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Reduction Lino Print - Colour Technique 

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Reduction Lino Print - Colour Technique 

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Reduction Lino Print - Colour Technique :

https://www.boardingallrows.com/linoleum-reduction-prints

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bg6FowI4h8o

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Reduction Linocut Step-by-Step and Fixing Lino Mistakes - Linocut Artist | Boarding All Rows

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The reduction linocut process for making multi-layer prints. Reduction printing step-by step. And, techniques to fix printing mistakes and lino blocks.

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Blended Roller - Colour Gradient in Lino Technique 

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Blended Roller - Colour Gradient in Lino Technique 

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Blended Roller - Colour Gradient in Lino Technique :

https://linocutboy.com/linocut-tutorial-how-to-print-a-colour-blend/

https://www.boardingallrows.com/lino-printing-artist-techniques

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dAGZNt_LPb4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RNAeCpooE7k

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Linocut tutorial - how to print a colour blend

I've been printing my Hungry Fish linocut which has a colour blend, or colour gradation, on one of the blocks. This is a very simple printing technique where two or more colours are blended on the ink roller resulting in a striking effect which can be used in a number of ways.

Hungry Fish linocut with colour blend

I've put together a mini tutorial below showing the steps in inking and printing the blocks. Hungry Fish is a two block print and you will also see my method for registering the blocks using a registration sheet.

The first step is to squeeze out your ink - in this case just two colours - onto your inking surface so they are the same distance apart as the width of your roller. I'm trying my new Caligo water-washable inks from Intaglio Printmaker (pthalo blue and process yellow in case you're interested)

The next step is to pull some ink down with the roller and start rolling it out below the ink blobs:

As you roll the colours will gradually move together and start to blend. To speed this process up you can move the roller slightly to the left and right on alternate rolls.

As you keep rolling the colours will blend more and more. Once you are happy with the blend just roll over the same spot to stop it spreading further. You are now ready to ink up your block:

You must be very careful to get everything the right way round! Re-ink the roller in between rolls to avoid off-setting areas of the image back onto the block.

To register the two blocks I made a template out of clear plastic and drew round the blocks where I want them to go. A lot of my blocks are irregular shapes so it's easy to see where they have to go (and avoid putting them down upside-down).

To lower the paper onto the block I hold it down with two fingers of my left hand, making sure it's aligned with the template. I then lower it onto the block with my other hand.

After rolling it through the press I hold the paper in the same way to lift it so as to avoid smudging:

I usually print the second block straight away but if the ink is very thick or you are having problems you will have to leave it to dry first. I inked up the second block in two colours, using a small roller for the little red fish. This is the fiddly bit:

The black ink was applied with a third roller, going around the little fish and being careful not to let it touch the red ink:

This block was then printed using the same registration method:

Once you get in the swing it is quite quick to print lots of images this size. I did about 30 in an hour or two. Here they are on my lovely new printing rack. If you want to buy a Hungry Fish they are available from my Etsy shop!

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Linocut tutorial - how to print a colour blend - LinocutBoy

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I've been printing my Hungry Fish linocut which has a colour blend, or colour gradation, on one of the blocks. This is a very simple printing technique where two or more colours are blended on the ink roller resulting in a striking effect which can be used in a number of ways.

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Visual Studies Presentation 2: Irish Street Artists (PDF file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 2: Irish Street Artists (PDF file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 2: Irish Street Artists (PDF file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 2: Irish Street Artists (Power-Point file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 2: Irish Street Artists (Power-Point file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 2: Irish Street Artists (Power-Point file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 1: Introduction to Irish Street Art (PDF file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 1: Introduction to Irish Street Art (PDF file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 1: Introduction to Irish Street Art (PDF file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 1: Introduction to Irish Street Art (Power-Point file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 1: Introduction to Irish Street Art (Power-Point file)

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Visual Studies Presentation 1: Introduction to Irish Street Art (Power-Point file)

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Lino and Project Intro Presentation - 5th Years

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Lino and Project Intro Presentation - 5th Years

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PDF file

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Lino and Project Intro Presentation - 5th Years

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Lino and Project Intro Presentation - 5th Years

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Power-point file

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Unit of Learning - Full 8 week Lino Project outlined for 5th Years

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Unit of Learning - Full 8 week Lino Project outlined for 5th Years

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PDF File

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Unit of Learning - Full 8 week Lino Project outlined for 5th Years

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Unit of Learning - Full 8 week Lino Project outlined for 5th Years

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Power-point file

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'What is Religious Art?' by F. Thomas Trotter, Religion Online:

https://www.religion-online.org/article/what-is-religious-art/

'On Contemporary Art and Spirituality', Rina Arya, INTERALIA MAGAZINE, 2017:

https://www.interaliamag.org/interviews/rina-arya/

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A graduate of Occidental College (AB) and Boston University (STB, Ph.D), Trotter was Dean and Professor of Theology at the Claremont School of Theology. Later he was General Secretary of the Board of Higher Education and Ministry of The United Methodist Church and President of Alaska Pacific University. His special interests are in religion and the arts and religion in higher education.

This essay appeared in Loving God With One's Mind, by F. Thomas Trotter, copyright 1987 by the Board of Higher Education and Ministry of the United Methodist Church. Used by permission. This document was prepared for Religion Online by William E. Chapman.

SUMMARY

This essay offers an indication of how seriously Trotter takes the issue of art and religion. This treatment appeared in 1974, to be followed in his 1978 article, "The Church's Stake in the Arts." This article contends that art has the effect of raising questions by expanding one's experience of the world. Trotter challenges the reader to test out his approach by visiting a gallery or museum and asking the questions posed in coming to one's own "answer" to the question posed.

What do we mean when we speak of religious art? Do we mean that religious themes are depicted in the art? Do we mean that religious persons were the artists? Do we mean that some special religious group or church has decided that the art is orthodox and therefore official?

All of these definitions have been used at one time or another to define religious art. The most common definition is that religious art is that which depicts biblical themes. Such art abounds, particularly that done in earlier centuries; but it is still prominent today. The next suggestion-that art is what religious artists do-saw its highest expression in the Renaissance when the church employed great artists who experimented with themes not only from biblical settings but from classical mythology as well. Often in history, "religious art" was what the church officially declared to be religious art. The most extreme example of this style is to be recalled in the Inquisition of the sixteenth century and in iconoclastic excesses right up to the present time.

Now the fact is that the very expression religious art is problematic. Biblical themes may be used in a painting but for irreligious purposes. The religion of the artist is ultimately irrelevant to the quality of his work, so that "faithful" painters may not be any more successful in doing "religious" art than nonbelievers. Some of the most powerful "religious art" of recent times has been done by artists professedly skeptical of the values of religious traditions.

It may well be that the interest that church folk show in defining religious art is but an example of the bad religious habit of the church to divide the religious from the secular, the O.K. and the not O.K., the clean and the impure. Such an attitude is contrary to the highest sense of the Christian view of the world and history and the intention of the gospel. God speaks to the world through its fullness and its roughness as well as from its particularity and its religious traditions.

What do we mean by the word religion? It comes from an ancient Latin word that means simply "to tie things together." Religion is the human quest for coherence and meaning in the understanding of the world. When the most primitive cultures first sought to see some connection between birth and death and the seasons of the year, they were constructing a religious view. When various forms of idolatry became part of their effort to influence the world, they were merely trying to tie all things together, to make sense out of a world that often proved hostile to human feelings. Religion is the generic word for Christianity. It is not synonymous with Christianity. Christianity is a form of religion, although to many of us it is the highest form. Religion is whatever posture is taken toward the world and its events and power that seeks to tie all things together into a coherent and experiential whole.

Now it is easy to see where all the trouble in the definition of the term religious art arises. According to the above argument, art does not have to have biblical subject matter to be "religious." Any felt passion or insight about the world, expressed with power, ought to be considered religious art. In fact, we know that in earlier cultures, religion and art were almost the same thing. The religious buildings, icons, and music of a culture are art; and its art is its religion.

"Art" is the process of expressing in concrete form or event human emotions and aspirations, ranging from the simple joys of being to complex philosophical expression. A work of art is a concrete thing, an event that helps the participant to bridge his experience with that of the artist or the group or the religious values expressed therein. If one accepts this definition, there is no such thing as "art"; there are only the things we make to tell our stories as human beings with religious purposes. Sister Corita Kent, the famous pop artist, once said in a poster, "We have no art here. We only do the best we can."

Somewhere we received the idea that art must be pretty or polished or symmetrical or restful. It may express those possibilities. But, if our definition is correct, it must also at times be ugly, rough, asymmetrical, and jarring. Why? Because men and women sense their world that way some of the time-maybe most of the time.

How then are we to judge whether a work of art is a good piece of art or whether it is religious art? The answer is that this is probably an irrelevant question. The most important question is this: Is the work of art expressive of a powerful view of life and, regardless of subject matter, does it stir some religious sensitivity in the viewer?

