebuchets that could throw larger missiles further. One account says, "when the machinery went off the noise shook heaven and earth; every thing that [the missile] hit was broken and destroyed." Xiangyang fell in 1273.

Gunpowder bombs were used again in 1275 at the Siege of Changzhou. The Mongol army bombarded the city with fire bombs before attacking. This led to a huge number of deaths. The war ended four years later. In 1277, 250 defenders set off a huge iron bomb when they knew they would lose. The History of Song says, "the noise was like a tremendous thunderclap, shaking the walls and ground, and the smoke filled up the heavens outside. Many of the troops [outside] were startled to death."

In 1280, a large gunpowder storage in Yangzhou accidentally exploded. It was so powerful that 100 guards were killed instantly. Wooden beams were blown over 3 kilometers away, and a crater more than 3 meters deep was formed.

By the mid-1300s, the explosive power of gunpowder was perfected in China. The amount of saltpeter in gunpowder recipes increased a lot. The Chinese also learned to make explosive round shot by filling hollow shells with this stronger gunpowder.

Spreading to Europe and Japan

Gunpowder might have been used during the Mongol invasions of Europe. Some sources mention "fire catapults" and "naphtha-shooters." But there's no strong proof that Mongols regularly used gunpowder weapons outside of China.

Soon after the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274-1281), the Japanese drew a picture of a bomb. They called it tetsuhau, which might have been the Chinese thunder crash bomb. Underwater findings confirmed that the Mongols had bombs in their invasion fleet. X-rays of bomb shells show they contained gunpowder and scrap iron. Japanese writings also mention iron and bamboo pao that made "light and fire" and shot iron bullets.

One Japanese account of the Mongol invasion says: "But whenever the (Mongol) soldiers took to flight, they sent iron bomb-shells (tetsuho) flying against us, which made our side dizzy and confused. Our soldiers were frightened out of their wits by the thundering explosions; their eyes were blinded, their ears deafened, so that they could hardly distinguish east from west."

How Gunpowder Spread Around the World

Most experts agree that the gun was invented in China. However, some theories suggest it was invented in Europe, the Islamic world, or India. These theories often lack strong evidence or clear dates. For example, some say gunpowder was invented by Berthold Schwarz in Europe. But he might be a legendary figure. Others point to cannons used by Mamluks in 1260. But the text describing this is from much later.

People who support the Chinese invention theory point out that outside China, gunpowder appeared ready for military use. It didn't go through centuries of experiments like in China. Early European gunpowder recipes even had the same useless ingredients as Chinese ones, like poisons. This suggests the knowledge was transferred.

Also, early Muslim words for gunpowder items came from Chinese. Saltpeter was called "Chinese snow." Fireworks were "Chinese flowers." Rockets were "Chinese arrows." Europeans also had trouble getting saltpeter, which was common in China. The similarities between early European cannons and Chinese ones also suggest direct knowledge transfer.

Middle East

The Muslim world learned about gunpowder between 1240 and 1280. By then, Hasan al-Rammah wrote recipes for gunpowder in Arabic. He also described how to clean saltpeter and make gunpowder incendiaries. Early Muslim sources suggest the Mongols brought gunpowder knowledge from China. Al-Rammah used terms that came from Chinese sources.

Early Arab texts called saltpeter "Chinese snow." Fireworks were "Chinese flowers," and rockets were "Chinese arrows." Persians called saltpeter "Chinese salt."

Al-Rammah's gunpowder recipe had a lot of saltpeter (68% to 75%). This is very explosive, but he didn't mention using it for explosions. His book, The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices, mentioned fuses, fire bombs, fire lances, and even an early torpedo. This torpedo was called the "egg which moves itself and burns."

Hasan al-Rammah was the first Muslim to describe how to clean saltpeter using chemical processes. This was a clear method for making pure saltpeter.

Some historians say fire lances were used in battles between Muslims and Mongols in 1299 and 1303.