The late Paul Tillich, a great Christian theologian, suggested that a work of art could have religious subject matter and still be an irreligious statement. On the other hand, a work of art on a non-biblical subject could be expressed with such power that it would be a profoundly religious painting. These statements may seem contradictory to you. But let us look at them carefully.

Tillich believed that just stating a religious theme was not adequate. A religious painting of this type would seem to carry the entire religious message. The experience of the viewer would be limited to his knowledge of the particular religious scene. On the other hand, a treatment of a common event in human life and experience, so touched by human sense that its power still grips the viewer, is unmistakably a "religious" event. It ties things together.

Look at the painting of Holman Hunt's "The Light of the World." It is pretty. It expresses a fine personal sentiment. It is full of rich symbols. It contains religious subject matter. But it falls short of being a powerful statement of human emotion or aspiration. Now look at the painting of Georges Rouault's "Old King." It shows a powerful monarch who sits with a frail flower in his hand, his jaw tight, as he contemplates the finality of life and the emptiness of temporal power. Which painting is more religious? They are both "religious," but only Rouault's is also great art.

Let us now check our theory by looking at two artistic statements about Jesus. Look at the widely loved "Head of Christ" by Warner Sallman; and then consider the head of Christ by Matthias Grunewald from the Isenheim altarpiece in Germany. Sallman's Christ is theatrical, handsome, European, blond. The full emotional weight of the painting is carried in the flaccid expression and the uplifted eyes. The face is that of a slightly effeminate and untroubled person. In short, it is our culture's expression of confidence in a less than powerful, prophetic, and effective Lord. Grunewald, on the other hand, depicts Christ in suffering on the cross. A frightful expression of shock and pain is the dominant theme. The skin of our Lord is bleeding, and the crown of thorns is pressed down to draw blood. By superficial standards this is an "ugly" Christ.

The question we must now ask is this: Which of these depictions of our Lord speaks more nearly to our sense of the power and mystery of God's mighty act of Incarnation? Is it the calm, cool, and effeminate Lord, or is it the victim-the one who took into himself the suffering of the world to reveal God's love? Modern people may want to like Sallman's Christ, but the tragic events of our time make the sixteenth-century Christ of Grunewald more powerful. We can identify with this Christ.

This insight brings us to the final problem in our discussion of religious art. Art is so important in the life of man and society that from the beginning of civilization tyrants have tried to control it. Keep the horizons of art no wider than the expectations of the rulers and you have kept a people under control. That is why the Nazis in Germany and the Communists in Russia have caused artists much trouble. That is why any attack on the artist in our culture is ultimately an attack on our own freedom to know and believe.

Even Plato suggested that in his perfect Republic the artists ought to be rigorously controlled. We live in a free society; and if artists are free, they can be prophets in that society. They tell us what we may not have the imagination to see and think. They tell us secrets of our own hearts which religious traditions may not permit us to confess. In short they perform a kind of religious task for us all. They keep us open to the spirit of newness and innovation in the quest for meaning in human history and life. Without them, life would be merely the dull routine of what is apparent and not real, what is accustomed and not novel, what is required and not daring.

If you have not been to the local gallery in your museum or at the college or university near you, why not go soon and ask yourself some of the questions posed in this essay? Get acquainted with an artist and find out what makes him or her think and speak. Then, in your own reflection on the meaning of life, ask yourself this question: How do I tie it all together?

Religion is life, and the life that is lived without questions and spiritual wrestling is really a dull life indeed. When our minds and religious senses become dull and corrupt, then the glory of God and the blazing intentions of our Lord for our lives are unable to register in our daily existence. That is why religion and art are part of the wider quest for meaning. That is why we need them both.

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A graduate of Occidental College (AB) and Boston University (STB, Ph.D), Trotter was Dean and Professor of Theology at the Claremont School of Theology. Later he was General Secretary of the Board of Higher Education and Ministry of The United Methodist Church and President of Alaska Pacific University.

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'Street Art in Dublin Challenges and Opportunities', Olan O’Brien – Street Art Facilitator, Council Meetings, Dublin City Council:
https://councilmeetings.dublincity.ie/documents/s23590/2.%20Presentation%20on%20Street%20Art%20in%20Dublin%20-%20Challenges%20and%20Opportunities%20-%20Olan%20OBrien.pdf

'Street and Graffiti Art', The Art Story:
https://www.theartstory.org/movement/street-art/

'The History Of Street Art', Stephanie, Let's Roam:
https://www.letsroam.com/explorer/history-of-street-art/

'The History of Street Art: Graffiti & Street Art', Bojan Maric, WideWalls, 2014:

https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/the-history-of-street-art

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"Some people might say it's all a big waste of time, no one cares about their opinion if their name isn't written in huge letters on the bridge in town."

"I was 16 years old when I first trespassed onto some railway tracks and wrote the initials of the graffiti crew (of which I was the only member) on a wall. Afterwards the most incredible thing happened - absolutely nothing. No dogs chased me, no thunderbolt from God shot down to punish me, and my mum didn't even notice I'd been gone. That was the night I realized you could get away with it. That was also the night I discovered that beyond the "No Entry" sign everything happens in higher definition. Adrenaline sharpens your eyesight, each little sound becomes significant, your sense of smell seems more acute, and tramps shit everywhere."

Summary of Street and Graffiti Art

The common idiom "to take to the streets" has been used for years to reflect a diplomatic arena for people to protest, riot, or rebel. Early graffiti writers of the 1960s and 70s co-opted this philosophy as they began to tag their names across the urban landscapes of New York City, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia. As graffiti bloomed outward across the U.S., Street Art evolved to encompass any visual art created in public locations, specifically unsanctioned artwork.

The underlying impetus behind Street Art grew out of the belief that art should function in opposition to, and sometimes even outside of, the hegemonic system of laws, property, and ownership; be accessible, rather than hidden away inside galleries, museums, and private collections; and be democratic and empowering, in that all people (regardless of race, age, gender, economic status, etc.) should be able to create art and have it be seen by others. Although some street artists do create installations or sculpture, they are more widely known for the use of unconventional art mediums such as spray paint, stencils, wheat paste posters, and stickers. Street Art has also been called independent public art, post-graffiti, and guerilla art.

Key Ideas & Accomplishments

A central aspect of Street Art is its ephemerality. Any unsanctioned public work runs the risk of being removed or painted over by authorities or by other artists. No one can own it or buy it. Viewers are seeing a one-of-a-kind work that is likely not to last. This temporariness creates an immediacy and electricity around the work.

Street Art can often be viewed as a tool for promoting an artist's personal agenda surrounding contemporary social concerns, with city facades acting in the same role as the old fashioned soapbox; a place to extol the artist's opinion on a myriad issues ranging from politics and environmentalism to consumerism and consumption.

Many street artists use the public canvas of buildings, bridges, lampposts, underpasses, ditches, sidewalks, walls, and benches to assure their individual messages are seen by a wide swath of the population, unfiltered by target demographics or being accessible only to art world denizens.

As advertising infiltrates, the communal consciousness on a constant daily basis, Street Art has oftentimes been coined a counter attack. Popular street artist Banksy has said, "To some people breaking into property and painting it might seem a little inconsiderate, but in reality the 30 square centimeters of your brain are trespassed upon every day by teams of marketing experts. Graffiti is a perfectly proportionate response to being sold unattainable goals by a society obsessed with status and infamy. Graffiti is the sight of an unregulated free market getting the kind of art it deserves."

Overview of Street and Graffiti Art

Street Art is supposed to be the ultimate in democratized art; seen by everyone, owned by no-one. But this hasn't stopped a Banksy becoming the movement's ultimate collectible; with celebrities including Justin Bieber, Serena Williams and Angelina Jolie, having acquired the elusive artist's work.

Artworks and Artists of Street and Graffiti Art

Untitled (New York Subway Graffiti)

Artist: TRAP, DEZ and DAZE

The text in this "piece" (the common term for a work of graffiti art) reads "TRAP DEZ DAZE" (the tags/pseudonyms of the artists), although the style and placement of the letters may make it difficult to discern for viewers not familiar with this style of lettering. The text uses several bright colors, and employs outlining and shading to give the impression of three-dimensionality. This piece, like much New York graffiti of the 1980s, was completed on the side of a subway train. This choice of location would have garnered greater prestige for the artists, as writing on subway cars put them at very high risk of apprehension by the authorities, and thus considered more daring. Writing on subway cars was also a sure way to rapidly increase one's fame, as the artwork would then travel around the city's subway system, being seen by a far greater number of people than would a stationary piece on a wall.

This piece is a typical example of "wildstyle" graffiti, which includes complex, interlocking or overlapping letters, and sometimes cartoon-like characters and other images, all painted in bright colors. Photojournalist Martha Cooper noted in 1982 that "inaccessibility reinforces that sense of having a secret society inaccessible to outsiders [...] a writer will therefore often make a piece deliberately hard to read." As well, graffiti writers frequently attempt to create a sense of depth and three-dimensionality in wildstyle works. These types of pieces garner higher levels of respect for writers as opposed to "throwups" (simpler pieces using maximum two or three colors to create two-dimensional bubble text) or "tags", because wildstyle work involves more artistic prowess and takes longer to complete, thus putting the writer at a higher risk for run-ins with police.

Spray paint - New York City

Tuttomondo

Artist: Keith Haring

This mural in the historic city of Pisa in Tuscany is filled with graffiti artist Keith Haring's signature motifs including his generic "radiant" figures and many other illuminated forms. It is universally recognized as the artist's unmistakable cartoonish Pop style. The work is a good example of the way some renegade street artists were able to move from their unsanctioned urban canvases into a credible art forum. Haring's notoriety in the public consciousness catapulted him to the type of fame that motivated a city to commission his unique style for their own public building.

Haring first gained attention with his subway art that was created using white chalk on black, unused advertisement backboards in the underground stations that were his preferred painting "laboratory." The radiant baby became his most popular symbol, first used as his identifying tag before taking a life of its own as his preferred character. His bold lines, vivid colors, and active figures carried strong messages of life and unity. He often used lines of energy to emphasize kinetic movement, vitality, and euphoric spirit.

By 1982, Haring had established friendships with fellow emerging street artists Futura 2000, Kenny Scharf, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. He also became close friends with Andy Warhol. His work grew more politically active during the era of AIDS and his popular "Silence Equals Death" imagery became a key branding visual for New York's HIV activist group ACT UP. He created more than 50 public works between 1982 and 1989 in dozens of cities around the world.

In April 1986, Pop Shop was opened in Soho and made Haring's work readily accessible to purchase at reasonable prices. When asked about the commercialism of his work, Haring said: "I could earn more money if I just painted a few things and jacked up the price. My shop is an extension of what I was doing in the subway stations, breaking down the barriers between high and low art."

Mural - Pisa, Italy

Obey Giant

Artist: Shepard Fairey

In 1998, American street artist Shepard Fairey, who spawned from the Southern California skateboarding culture, created a graphic sticker campaign inspired by wrestling icon Andre the Giant while attending the Rhode Island School of Design. The stickers, written with the words Obey Giant, popped up all over the urban landscapes where Fairey lived and traveled, becoming the artist's visual, public experiment with phenomenology. Inspired by German philosopher Martin Heidegger's description of phenomenology as "the process of letting things manifest themselves," Fairey was attempting to enable people to see clearly something that is right before their eyes, but obscured; things so taken for granted that they become muted by abstract observation. Thus, the famous wrestler's face became a familiar motif on the streets, its repetition causing notice while remaining meaningless, until it eventually became just another familiar piece of the urban landscape, unquestioned or analyzed.

Fairey became widely known during the 2008 presidential election for his Barack Obama HOPE poster. He is one of the most influential street artists who have crossed into the gallery zone as he is included in collections at The Smithsonian, the Los Angeles Country Museum of Art and the Museum of Modern Art in New York City among others.

Hip Hop Rat

Artist: Banksy

This graffiti piece features a black and white stenciled rat. Banksy often uses the image of the rat as a personalized symbol representing himself, as he, like his graffiti artist predecessor Blek le Rat, felt an affinity with this city-dwelling creature that is active at night in order to evade apprehension and eradication. He says, "If you feel dirty, insignificant or unloved, then rats are a good role model. They exist without permission, they have no respect for the hierarchy of society, and they have sex 50 times a day."

Since the 1990s, Banksy has rapidly risen to international fame, arguably becoming one of, if not the most well-known contemporary street artists, despite maintaining anonymity by keeping his true identity a secret. His works have sold at auction for hundreds of thousands, even millions of dollars. Much of his work (especially in his earlier days) used stencils, allowing him to execute pieces in a matter of seconds and remain undetected by authorities. Since the early 2000s, he has also executed other types of unsanctioned interventions, including sculptures and performative actions. Most of his work aims to offer political and social criticism. Soldiers and police officers, as well as popular cultural icons (like Ronald McDonald and Mickey Mouse) recur in many of his pieces. He marked the end of the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference by painting four murals on global warming. One included the phrase, "I don't believe in global warming" submerged in water. In 2005 he traveled to the Israel-Palestine West Bank barrier wall and executed nine murals on the wall (including a dove with a bulletproof vest and a heart-shaped target over its chest, a child beneath a ladder stretching to the top of the wall, and the silhouette of a young girl being lifted upwards by a bunch of balloons).

Banksy has also held various notable exhibitions, such as his 2006 Barely Legal show in a Los Angeles warehouse, which featured a live Indian elephant painted with the same red and gold floral pattern as the wallpaper that was pasted up in the section of the warehouse where the elephant was displayed. This created controversy, as animal rights activists protested the elephant's involvement. However, the show was immensely popular, with several A-list Hollywood celebrities in attendance. Another one of Banksy's exhibitions, Banksy vs. Bristol Museum (2009) featured Banksy's own take on famous historical paintings, as well as animatronics, sculptures, and installations.

Spray paint

Untitled (Guantanamo Prisoner at Disneyland)

Artist: Banksy

In September of 2006, Banksy snuck a life-size inflatable doll dressed as a Guantanamo Bay prisoner into the Disneyland theme park in California, and installed it within the confines of the Big Thunder Mountain Railroad ride. The work remained in place for over an hour before park officials noticed it, shut down the ride, and removed the doll. A spokeswoman for Banksy said the work was intended to highlight the situation in which terror suspects find themselves in at the controversial detention center in Cuba. The artist hoped that by confronting carefree park-goers with what appeared to be an actual Guantanamo Bay prisoner in "the happiest place on earth," he might shock them into thinking more seriously about the implications of the war on terror. This work serves as a prime example of how sculptural works by street artists are particularly useful in orchestrating jarring experiences that reflect the political or social climate.

Banksy has carried out a number of other such performative illegal interventions. In 2004, he produced 100,000 fake British £10 notes, replacing the picture of the Queen's head with that of Diana, Princess of Wales and changing the text "Bank of England" to "Banksy of England." He tossed these into a crowd at the Notting Hill Carnival that same year, which some people then attempted to spend in local shops. In March 2005, he surreptitiously hung various modified artworks of his own (such as a Warhol-esque painting of a discount soup can) in New York City's Museum of Modern Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, American Museum of Natural History in Manhattan, and Brooklyn Museum. In August/September of 2006, he placed approximately 500 fake copies of Paris Hilton's debut CD, Paris, in 48 record stores around the UK, modified with his own cover art (photoshopped to show Hilton topless). Other pictures in the album insert featured Paris with her chihuahua Tinkerbell's head replacing her own, and one of her stepping out of a luxury car, edited to include a group of homeless people, with the caption "90% of success is just showing up." Music tracks were given titles such as "Why Am I Famous?" "What Have I Done?" and "What Am I For?" The public purchased several copies of the CD before stores were able to remove them. The purchased copies went on to be sold for much more on online auction websites.

Inflatable doll, orange jumpsuit, black hood, and handcuffs - Disneyland, California

Beginnings of Street and Graffiti Art

Precursors to Contemporary Graffiti and Street Art

Graffiti, defined simply as writing, drawing, or painting on walls or surfaces of a structure, dates back to prehistoric and ancient times, as evidenced by the Lascaux cave paintings in France and other historic findings across the world. Scholars believe that the images of hunting scenes found at these sites were either meant to commemorate past hunting victories, or were used as part of rituals intended to increase hunters' success.

During World War II, it became popular for soldiers to write the phrase "Kilroy was here," along with a simple sketch of a bald figure with a large nose peeking over a ledge, on surfaces along their route. The motivation behind this simple early graffiti was to create a motif of connection for these soldiers during their difficult times, cementing their unique brotherhood amongst foreign land and to make themselves "seen." This was closely aligned with the motivation behind contemporary graffiti, with the writers aiming to assert their existence and to repeat their mark in as many places as possible.

Beginnings of Contemporary Graffiti in the United States

Contemporary (or "hip-hop") graffiti dates to the late 1960s, generally said to have arisen from the Black and Latino neighborhoods of New York City alongside hip-hop music and street subcultures, and catalyzed by the invention of the aerosol spray can. Early graffiti artists were commonly called "writers" or "taggers" (individuals who write simple "tags," or their stylized signatures, with the goal of tagging as many locations as possible.) Indeed, the fundamental underlying principle of graffiti practice was the intention to "get up," to have one's work seen by as many people as possible, in as many places as possible.

The exact geographical location of the first "tagger" is difficult to pinpoint. Some sources identify New York (specifically taggers Julio 204 and Taki 183 of the Washington Heights area), and others identify Philadelphia (with tagger Corn Bread) as the point of origin. Yet, it goes more or less undisputed that New York "is where graffiti culture blossomed, matured, and most clearly distinguished itself from all prior forms of graffiti," as Eric Felisbret, former graffiti artist and lecturer, explains.