The oldest surviving document about cannons in the Islamic world is an Arabic manuscript from the early 1300s. It shows gunpowder weapons like arrows, bombs, fire tubes, and fire lances or early guns. The manuscript describes a weapon called a midfa. It used gunpowder to shoot projectiles from a tube. Some think this was a cannon. But the term midfa was also used for flamethrowers and fire lances. Clear accounts of metal-barrel cannons in the Islamic world don't appear until 1365.

One common idea is that gunpowder came to Europe along the Silk Road through the Middle East. Another idea is that it was brought to Europe during the Mongol invasion in the early 1200s. Some say Chinese firearms were used by Mongols against Europeans in 1241.

The earliest European mentions of gunpowder are in Roger Bacon's book Opus Majus from 1267. He talks about a firecracker toy. He describes a small device that makes a horrible sound and a bright flash. Some think another book by Bacon had a secret gunpowder recipe. But this is debated.

The oldest written recipes for gunpowder in Europe are from between 1280 and 1300. They are in a book called Liber Ignium, or Book of Fires. One recipe for "flying fire" uses saltpeter, sulfur, and resin. It says when put in a hollow wood, it "flies away suddenly and burns up everything." Another recipe for "thunder" uses sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter. This text was likely translated from Arabic.

The 1320s seem to be when guns really took off in Europe. Guns spread quickly across Europe from then on. By 1341, the town of Lille had a "tonnoire master," for an arrow-shooting gun. In 1346, cannons were used at the Battle of Crécy. By 1350, cannons were "as common and familiar as other kinds of arms."

By the late 1300s, European and Ottoman guns started to be different from Chinese guns. They became larger artillery pieces. By the end of the 1300s, European guns grew bigger and started to break down forts.

Southeast Asia

The Mongol invasion of Java in 1293 brought gunpowder technology to the Nusantara islands. The knowledge of making gunpowder weapons was known after this failed invasion. Early firearms, like the pole gun, were used in Java by 1413. But "true" firearms came later, after the mid-1400s. Muslim traders, probably Arabs, brought them.

After the Portuguese captured Malacca in 1511, a new type of firearm appeared. It was a mix of local and Portuguese designs. Saltpeter was collected from large piles of dung in villages. The Dutch later banned owning or making gunpowder.

Gunpowder technology likely arrived in India by the mid-1300s. It might have been introduced earlier by the Mongols. The large Mongol Empire helped Chinese technology spread to Mongol-controlled parts of India. The Mongols used Chinese gunpowder weapons during their invasions of India.

In 1258, a Mongol ruler's envoy saw a dazzling pyrotechnics show in Delhi. The first gunpowder device from China in India was a rocket called the "hawai" (or "ban"). It was used in war from the mid-1300s. The Delhi sultanate and the Bahmani Sultanate used them well.

Firearms called top-o-tufak were in the Vijayanagara Empire of Southern India by 1366. By 1442, guns were clearly present in India. From then on, gunpowder warfare was common in India. Muslim and Hindu states in the south had advanced artillery. This was because they had contact with Turkey and Arab countries by sea. They imported their gunners and artillery from these places.

Korea had cannons by 1373. A Korean mission asked China for gunpowder for their ships' artillery. Korea didn't make its own gunpowder until 1374-76. In the 1300s, a Korean scholar named Ch'oe Mu-sŏn learned how to make it after visiting China. He bribed a merchant for the recipe. In 1377, he learned how to get potassium nitrate from soil. He then invented the juhwa, Korea's first rocket. Later, singijeons, Korean arrow rockets, were developed. Korea also started making cannons in 1377.

The multiple rocket launcher called hwacha ("fire cart") was developed in Korea by 1409. Its inventors included Yi To and Ch'oe Hae-san. The first hwachas didn't fire rockets. They used bronze guns that shot iron darts. Rocket-launching hwachas were developed in 1451. This "Munjong Hwacha" could fire 100 rocket arrows or 200 small bullets at once. By the end of 1451, hundreds of hwachas were used across Korea.