Soon after graffiti began appearing on city surfaces, subway cars and trains became major targets for New York City's early graffiti writers and taggers, as these vehicles traveled great distances, allowing the writer's name to be seen by a wider audience. The subway rapidly became the most popular place to write, with many graffiti artists looking down upon those who wrote on walls. Sociologist Richard Lachmann notes how the added element of movement made graffiti a uniquely dynamic art form. He writes, "Much of the best graffiti was meant to be appreciated in motion, as it passed through dark and dingy stations or on elevated tracks. Photos and graffiti canvases cannot convey the energy and aura of giant artwork in motion."

Graffiti on subway cars began as crude, simple tags, but as tagging became increasingly popular, writers had to find new ways to make their names stand out. Over the next few years, new calligraphic styles were developed and tags turned into large, colorful, elaborate pieces, aided by the realization that different spray can nozzles (also referred to as "caps") from other household aerosol products (like oven cleaner) could be used on spray paint cans to create varying effects and line widths. It did not take long for the crude tags to grow in size, and to develop into artistic, colorful pieces that took up the length of entire subway cars.

New York City's Graffiti "Problem"

By the 1980s, the city of New York viewed graffiti's inherent vandalism as a major concern, and a massive amount of resources were poured into the graffiti "problem." As Art Historian Martha Cooper writes, "For [New York City mayor Ed] Koch, graffiti was evidence of a lack of authoritarian order; as such, the presence of graffiti had a psychological effect that made all citizens its victim through a disruption of the visual order, thus promoting a feeling of confusion and fear among people." The New York Police cracked down on writers, often following suspect youth as they left school, searching them for graffiti-related paraphernalia, staking out their houses, or gathering information from informants. The Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA) received a significant increase in their budget in 1982, allowing them to erect more sophisticated fences and to better maintain the train yards and lay-ups that were popular targets for writers (due to the possibility for hitting several cars at once). However, writers saw these measures as a mere challenge, and worked even harder to hit their targets, while also becoming increasingly territorial and aggressive toward other writers and "crews" (groups of writers).

In 1984, the MTA launched its Clean Car Program, which involved a five-year plan to completely eliminate graffiti on subway cars, operating on the principle that a graffiti-covered subway car could not be put into service until all the graffiti on it had been cleaned off. This program was implemented one subway line at a time, gradually pushing writers outward, and by 1986 many of the city's lines were completely clear of graffiti. Lieutenant Steve Mona recalls one day when the ACC crew hit 130 cars in a yard at Coney Island, assuming that the MTA wouldn't shut down service and that the graffitied trains would run. Yet the MTA opted to not provide service, greatly inconveniencing citizens who had to wait over an hour for a train that morning. That was the day that the MTA's dedication to the eradication of graffiti became apparent.

However graffiti was anything but eradicated. In the past few decades, this practice has spread around the world, often maintaining elements of the American wildstyle, like interlocking letterforms and bold colors, yet also adopting local flare, such as manga-inspired Street Art in Japan.

From Graffiti to Street Art: Greater Variation in Styles, Techniques, and Materials

It is important to note that contemporary graffiti has developed completely apart from traditional, institutionalized art forms. Art critic and curator Johannes Stahl writes that, "We have long since got accustomed to understanding art history as a succession of epochs [...] But at the same time there has always existed something outside of official art history, a unruly and recalcitrant art, which takes place not in the sheltered environs of churches, collections or galleries, but out on the street." Graffiti artists today draw inspiration from Art History at times, but it cannot be said that graffiti grew directly out of any such canon or typology. Modern graffiti did not begin as an art form at all, but rather, as a form of text-based urban communication that developed its own networks. As Lachmann notes, rather than submitting to the criteria of valuation upheld by the institutionalized art world, early graffiti writers developed an entirely new and separate art world, based on their own "qualitative conception of style" and the particular "aesthetic standards" developed within the community for judging writers' content and technique.

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, many graffiti writers began to shift away from text-based works to include imagery. Key artists involved in this shift included Jean-Michel Basquiat (who wrote graffiti using the tag SAMO) and Keith Haring, whose simple illuminated figures gave testament to the AIDS epidemic, both of whom were active in New York City. Around the same time, many artists also began experimenting with different techniques and materials, the most popular being stencils and wheat paste posters.

Concepts and Styles

Since the turn of the millennium, this proliferation has continued, with artists using all sorts of materials to complete illegal works in pubic spaces. The myriad approaches have come to be housed under the label of "Street Art" (sometimes also referred to as "Urban Art"), which has expanded its purview beyond graffiti to include these other techniques and styles.

Graffiti

The term "graffiti" comes from the Greek "graphein," meaning "to scratch, draw, or write," and thus a broad definition of the term includes all forms of inscriptions on walls. More specifically, however, the modern, or "hip-hop" graffiti, that has pervaded city spaces since the 1960s and 1970s involves the use of spray paint or paint markers. It is associated with a particular aesthetic, most often utilizing bold color choices, involving highly stylized and abstract lettering known as "wildstyle," and/or including cartoon-like characters.

Photographer and author Nicolas Ganz notes that graffiti and Street Art practices are characterized by differing "sociological elements," writing that graffiti writers continue to be "governed by the desire to spread one's tag and achieve fame" through both quality and quantity of pieces created, while street artists are governed by "fewer rules and [embrace] a much broader range of styles and techniques." Anthropologist and archaeologist Troy Lovata and art historian Elizabeth Olson write that "the rapid proliferation of this aggressive style of writing appearing on the walls of urban centres all over the world has become an international signifier of rebellion," and cultural theorist Jean Baudrillard has called it the "symbolic destruction of social relations."

Stencils

Stencils (also known as stencil graffiti) are usually prepared beforehand out of paper or cardboard and then brought to the site of the work's intended installation, attached to the wall with tape, and then spray painted over, resulting in the image or text being left behind once the stencil is removed. Many street artists favor the use of stencils as opposed to freehand graffiti because they allow for an image or text to be installed very easily in a matter of seconds, minimizing the chance of run-ins with the authorities. Stencils are also preferable as they are infinitely re-useable and repeatable. Sometimes artists use multiple layers of stencils on the same image to add colors, details, and the illusion of depth. Brighton-based artist Hutch explains that he prefers to stencil because "it can produce a very clean and graphic style, which is what I like when creating realistic human figures. Also, the effect on the viewer is instant, you don't need to wait for it to sink in."

One of the earliest known street artists to use stencils was John Fekner, who started using the technique in 1968 to stencil purely textual messages onto walls. Other well-known stencil artists include French artists Ernest Pignon-Ernest and Blek le Rat, British artists Nick Walker and Banksy, and American artists Shepard Fairey and Above.

Wheat Paste Posters

Wheat paste (also known as flour paste) is a gel or liquid adhesive made from combining wheat flour or starch with water. Many street artists use wheat paste to adhere paper posters to walls. Much like stencils, wheat paste posters are preferable for street artists as it allows them to do most of the preparation at home or in the studio, with only a few moments needed at the site of installation, pasting the poster to the desired surface. This is crucial for artists installing works in unsanctioned locations, as it lowers the risk of apprehension and arrest. Some street artists who use the wheat paste method include Italian duo Sten and Lex, French artists JR and Ludo, and American artist Swoon.

Sculptural Street Art Interventions

Some street artists create three-dimensional sculptural interventions, which can be installed surreptitiously in public spaces, usually under the cover of darkness. This type of work differs from Public Art in that it is rebellious in nature and completed illegally, while Public Art is officially sanctioned/commissioned (and thus more palatable to a general audience). Unsanctioned Street Art interventions usually aim to shock viewers by presenting a visually realistic, yet simultaneously unbelievable situation. For instance, in his Third Man Series (2006), artist Dan Witz installs gloves on sewer grates to give the impression that a person is inside the sewer attempting to escape. Works like these often cause passers-by to do a "double-take."

Reverse Graffiti

Reverse graffiti (also known as clean tagging, dust tagging, grime writing, clean graffiti, green graffiti, or clean advertising) is a method by which artists create images on walls or other surfaces by removing dirt from a surface. According to British reverse graffiti artist Moose, "Once you do this, you make people confront whether or not they like people cleaning walls or if they really have a problem with personal expression." This sort of work calls attention to environmental concerns in urban spaces, such as pollution.

Other Media

There are street artists who experiment with other media, such as Invader (Paris), who adheres ceramic tiles to city surfaces, recreating images from the popular Space Invaders video game of 1978. Invader says that tile is "a perfect material because it is permanent. Even after years of being outside the colors don't fade."

Many other artists use simple stickers, which they post on surfaces around the city. Often, these stickers are printed with the artist's tag or a simple graphic. Others invite participation from the audience, like Ji Lee who pastes empty comic speech-bubbles onto advertisements, allowing passers-by to write in their own captions.

Others still use natural materials to beautify urban spaces. For instance, in 2005, Shannon Spanhake planted flowers in various potholes of the streets in Tijuana, Mexico. She says of the project, "Adorning the streets of Tijuana are potholes, open wounds that mark the failure of man's Promethean Project to tame nature, and somehow surviving in the margins are abandoned buildings, entropic monuments celebrating a hyperrealistic vision of a modernist utopia linked to capitalist expansion gone awry."