Naval gunpowder weapons were quickly used by Korean ships. They fought Japanese pirates in 1380 and 1383. By 1410, 160 Korean ships had artillery. Mortars firing thunder-crash bombs were used. Four types of cannons were mentioned: chonja, chija, hyonja, and hwangja. These cannons usually shot wooden arrows with iron tips, but sometimes stone and iron balls.

Firearms were known in Japan around 1270. They were proto-cannons from China, which the Japanese called teppō ("iron cannon"). Not many hand guns reached Japan. However, Japanese samurai used Fire lances in the 1400s. The first fire lances in Japan were recorded in 1409. Gunpowder bombs like Chinese explosives were used in Japan from at least the mid-1400s.

The first cannon in Japan was recorded in 1510. A Buddhist monk showed Hōjō Ujitsuna an iron cannon he got in China. Firearms were not used much in Japan until Portuguese matchlocks arrived in 1543. During the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598), the Japanese used matchlock firearms effectively.

In Africa, the Adal Empire and the Abyssinian Empire used gunpowder weapons during the Adal-Abyssinian War. The Adalites were the first African power to use cannons. They imported them from Arabia and the wider Islamic world. Later, the Portuguese Empire supplied and trained the Abyssinians with cannons and muskets. The Ottoman Empire sent soldiers and cannons to help Adal. This war showed that firearms like the matchlock musket, cannon, and arquebus were better than traditional weapons.

One historian, Ernest Gellner, said that the gun and the book helped the Somali people and the Amhara people control large areas in Africa. This was true even though they weren't the largest groups.

Guns Get Better: Early Modern Warfare

Stronger Cannons in China

Gun development continued in China under the Ming dynasty. The founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, was successful partly because he used guns well.

Most early Ming guns weighed only two to three kilograms. "Large" guns weighed about seventy-five kilograms. Ming sources say these guns shot stones and iron balls. They were mainly used against people, not to damage ships or walls. They weren't very accurate and had a range of only about 50 paces.

Despite their small size, some Ming gun designs followed world trends. The length of the gun barrel compared to its opening grew, similar to European guns. "Corning" gunpowder (making it into grains) was developed by 1370 for land mines. This made gunpowder more powerful. It was likely used in guns too. Around the same time, Ming guns started using iron ammunition instead of stone. Iron is heavier and makes guns more powerful.

The Ming also created rocket launchers called "wasp nests." These were made for the army in 1380.

The best Chinese cannons before European weapons arrived in the 1500s were the "great general cannon" and the "great divine cannon." The great general cannon weighed up to 360 kilograms and fired a 4.8 kilogram lead ball. The great divine cannon could weigh up to 600 kilograms. It could fire several iron balls and many iron shots at once. These were the last Chinese cannon designs before European ones were copied.

China didn't make larger siege weapons like other parts of the world. This might be because traditional Chinese walls were very thick. Even modern artillery had trouble breaking them. Also, larger guns weren't very useful against China's main enemies: horse nomads.

Huge Cannons in Europe

Before 1370, most European guns weighed about 9-14 kg. But in 1375, during the Hundred Years War, guns weighing over 900 kg were used. These fired stone balls weighing over 45 kg. Philip used large guns to help the French capture a fortress in 1377. These guns fired much larger projectiles than ever before. They broke down city walls, starting a new age of artillery warfare.

These weapons completely changed European warfare. A hundred years earlier, it was very hard to capture a castle. But by the 1400s, European walls fell regularly.

The Ottoman Empire also developed its own artillery. Mehmed the Conqueror wanted large cannons to conquer Constantinople. A Hungarian engineer made him a 6-meter long cannon. It needed hundreds of pounds of gunpowder to fire. During the siege of Constantinople, dozens of other large cannons bombarded the city's walls for 55 days. Despite a strong defense, the city's forts were overcome.

Forts Change to Fight Cannons

Because of gunpowder artillery, European forts started to change. By the mid-1400s, they had lower and thicker walls. Cannon towers were built with rooms where cannons could fire from slits. But this had problems. Cannons fired slowly, made loud noises, and produced bad fumes. Gun towers also limited how many cannons could be placed.