There are also artists who create Street Art interventions through the use of clay, chalk, charcoal, knitting, and projected photo/video. The possibilities for Street Art media are endless.

Later Developments - After Street and Graffiti Art

Mainstream Acceptance

Street Art continues to be a popular category of art all over the world, with many of its practitioners rising to fame and mainstream success (such as Bristol's Banksy, Paris' ZEVS, and L.A.'s Shepard Fairey). Street artists who experience commercial success are often criticized by their peers for "selling out" and becoming part of the system that they had formerly rebelled against by creating illegal public works. Communications professor Tracey Bowen sees the act of creating graffiti as both a "celebration of existence" and "a declaration of resistance." Similarly, Slovenian Feminist author Tea Hvala views graffiti as "the most accessible medium of resistance" for oppressed people to use against dominant culture due to its tactical (non-institutional, decentralized) qualities. For both Bowen and Hvala these unique positive attributes of graffiti are heavily reliant on its location in urban public spaces. Art critic and curator Johannes Stahl argues that the public context is crucial for Street Art to be political, because "it happens in places that are accessible to all [and] it employs a means of expression that is not controlled by the government." Street artist BOOKSIIII holds an opinion not uncommon of many of today's street artists, that it is not inherently wrong for young artists to try to make money from galleries and corporations for their works, "as long as they do their job honestly, sell work, and represent careers," yet at the same time he notes that "graffiti does not stay the same when transferred to the gallery from the street. A tag on canvas will never hold the same power as the exact same tag on the street."

This movement from the street to the gallery also indicates a growing acceptance of graffiti and Street Art within the mainstream art world and art history. Some apply the label "post-graffiti" to the work of street artists that also participate in the mainstream art world, although this is somewhat of a misnomer, as many such artists continue to execute illegal public interventions at the same time as they participate in sanctioned exhibitions in galleries and museums. This phenomenon also presents difficulties for art historians, as the sheer number of street artists, as well as their tendency to maintain anonymity, makes it hard to engage with individual artists in any sort of profound way. Moreover, it is difficult to insert Street Art into the art historical canon, as it did not develop from any progression of artistic movements, but rather began independently, with early graffiti and street artists developing their own unique techniques and aesthetic styles. Today, street artists both inspire and are inspired by many other artistic movements and styles, with many artists' works bearing elements of wide-ranging movements, from Pop Art to Renaissance Art.

Legality

Street Art's status as vandalism often eclipses its status as art. More recently, as mentioned above, many artists are finding more opportunities to create artworks in sanctioned situations, by showing in galleries and museums, or by partnering with organizations that offer outdoor public spaces in which street artists are permitted to execute works. However, many others continue to focus on unsanctioned illegal works. Part of the allure of working illegally has to do with the adrenaline rush that artists get from successfully executing a piece without being apprehended by the authorities. Moreover, carrying out illegal/unsanctioned attacks on privately owned surfaces (such as a billboard being rented out by an advertising agency, or a politically-charged surface such as border walls), serves as a direct confrontation with the owner of that space (be it a marketing firm, or a political entity).

Technology and the Internet

With the advent of the Internet and the development of various graphic software and technologies, street artists now have a multitude of tools at their fingertips to assist in the creation and dissemination of their works. Specialized computer programs allow artists (like San Francisco-born MOMO) to better plan for their graffiti pieces and prepare their stencils and wheat paste posters, while digital photography used in conjunction with the Internet and social media allows Street Art works to be documented, shared, and thus immortalized where previously, most pieces tended to disappear when they were removed by city authorities or painted over by other artists.

Useful Resources on Street and Graffiti Art

The books and articles below constitute a bibliography of the sources used in the writing of this page. These also suggest some accessible resources for further research, especially ones that can be found and purchased via the internet.

Similar Art

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Street and Graffiti Art Movement Overview

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"Some people might say it's all a big waste of time, no one cares about their opinion if their name isn't written in huge letters on the bridge in town." "I was 16 years old when I first trespassed onto some railway tracks and wrote the initials of the graffiti crew (of which I was the only member) on a wall.

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Limerick Street Art - History and General Information 

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Limerick Street Art - History and General Information 

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"Street art is temporary by nature. The serendipity associated with the art form breathes life into a city. The paint fades away and buildings get demolished. The visual landscape of Limerick is continuously in flux and this will continue into the future. Urban sins have certainly been committed with the removal of some of these artworks but the vast majority ran their course. The 061 started as a street art project and you can still see some of the visual interventions dotted around the city."

- 'Limerick Street Art that vanished...', The 061, 2020:
https://the061.com/blogs/news/limerick-street-art-that-vanished

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'Walthamstow gets a Trail of Limerick Street Art Murals', Inspiring City, 2020:
https://inspiringcity.com/2020/07/30/walthamstow-gets-a-trail-of-limerick-street-art-murals/

'Limerick street art', Life In The Mouse House, Eunice, 2019:
https://mousehouselife.wordpress.com/2019/10/10/limerick-street-art/

'Street Art In Limerick City', William Murphy, Flickr, 2011:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/infomatique/5775693225

'Limerick Street Art Trail', Absolute Hotel Limerick:
https://www.absolutehotel.com/limerick-street-art-trail.html

'Exploring Limerick's Street Art', Limerick.ie, Discover:
https://www.limerick.ie/discover/explore/recommended-trips/exploring-limericks-street-art

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"Working in partnership with urban artists Draw Out, this new cultural trail showcases some of Limerick’s best Street Art by nationally and internationally recognised artists in a self-guided walking trail available for people to enjoy at their leisure."

- 'ART TRAIL LIMERICK', Draw Out Limerick:
https://drawout.ie/new/index.php/map/

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1. Artist: Guido van Helten. This piece was a gem. A delicate monochrome portrait of a young girl peering down William Street. The artist used Limerick City Library to search for reference photos and decided on this subtle image. The lifespan of the portrait was short lived and the concrete exterior returned to it's former grey glory only a few months after completion.

2: Artist: Smug. This one needs no introductions. Initially met with hostility this piece went on to be embraced widely by the Limerick community and tourists alike. The instagramability and juxtaposition with the castle made this piece a visual delight. We got great mileage out of this one. A combination of weather, defacement and some community persuasion saw this wall re-purposed. The wall now hosts a commemoration to the finest Limerick woman Dolores O'Riordan by the artist Aches.

3. Artist: Maser. The Parnell street petrol station. Ed Ruscha would of been fond of this one. The creative beacon lit up your trek to the train station. This installation had a relativity good lifespan in comparison to others. The structure was demolished to make way for the new train station plaza. The dilapidated station was put to good use in its final few months and set a good example on how Limerick can utilise derelict spaces on a short term basis.

4. Artist: Solus. A portrait of a young boy using a baseball bat to pose in the shape of a crucifix with "suchi - slife" (that is not a typo) painted on the knuckles. This artwork made little sense. From the subject matter to the colour scheme this portrait never really settled in the community and was quickly painted over. The only artwork in the list where a grey wall was actually more welcome.

5. Artist: Joe Caslin. Size does matter. A hooded youth pasted on to an old grain silo. That is the type of street art I can get behind. The installation of the artwork in itself was a remarkable feat. A subject matter that resonated with the community and a creative gift to the visual landscape of Limerick. The transient manner of the artwork helped create discussions amongst Limerick people. As the weather played its role and the natural destruction of the piece began, conversations were started about the role of street art in our city. Limerick people talking about art, what more can you ask from a piece.
﻿Street art is temporary by nature. The serendipity associated with the art form breathes life into a city. The paint fades away and buildings get demolished. The visual landscape of Limerick is continuously in flux and this will continue into the future. Urban sins have certainly been committed with the removal of some of these artworks but the vast majority ran their course. The 061 started as a street art project and you can still see some of the visual interventions dotted around the city. You can check out my Art down below. Have you any old Limerick street art that you miss that's not included in the list? Leave a comment.
Like street art? There are free Limerick street art maps to download from my site. Just hit the menu button and go into "Maps". Each map takes about 20 minutes to walk. Great for school groups visiting the city or if the route falls within your 2km radius. Let me know if you put them to use!

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1. Artist: Guido van Helten. This piece was a gem. A delicate monochrome portrait of a young girl peering down William Street. The artist used Limerick City Library to search for reference photos and decided on this subtle image.

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'Street Art in Dublin Challenges and Opportunities', Olan O’Brien – Street Art Facilitator, Council Meetings, Dublin City Council:
https://councilmeetings.dublincity.ie/documents/s23590/2.%20Presentation%20on%20Street%20Art%20in%20Dublin%20-%20Challenges%20and%20Opportunities%20-%20Olan%20OBrien.pdf

'Behind the street art projects bringing colour and imagination into our communities', Creative Ireland Programme, Irish Government:
https://www.creativeireland.gov.ie/en/blog/behind-the-street-art-projects-bringing-colour-and-imagination-into-our-communities/

'Urban Poetry: The Street Art Catching Ireland’s Eye in 2021', Creative Ireland Programme, Irish Government:
https://www.creativeireland.gov.ie/en/blog/street-art-2021/

'Spray it, don’t say it: The story of Irish street art.