The star fort, also called the bastion fort, became popular in Europe in the 1500s. It was developed in Italy. The Florentine engineer Giuliano da Sangallo created a full defensive plan using these forts.

The main feature of the star fort was its angled bastions. Each bastion was placed to support its neighbor with deadly crossfire. This covered all angles, making them very hard to attack. Artillery on the flanks could fire along the walls, protecting against attacks. Artillery on the bastion platform could fire straight ahead. This overlapping fire was the biggest advantage of the star fort. As a result, sieges lasted longer and were harder to win. By the 1530s, the bastion fort was the main type of defense in Italy.

Outside Europe, the star fort helped Europeans expand. Small European armies could hold out against much larger forces. Wherever star forts were built, local people had great difficulty removing the European invaders.

In China, Sun Yuanhua suggested building angled bastion forts. This would help cannons support each other better. Some officials built two bastion forts in their home county. These helped fight off an attack in 1638. By 1641, there were ten bastion forts in that county. But before they could spread further, the Ming dynasty fell in 1644. The new Qing dynasty was usually attacking, so they didn't need these forts as much.

New Handheld Guns: Arquebus and Musket

The arquebus was a firearm that appeared in Europe and the Ottoman Empire in the early 1400s. Its name comes from a German word meaning "hook gun." Early arquebuses were defensive weapons mounted on German city walls. But by the late 1400s, they became handheld firearms. Heavier versions, called "muskets," appeared in the early 1500s. These needed a Y-shaped support to fire.

The musket could shoot through all types of armor at the time. This made armor less useful, and also made the heavy musket less necessary. The musket and arquebus were similar, but the musket was larger and stronger. The term "musket" remained in use until the 1800s.

The exact date the matchlock firing system appeared is debated. The first mentions of arquebuses used by the Ottoman army are from 1394 to 1465. In Europe, a shoulder stock (like on a crossbow) was added to the arquebus around 1470. The matchlock mechanism appeared just before 1475. The matchlock arquebus was the first firearm with a trigger. It was also the first portable shoulder gun.

Matchlock became a common name for the arquebus after this system was added. Before matchlocks, handguns were fired from the chest. One hand held the gun, and the other used a hot stick to light the gunpowder. The matchlock changed this. It had a clamp that held a smoldering rope (the match). A trigger lowered the match into a pan, lighting the priming powder. This flash then ignited the gunpowder in the barrel, shooting the bullet out.

Matchlocks allowed users to aim with both hands, which was a big advantage. But they were also tricky to use. The match had to be removed while loading. Sometimes the match would go out, so both ends were kept lit. The process was so complex that a 1607 manual listed 28 steps to fire and load the gun. In 1584, a Ming general made an 11-step song to help soldiers practice. Reloading a gun in the 1500s took 20 seconds to a minute in perfect conditions.

The arquebus was used by the Spanish and Portuguese as early as 1472. The Mamluks were against using gunpowder weapons at first. They criticized the Ottomans for using them. But eventually, the Mamluks were ordered to train with arquebuses in 1489. In 1514, an Ottoman army with arquebuses defeated a much larger Mamluk force.

The arquebus became a common infantry weapon in the 1500s because it was cheap. It also needed less training. While a bow took years to master, an arquebusier could be trained in just two weeks.

In the early 1500s, the larger musket appeared. The heavy musket needed a fork rest to fire. But it could shoot through the best armor from 180 meters away. It could hit regular armor at 365 meters and an unarmed person at 548 meters. However, both the musket and arquebus were very inaccurate beyond 90 to 185 meters. A smoothbore musket often couldn't hit a person-sized target past 73 meters.

This made the smoothbore musket worse than a bow in some ways. An average Mamluk archer could hit targets 68 meters away and shoot six to eight arrows per minute. A 1500s matchlock fired one shot every few minutes. Misfires happened up to half the time. But firearms could penetrate armor better and needed less training. By the 1590s, archers were mostly replaced in European warfare. This was partly due to new tactics like "volley fire." By this time, gunners made up to 40% of European infantry.