TV Review: Ireland’s street artists express their politics better in murals than in words', Peter Crawley, The Irish Times, 2019:

https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/tv-radio-web/spray-it-don-t-say-it-the-story-of-irish-street-art-1.4111218

'Street art in Ireland: The thorny issue of what is permitted.

Spray-painted walls aren’t always welcome but striking the right balance is proving tricky for artists and inflexible local councils', Sarah Burns, The Irish Times, 2022:
https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/dublin/2022/12/28/artists-vs-council-bureaucrats-how-tight-regulations-are-stopping-street-art-from-taking-off/

'Dublin city council takes street artists to court over murals', Lisa O'Carroll, The Guardian, 2022:
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/18/dublin-city-council-takes-street-artists-to-court-over-murals-sir-david-attenborough

'10 Famous Street Artists From Ireland', Kate Phelan, The Culture Trip, 2022:
https://theculturetrip.com/ireland/articles/10-famous-street-artists-from-ireland/

'Where to Find the Best Street Art in Ireland', The Gloss:
https://thegloss.ie/where-to-find-the-best-street-art-in-ireland/

'Category: Irish Street Artists', Irish Artist blogs and interviews, Inspiring City:
https://inspiringcity.com/category/street-art/european-street-art/ireland-street-art/irish-street-artists/

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“I get excited when I see promising talent and want to show young artists that success comes in many forms, and to ultimately help them achieve that success.” – Maser

- 'Maser: The Stunning Irish Street Artist Taking the World By Storm', Connolly Cove, 2022:
https://www.connollycove.com/maser-street-art/

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Behind the street art projects bringing colour and imagination into our communities

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As the year draws to a close, we take a look behind the scenes at these projects and speak to some of the artists who created magic on our streets.

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'Introduction to Linocut Printing for Beginners' by Handprinted on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PtUWMojapo

'David Frazer: Mastering Linocut Printmaking' by Mornington Peninsula Regional Gallery on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RzaWc6m17J4

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Introduction to Linocut Printing for Beginners

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Academic Articles and Passages on Religious Iconography 

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Academic Articles and Passages on Religious Iconography 

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'Icons and systems of iconography', Britannica:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/religious-symbolism/Icons-and-systems-of-iconography

HEILBRUNN TIMELINE OF ART HISTORY ESSAYS

'Icons and Iconoclasm in Byzantium' by Sarah Brooks, James Madison University, The Met Museum:

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/icon/hd_icon.htm

'Idolatry: Icons and Iconoclasm' by Carlos R. Piar (California State University, Long Beach), Folgerpedia:
https://folgerpedia.folger.edu/Idolatry:_Icons_and_Iconoclasm

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Throughout the history of their development, religious iconography and symbolism have been closely interrelated. Many religious symbols can be understood as conceptual abbreviations, simplifications, abstractions, and stylizations of pictures or of pictorial impressions of the world of sense objects that are manifested in iconographic representations. In conceiving, describing, and communicating the experience of reality, the realistic picture and the nonrepresentational sign both have as their primary function the expression of this experience in religious terms. In religious pictures that are of a compound or complex nature, particular symbols occasionally reappear. These pictures may also include other types of symbolic representation, such as words, tones, gestures, rituals, and architecture.

Iconographic forms

Temples and other sacred places

The architectural iconography of sacred buildings and places of worship is a field of its own. The place of worship, insofar as it is understood as the image of the universe and its centre, must be architecturally patterned according to a specific design of the universe. The place of worship may be considered to be the navel of the world-e.g., the omphalos, a round stone in the temple at Delphi (in Greece), the holy stone in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in Jerusalem, or the rock in the temple area of the Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem. A holy place usually is built around these holy points.

The cross-shaped ground plan of the Christian transept church is sometimes interpreted as an architectural portrayal of the crucified Christ, the apse with its altar representing Christ's head. The holy place as a structural creation together with its natural setting may create an idyllic or overwhelming effect, evoking in the beholder an experience of religious awe or devotion. The Shintō and Buddhist temples of Japan and the beauty of the landscape in which they are set, the mountain temples of ancient Greece, and Christian churches and chapels built in such dramatic settings as Le Mont-Saint-Michel in France all inspire a sense of wonderment. The Buddhist temple in all the splendour and richness of its form, trappings, and surroundings or the (a building containing relics of the Buddha) represents the presence of the Buddha.

Great importance, therefore, is often attached to the exterior form of the holy place, and its construction is governed by a canon of symbolical and iconological principles. The individual parts of the building-the walls, columns, ceilings, vaults, and towers-usually have pictorial and symbolic functions. Generally, the ceiling or vault presents a picture of heaven. Special accent is placed on the portals and the paths leading to them, on the position of the tables of offering, altars, sacred pictures, and relics. The bell tower, or campanile, is characteristic of Christian churches and is popularly interpreted as the finger of God. Ancient Christian basilicas (large, roofed buildings, generally with aisles) were viewed as images of the heavenly Jerusalem. The pictorial aspect of the place of worship extends not only to the building in the entirety of its architectural form but also to the painted, sculptured, and mosaic artwork that decorates it. The exteriors of Hindu and Buddhist holy places, such as the famous terrace temple of Borobudur on Java, and the pediments and friezes of Greek temples utilize an abundance of figures and reliefs representing scenes from myth and sacred history. The facades of Egyptian temples are covered with tableaus of the gods and depictions of ritual ceremonies. The facades and portal walls and sometimes the outside walls of Christian churches portray the main figures and events in the history of salvation, legends of the saints, and the Last Judgment. Inside the holy place, this pictorial and interpretative function is continued in the figures and scenes on its walls, capitals, and vaults. The adytum (sanctuary), the apses, and the altar may be decorated with symbols or pictures of the divinity or of other gods and saints.

Icons and images

Pictures are the main subject matter of iconography, which also includes free-standing sculptured forms and reliefs. Free-standing figures or statues are important in ritual as well as in partly serving magical purposes, which cannot always be separated from religious ritual. Such figures, which later became objects of personal devotion and meditation, include representations of the gods and demons in various prehistoric religions and of Buddha, Christ, and the various Buddhist and Christian saints. Generally, Judaism, Islam, and ancient Shintō have rejected any representation of the divine.

Painted or sculptured tableaus of historical or mythical events originally belonged in a ritual setting. The function of a wall painting, wall or floor mosaic, or relief was or is to establish the ritual actions as authentic reenactments of their mythical or historical prototype and to make these mythical or historical events continually present. These tableaus also may be found on the interiors and sometimes the exteriors of houses and on cemetery monuments. They are made to serve private devotion and a personal confession of faith. In the form of a framed picture, Oriental roll picture, print, or book illustration, such an iconographic tableau contains religious information, mediates, and stimulates contemplation and devotion.

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religious symbolism and iconography - Icons and systems of iconography

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religious symbolism and iconography - religious symbolism and iconography - Icons and systems of iconography: Throughout the history of their development, religious iconography and symbolism have been closely interrelated. Many religious symbols can be understood as conceptual abbreviations, simplifications, abstractions, and stylizations of pictures or of pictorial impressions of the world of sense objects that are manifested in iconographic representations.

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Videos - Conceptual Art, Religion in Art... 

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Videos - Conceptual Art, Religion in Art... 

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'Conceptual Art: Definition, Characteristics & 25 Artists Who Defined Conceptual Art' by Contemporary Art Issue on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7IGii1o3q98

'A brief history of religion in art - TED-Ed' by TED-Ed on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qfITRYcnP84

'Concepts and Problems in the Visual Arts, Lecture C25: Art and religion' by James Elkins on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z-qvGgvFrcM

'The audacity of Christian art: the problem with Christ | National Gallery' by The National Gallery on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKg7YILYBkc

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Conceptual Art: Definition, Characteristics & 25 Artists Who Defined Conceptual Art

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DOLORES O'RIORDAN, Draw out Festival, Limerick, October 2019: https://www.aches.ie/outdoor 

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DOLORES O'RIORDAN,
Draw out Festival, Limerick, October 2019
+ Other Outdoor Artworks:
https://www.aches.ie/outdoor

Indoor Artwork:
https://www.aches.ie/indoor

Graffiti:
https://www.aches.ie/graffiti

Other Artwork:
https://hangtoughcontemporary.com/artists/aches/

@achesdub on Instagram:
https://www.instagram.com/achesdub/?hl=en

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Artist Articles / Interviews + Art Process:
https://www.irishartsreview.com/graffiti-artist-aches-on-canvas/

https://www.creativeireland.gov.ie/en/blog/aches-and-irish-street-art/

https://districtmagazine.ie/art-and-design/aches-on-the-irish-creative-scene-and-why-hes-still-here/

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BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST (1):
"Aches is a Dublin based Irish artist, specialising in large scale murals and Graffiti. Born in 1992, he started drawing and painting at a young age and began to paint graffiti when he was 15 years old. After graduating from NCAD with a degree in Visual Communications, Aches began to fuse his knowledge of Graphic Design and Graffiti.

Aches has been invited to design and create original artwork for projects around the world, in countries such as Denmark, Hungary, Spain, Sweden, Scotland, Austria, Switzerland, England and USA.

After a decade of painting outdoors, Aches’ artistic practice is now shared in equal balance between contemporary murals and studio work."
- https://www.aches.ie/

BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST (2):
"Aches is an Irish artist, born in 1992. After painting and drawing everyday as a child, he started to paint graffiti at the age of 15. He studied Visual Communications at NCAD in Dublin and received his B.Des. in 2015. Using the knowledge and skills he had learned there, he began to incorporate them into his Graffiti pieces.

Aches' work focuses on the additive and subtractive colour theories. Using overlapping colours of Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Red, Green and Blue he creates a sense of movement, dynamism and optical illusions. After experimenting with these theories within his graffiti pieces, he started to incorporate these ideas into his murals and studio work, painting portraiture and figurative work in this style. These design choices have been directly impacted by the digital software he uses, creating a more graphic and modern aesthetic to classic figurative painting. Over a decade of painting outdoors, led Aches’ artistic practice to be shared in equal balance between contemporary murals and studio work."
- https://hangtoughcontemporary.com/artists/aches/

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'Dodo Reddan Mural' + Article / Artist Interview:
https://www.independent.ie/regionals/argus/entertainment/from-beer-cans-to-walls-omin-makes-his-mark-40329286.html

https://www.ilovelimerick.ie/dodo-reddan-mural/

https://urbanculture.fotonique.com/remembering-dodo-reddan-a-mural-in-limerick-by-ominous-omin/

Other Artworks:
https://www.facebook.com/ominousomin/

https://www.behance.net/ominousomin

@ominous_omin on Instagram:
https://www.instagram.com/ominous_omin/?hl=en

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ARTIST INTERVIEW + ART PROCESS:
'The Lennox Building - Art Project with Ominous Omin' by Iconic Offices on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F1skmA2o5I8

BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST:
"Omin is a graphic artist with a 20 year history rooted in graffiti. Hailing from Dundalk, Omin has been painting and traveling extensively becoming established on the international graffiti art scene. His work explores the human figure, painting characters with photo realistic and illustrative qualities mixing graphic elements influenced by glitches in everyday use of digital technology."
- https://www.louthcoco.ie/en/wellbeing-during-covid-19/arts-creativity/spontaneous-outstillations-with-ominous-ominous.html

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'Public Art, Limerick Docker's Monument':
https://mikeduhan.com/public-art

Other Artwork / Sculptures:
https://mikeduhan.com/work

https://www.sofinearteditions.com/michael-duhan/

https://thekildaregallery.ie/product-category/sculpture/mike-duhan/

https://www.whytes.ie/artist/michael-duhan/16636/

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BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST (1):
"Michael Duhan was born in Limerick and attended the school of art there from 1972-74. He has been employed by the National College of Art & Design, Dublin since 1982 and has a studio in Temple Bar Gallery & Studios. He first sculpted in 1984, exhibiting in Temple Bar Gallery two years later. Duhan uses the naked human figure as the metaphor to explore and describe his take on the beauty and complexity not only of the human form but also of our shared human condition."
- https://www.whytes.ie/artist/michael-duhan/16636/

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BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST (2):
"Mike Duhan was born in Limerick City in 1956. He attended the Limerick School of Art from1972 to 1974. He is now a member of and has a studio at Temple Bar Gallery and Studios Dublin. Michael is currently working at National College of Art and Design, Dublin and has worked there since 1982.

He began sculpting in 1984 and had his first exhibition in 1986 at Temple Bar Gallery, Dublin. He would describe himself simply as a figurative sculptor working in several mediums including metals, plastics, and ceramics.

“Whether anyone understands an artists intended message isn’t important to me at least as long as the work of achieving self-knowledge through its making is done. Of course it would be a bonus if ones work was recognized and appreciated to the extent that one would then be in a position to indulge in and complete some or all of ones planned and more expensive art projects. That would be wonderful but is however a scenario from a perfect world and this is not that perfect world. I’ve always felt that it’s the thought that counts! The intention to do ones best! Maybe doing so could cause another person to think of what the work is about and this process might just help them on their own reflective path.”"
- https://www.gormleys.ie/artists/mike-duhan/1009/

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(Brian Mac Mahon, Limerick-Based Painter)

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(Brian Mac Mahon, Limerick-Based Painter)

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Paintings / Artwork:
https://www.mutualart.com/Artist/Brian-MacMahon/AF686BBF411CEE06

https://www.whytes.ie/artist/brian-macmahon/19643/

INSTAGRAM: @macmahon.brian
https://www.instagram.com/macmahon.brian/?hl=en

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BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST:
https://www.mutualart.com/Artist/Brian-MacMahon/AF686BBF411CEE06/Biography :

"Brian MacMahon is an Irish painter who was born in 1955. The Hunt Museum featured Brian MacMahon's work in the past.Brian MacMahon's work has been offered at auction multiple times, with realized prices ranging from 400 USD to 1,494 USD, depending on the size and medium of the artwork. Since 2008 the record price for this artist at auction is 1,494 USD for Ironworks, sold at Morgan O'Driscoll in 2022."

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LIMERICK EXHIBITION:
https://www.ilovelimerick.ie/artist-brian-mac-mahon/

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'Dolores O'Riordan Mural', ACHES, (Medevial Quarter / Castle Street), Limerick 

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'Dolores O'Riordan Mural', ACHES, (Medevial Quarter / Castle Street), Limerick 

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'Dolores O'Riordan Mural', ACHES, (Medevial Quarter / Castle Street), Limerick 

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https://www.limerick.ie/sites/default/files/media/documents/2021-04/limerick-street-art-trail_0.pdf :

"This iconic mural of Dolores O’ Riordan was executed in the Medieval Quarter of Limerick City by Dublin artist ACHES. This mural went viral online and got huge press coverage due to the nature of the subject matter. Subsequently and purely coincidentally, Draw Out revealed the fi nished piece on the same day as the Cranberries were nominated for a Grammy Award for their fi nal album which was mastered posthumously. The brief for the site was to celebrate women in Limerick’s history, and while Dolores was an obvious choice to some, the depiction of her in ACHES unique RGB style as a young performer is very poignant, evocative and moving for both locals and visitors alike."

- https://www.limerick.ie/discover/eat-see-do/tours/self-guided-tours/limerick-street-art-trail

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https://www.ilovelimerick.ie/limerick-street-art/

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'Dodo Reddan Mural', 2021, Ominous Omin, (Sráid an Ceoil / St John’s Pavilion), Limerick 

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'Dodo Reddan Mural', 2021, Ominous Omin, (Sráid an Ceoil / St John’s Pavilion), Limerick 

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The artist for Dodo Reddan's mural near the jail (Sráid an Ceoil / St John’s Pavilion) was Dundalk artist, Ominous Omin, and for Dolores O'Riordan's beside King John's Castle (Medevial Quarter / Castle Street) the artist was Aches.

Information and image sources:

https://www.limerick.ie/discover/eat-see-do/tours/self-guided-tours/limerick-street-art-trail

(accessed: 23/11/2022)
https://www.limerick.ie/sites/default/files/media/documents/2021-04/limerick-street-art-trail_0.pdf (accessed: 23/11/2022)  :

"Omin is a graphic artist from Dundalk and a graduate of Visual Communications from Dublin Institute of Technology with 20 years of experience. Omin’s style is playful and joyous, and he manages to capture the essence of his subject, bringing them to life through his illustrative and graphic style."

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https://www.ilovelimerick.ie/limerick-street-art/ (accessed: 23/11/2022)

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'Dockers Monument', 2010, Michael Duhan, Limerick 

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'Dockers Monument', 2010, Michael Duhan, Limerick 

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'Dockers Monument', 2010, Michael Duhan, Limerick 

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The artist who created the bronze sculpture 'Dockers Monument' beside the river was Michael Duhan in 2010. He is a Limerick-born man and his father, John Duhan worked as a docker here. The piece was commissioned by Limerick City Council "to commemorate in a permanent way the contribution the Limerick Dockers made to the cultural and economic life of the city".