As the musket's benefits became clear, it was quickly adopted across Eurasia. By 1560, even Chinese generals praised the new weapon. General Qi Jiguang wrote in 1560: "It is unlike any other of the many types of fire weapons. In strength it can pierce armor. In accuracy it can strike the center of targets... The arquebus is such a powerful weapon and is so accurate that even bow and arrow cannot match it, and nothing is so strong as to be able to defend against it."

Other East Asian powers, like Đại Việt, also quickly adopted the matchlock musket. Đại Việt was thought to make the best matchlocks in the world in the 1600s. European observers said Vietnamese matchlocks could pierce several layers of iron armor and kill multiple men with one shot. They also fired quietly for their size.

Gunpowder in History: The "Gunpowder Empires"

The term "Gunpowder Empires" usually refers to the Islamic Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires. This phrase was first used by Marshall Hodgson in his book The Venture of Islam (1974).

Hodgson used the term for these three Islamic states. He said they were different from earlier unstable groups of Turkic clans. They were "military patronage states" with three main features:

1. They had their own strong laws.

2. The whole state acted like one military force.

3. All money and cultural resources belonged to the main military families.

These empires grew from Mongol ideas of greatness. But they became stable empires only after gunpowder weapons became very important in their armies.

Historian William H. McNeill added to this idea. He said that states that could control the new artillery could "unite larger territories into new, or newly consolidated, empires."

In 2011, Douglas E. Streusand criticized this idea. He said it wasn't always accurate. He noted that these empires usually gained land before they got firearms, except for the Mughals. Also, their strong military rule often came before they got gunpowder weapons.

However, it's clear that all three of these empires got artillery and firearms early in their history. They made these weapons a key part of their military plans.

Ottoman Empire

It's not certain when the Ottomans started using firearms. Some say they used cannons since the Battles of Kosovo (1389) and Nukap (1396). They definitely used them by the 1420s. Some historians say field guns were used after the Battle of Varna (1444) and certainly in the Second Battle of Kosovo (1448). Firearms, especially grenades, were used in the 1683 siege of Vienna. The arquebus reached them around 1425.

India and the Mughal Empire

In India, bronze guns were found from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533). By the 1600s, Indians made many different firearms. Large guns were common in places like Tanjore and Dacca. Gujarāt supplied Europe with saltpeter for gunpowder in the 1600s. Bengal and Mālwa also made saltpeter. The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used Chāpra to refine saltpeter.

Fathullah Shirazi (around 1582), a mechanical engineer for Akbar the Great, developed an early multi-shot gun. Shirazi's fast-firing gun had many barrels. They fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder.

Indian war rockets were powerful before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bamboo rods and iron points. They were aimed and fired by lighting a fuse, but they didn't always fly straight. Mines and counter-mines with gunpowder explosives were used during the times of Akbar and Jahāngir.

Gunpowder for Building Things

Gunpowder was also used for civil engineering projects.

Digging Canals

Gunpowder was used for water engineering in China by 1541. Chen Mu used gunpowder blasting to improve the Grand Canal. He blasted rocks and then dredged the debris. In Europe, gunpowder was used to build the Canal du Midi in Southern France. It was finished in 1681. It connected the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Another big user of black powder was the Erie Canal in New York. It was 585 km long and took eight years to build, starting in 1817.

Mining for Resources

Before gunpowder, there were two ways to break large rocks: hard labor or heating them with fire and then quickly cooling them. The first record of gunpowder use in mines is from Hungary in 1627. German miners brought it to Britain in 1638. After that, its use became common.

Using gunpowder was very dangerous until the safety fuse was invented in 1831. Another danger was the thick fumes it produced. It also risked igniting flammable gas in coal mines.

Building Tunnels

Gunpowder was also used a lot in building railways. At first, railways followed the land's shape or crossed low ground with bridges. But later, railways used many cuttings and tunnels. For example, a 730-meter part of the Box Tunnel in England used a ton of gunpowder per week for over two years. The 12.9 km long Mont Cenis Tunnel took 13 years to build, starting in 1857. Even with black powder, progress was only 25 cm a day until pneumatic drills sped up the work.