Information source:  https://limerickcity.ie/Press/Pressreleasesarchive/2010/DockersMonument/DockersMonument.html (accessed: 23/11/2022) Images: https://www.excellentstreetimages.com/limerick-street-photography/limerick-2017/examples-of-public-art/dockers-monument-by-michael-duhan/

(accessed: 23/11/2022)

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Spiritual Lino cut prints, 'Freedom' Series:
https://www.zuzamisko.com/freedom-prints

Spiritual Lino cut prints, 'Spiritual' Series:
https://www.zuzamisko.com/spiritual-prints

Intimate Lino cut prints, 'Dancers':
https://www.zuzamisko.com/linocut-dancers

BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST:
https://www.zuzamisko.com/about

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'The History of Lino Printing and its Artists', from Boarding All Rows website, (Lino Printing Art and Techniques by Rich Fowler) 

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'The History of Lino Printing and its Artists', from Boarding All Rows website, (Lino Printing Art and Techniques by Rich Fowler) 

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HISTORY OF LINO PRINTING:
https://www.boardingallrows.com/history-of-lino-printing-and-famous-linocut-artists

"Let’s start with the basics. Linocut printmaking is an artistic process. Specifically, a linocut is a type of relief print. The artist first carves an image into a block of linoleum, then ink is rolled onto the uncut surface of the block and, finally, paper is laid on top of the block and pressure is applied to produce a print. It’s also known as a lino print or linoleum block print."

"Linoleum was invented by Frederick Walton (UK) in the mid-1800’s, first patenting the material in 1860. At that time, its main use was that of a floor material, and later in the 1800’s as actual wallpaper. However, by the 1890’s artists had started to use it as an artistic medium.

From my research so far, the transition of linoleum from flooring and wallpaper to printmaking material does not seem to be thoroughly documented. There also seems to be discrepancies within the available literature on the matter. Germany, Austria (through Franz Cizek) and the United States seem to have been amongst the first to turn to linoleum for creating art around the turn of the 20th century."

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Your most common association of linoleum might be as a type of flooring or perhaps you were introduced to the art form in middle or high school. Nowadays, practitioners buy pieces of linoleum made specifically for art. One of the most common types of art linoleum is called battleship gray linoleum. It's about an 1/8th" thick and has a burlap backing. Linoleum is different than wood in that it's a little softer and doesn't have grain. It's not to be confused with softer, easier to carve rubber blocks

Part of my mission is to explore the rich history of linocut and shed light on some famous lino print artists, including their methods and artwork. I also want to play with and push back against the ideas that linoleum is just for students and amateurs, that it's subordinate to the woodcut, and that it's "easily mastered" (Yeaton 11). These are sentiments sometimes found in the historical literature of the art form.

History of Lino Printing

Linoleum was invented by Frederick Walton (UK) in the mid-1800's, first patenting the material in 1860. At that time, its main use was that of a floor material, and later in the 1800's as actual wallpaper. However, by the 1890's artists had started to use it as an artistic medium.

From my research so far, the transition of linoleum from flooring and wallpaper to printmaking material does not seem to be thoroughly documented. There also seems to be discrepancies within the available literature on the matter. Germany, Austria (through Franz Cizek) and the United States seem to have been amongst the first to turn to linoleum for creating art around the turn of the 20th century.

The Word for Linocut in Different Countries, Languages and Eras

If you're researching linocut or even just scrolling through Instagram these days, you'll notice that the word used for 'linocut' is different depending on the language or country. Lino print, linoleum block print, linolschnitt, linograbado, and linogravure, are just a few examples. Sometimes, particularly early on, the more general term of 'block print' was used to describe a work that could have been a woodcut or linocut.

Further Reading about the First Uses of Linoleum for Printing

This page is an evolving document about the history of lino printing, I have found these sources to be helpful in identifying key dates in the early history of the art form.

The Relief Print: Woodcut, Wood Engraving & Linoleum Cut by Watson and Kent (1945) - mentions that linoleum was used for printing wallpaper in Germany, "as early as 1890."

Colour Block Print Making from Linoleum Blocks by Hesketh Hubbard (1927) - notes that linoleum was used instead of wood in Germany by the end of the 1800s.

Lino-Cuts: a Hand-Book of Linoleum-Cut Colour Printing by Claude Flight (1927) - says that Cizek was the first European ("of any standing") to use lino for printing using European methods.

The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art edited by Gerald W. R. Ward (2008) - mentions that linoleum was used for printing on wallpaper in Germany in 1890. Then by artists in the early 1900's. Notes the importance of Cizek.

Vienna was amongst the first places where linoleum was used for art. This essay in Schirn Mag gives a nice summary of the relief printmaking movement there around 1900. Though it focuses on the woodcut, it includes Hugo Henneberg's linocut called, Night Scene - Blue Pond from 1904.

The best history of lino printing I've found so far is a wonderfully detailed account by Andrea Tietze, titled, "The linocut in history and in the art of the modern age." It's found in Linoleum: History, Design, Architecture, 1882-2000 by Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz (2000).

Linocut Art from 1895-1920

Early artists who dabbled in lino printing in its infancy included both painters and woodblock printmakers who were experimenting with a different material for relief printmaking. Some of the earliest lino prints I've found were used for books and periodical covers.

The first linocuts that I've been able to find through trustworthy sources (like major museum collections around the world) have been from the United States. I'd like to note that this doesn't necessarily mean that the United States was the first adopt linoleum. I've found two linocuts from 1895 from US artists (Will H. Bradley and San Francisco's Bruce Porter).

Examples of linocuts made in the first 10-25 years of the art include:

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Linocut Artists and History - Linocut Artist | Boarding All Rows

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The history of lino printing, early linoleum block prints, and an introduction to some famous linocut artists such as Pablo Picasso, Edward Bawden, Sybil Andrews and Leopoldo Mendez.

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'North Downs Way':
https://lisabensonart.co.uk/product/north-downs-way/

'Ash Meadows':
https://lisabensonart.co.uk/product/ash-meadows/

'Lamma's Land':
https://lisabensonart.co.uk/product/lino-print-artist-godalming-surrey/

BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST:
https://lisabensonart.co.uk/about/

PRINTING / ART PROCESS:
https://lisabensonart.co.uk/process/

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'St. Paul's', (2015):
https://www.paulcatherall.com/item/st-pauls/

'St. Paul's II', (2018):
https://www.paulcatherall.com/item/st-pauls-ii/

'English Heritage's Iron Bridge', (2017):
https://www.paulcatherall.com/press/design-week-paul-catherall-designs-print-english-heritages-iron-bridge-crowdfunder/

BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST:
https://www.paulcatherall.com/about/

ART PROCESS / ARTIST INTERVIEW:
https://www.urbanrealm.com/features/696/Linocut_Art%3A_On_a_Roll.html

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Buildings and Architecture Prints - (incl. Churches and Cathedrals):
https://alisavicprints.com/architecture-prints-artwork-devon

Miscellaneous Prints - (incl. spiritual and cultural artwork):
https://alisavicprints.com/miscellaneous-prints-artwork

BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST:
https://alisavicprints.com/behind-the-scenes

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Bernadette Madden, Artist and Print-maker 

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Bernadette Madden, Artist and Print-maker 

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'Greenes' Bookshop':
https://bernadettemadden.ie/limited-edition-screen-prints/#jp-carousel-163

Christmas Print:
https://bmcmadden.files.wordpress.com/2022/12/img_20221223_0001.jpeg?w=768

'Festival Flowers', (2012):
https://bernadettemadden.ie/limited-edition-screen-prints/previous-work/festival-flowers-screenprint-on-fabriano-paper-20-x-14-cm-varied-edition-14/

'Cross of Cong', (2012):
https://bernadettemadden.ie/limited-edition-screen-prints/previous-work/cross-of-cong-screenprint-on-fabriano-paper-41-x31-cm-varied-edition-24/

'Halfpenny Bridge', (2012):
https://bernadettemadden.ie/limited-edition-screen-prints/previous-work/halfpenny-bridge-screenprint-on-paper-35-x-62-cm-varied-edition-22/

BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST:
https://bernadettemadden.ie/biography/

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'Blue Lady' and 'Fabrica Building Print':
https://www.moatzart.co.uk/post/linocut-printmaking-commission-for-fabrica-art-gallery-by-moatzart

https://www.moatzart.co.uk/copy-of-they-are-dreaming-prints

BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST:
https://www.moatzart.co.uk/artiststatement

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"This illustration was commissioned for Graffeg’s The Fox Book, by Jane Russ. It accompanies a story about a saint and her fox friend":
https://frankduffy.co.uk/project/book-illustration/

'Poster art for The Warren Mansel Street':
https://frankduffy.co.uk/project/poster-art-for-the-warren-mansel-street/

'Three of Swords':
https://shop.frankduffy.co.uk/product/three-of-swords_tarot_card/

'Calan Mai gwyrdd':
https://shop.frankduffy.co.uk/product/calan-mai-gwyrdd-limited-edition-lino-print/

'We Are Good':
https://shop.frankduffy.co.uk/product/we-are-good-limited-edition-reduction-lino-print/

BIOGRAPHY / ABOUT THE ARTIST:
https://frankduffy.co.uk/about-frank/

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Prints of Buildings and Architecture:
https://www.itsnicethat.com/articles/dan-howden-linocuts-liverpool-art

https://www.creativeboom.com/inspiration/dan-howden/

https://www.creativeboom.com/inspiration/dan-howden/

OWN WEBSITE:
https://dan-howden.co.uk/

BIOGRAPHY:
https://www.speedballart.com/pro-artist-network/daniel-howden/