Gunpowder in American History

The Revolutionary War

During the American Revolutionary War, people mined caves for saltpeter to make gunpowder. This happened when supplies from Europe were stopped. Abigail Adams also reportedly made gunpowder on her family farm in Massachusetts.

The New York Committee of Safety printed essays on making gunpowder in 1776.

The Civil War

During the American Civil War, British India was the main source of saltpeter for the Union armies. This supply was threatened by the British government during the Trent Affair. The British stopped all saltpeter exports to the United States. The situation was later solved.

The Union Navy blocked the southern Confederate States. This reduced how much gunpowder could be imported. The Confederate Nitre and Mining Bureau was formed to make gunpowder from local resources. While carbon and sulfur were easy to find, potassium nitrate was often made from dirt in caves, tobacco barns, and other places. Men and boys who worked in the caves were called "peter monkeys."

In November 1862, the Confederate government asked for "able bodied Negro men" to work in new nitre beds. These beds were large rectangles of rotted manure and straw. The process was designed to get saltpeter, which the Confederate army needed. The South was so desperate that one official asked people to save the contents of chamber pots for collection. In 1863, many enslaved people worked in a huge cave in Georgia. They worked by torchlight in bad conditions, hauling out and processing the "peter dirt." In South Carolina, in April 1864, the Confederate government hired 31 enslaved people to work at the Ashley Ferry Nitre Works.

Why Gunpowder Changed

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Learn History of gunpowder facts for kids

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Learn History of gunpowder facts for kids

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Gunpowder was an invention of unintended consequences. In an example of supreme irony, the creators of gunpowder wanted an elixir to cure illness and prolong life. Indeed, one of the early names of what would become gunpowder was, in English, "fire medicine."

Historians generally credit Taoist monks in China with the invention. The monks mixed charcoal, saltpeter (potassium nitrate), and sulfur and discovered that the mixture would burn and, further, explode. Rudimentary gunpowder was born.

Despite the pacific intentions of its creators, gunpowder soon emerged as a weapon of destruction. The first known use of gunpowder as a weapon is thought to be in the early 10th Century, during the Tang Dynasty. A chemical formula (with saltpeter being far and away the most prevalent ingredient) for the incendiary combination appeared in the mid-11th Century. (Some early combinations included other ingredients, such as garlic and honey.)

Early military uses included the fire arrow, fired from a bow or crossbow with the shaft of the arrow carrying a bag of gunpowder. Larger versions existed alongside progenitors of rockets and cannons that were handheld. The range on such devices was recorded as several hundred feet. Use of such weapons was not confined to land-based combat: Some accounts record naval battles that featured sailors using fire arrows to turn back attacks. Later warships sported trebuchets hurling thunderclap bombs at enemies.

The use of fire arrows continued for centuries, from Song times through the Yuan years and on into the centuries of the Ming Dynasty. Chinese soldiers built bombs using gunpowder and also crafted progenitors of guns known as fire lances, which fired bullets, pebbles, and other projectiles.

All of these technologies made their way to the West by way of battles between European forces and Mongols, to begin with, and then other Asian powers. As the use of gunpowder widened in variety, the size of the weapons using that gunpowder grew. Punctuating later medieval warfare were cannons, some of massive size. As with fire arrows, great powers used cannons not only on land but also at sea: Cannons dotted the bows of warships.

Gunpowder use was not exclusively in warfare. Fireworks also used gunpowder. As well, a large part of the history of mining and tunneling involved gunpowder and other explosive devices.

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The Invention and Early History of Gunpowder

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Gunpowder was an invention of unintended consequences. In an example of supreme irony, the creators of gunpowder wanted an elixir to cure illness and prolong life.

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Ancient China for Kids: Inventions and Technology

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Kids learn about the inventions and technology of Ancient China to Europe such as paper, the compass, printing, and gunpowder.