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1. El articulo explica como las revolucines liberales y nacionales de los siglos XVIII y XIV buscaban limitar el poder monarquico y expandir los derechos cuidadanos.

2. destaca que muchas de estasr evoluciones estubieron inspiradas por la ilustracion y las ideas de livertad, igualdad, y soverania popular.

3.analiza como la revolcuion francesa se convirtio modelo para otros movimientos en Europa America.

4. Muestra que los movimientos nacionalistas unieron a comunidades bajo una identidad comun,como en alemania e Italia.

5. Subraya que, aunque promovia livertad, muchas de estas revoluciones no incluyeron a todos los grupos sociales, dejando afuera a mujeres, campesinos y pueblos colonisados.

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revolutions in politics took place in the 1800's.

these people ruled by right of birth.

most people had no real political rights or role at all

wealthy people saw the revolutions as a chance to take power from the kings and nobles.

nationalism is the belief that people should rule

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1. Nationalism is the belief that a people should rule and govern a state of their own. It is tied to another important idea from this era.

2. hese people ruled by right of birth. They inherited the job from their parents. Most people had no rights at all.

3. changed the way communities were governed and how people participated in government.

4. government pretty much everywhere in the world was a small group of people making decisions for a larger population.

5. wealthy people saw the revolutions as a chance to take power from the kings and nobles.

6. The word revolution often makes us think of rebellion and war. However it only means change

7. Nation

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goverment in most places was a small group of people.

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1. Nationalism is the belief that a people should rule and govern a state

2. revolutions means change

3. Liberal political ideas and nationalism were born in 1800s

4. government in most places was a small group of people. They made decisions for a larger population. Often, these people ruled by right of birth

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1. In the 1800s there was a a great time of change such as nationalism spread around the world gradually, also the community changed in the way it was govern and how people participated.

2. These changes affected political participation.

3. Often people were ruled by right of birth and got their jobs from their parents and most people didn't have rights at all.

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J.B. Belley – He was a deputy for Saint Domingue (Haiti) and is pictured leaning on a bust in the painting mentioned.

Aurangzeb – An emperor of the Mughal Empire, shown sitting on a throne with nobles, representing rulers who governed by personal authority rather than the will of the people.

The Enlightenment – A movement of new ideas before 1750 that spread around the world and inspired calls for greater rights and freedoms.

Four major revolutions – The Haitian, French, American, and Latin American revolutions are highlighted as key political transformations of the 1800s.

Nationalism – The belief that people should govern a state of their own, closely linked with sovereignty (self-rule).

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1. Before 1750 people had a small group of people that made decisions for larger groups of people

2. people ruled by right of birth and inherited jobs from their parents

3. wealthy people thought that revolution was a chance to steal power from the kings and nobles

4. The belief of nationalism is that people have the right to rule and govern a state of their own

5. liberal political ideas and nationalism continued since the 1800's and the most common types of changes in many revolutions.

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1. Before the revolutions people would inherit their parents job.

2. Nationalism was born in the 1800's.

3. The enlightenment happened during the year 1750.

4. Most people before 1750 had no real political rights or role at all.

5. Nationalism played an important role in the creation of many states.

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1. The Long Nineteenth Century saw major political changes inspired by ideas like nation-state, sovereignty, and liberalism.

2. Before 1750, rulers inherited power and most people had no political rights.

3. The Enlightenment introduced ideas about freedom and self-governance, but many people still lacked political rights.

4. Major revolutions during this time included the Haitian, French, American, and Latin American revolutions.

5. Nationalism and sovereignty led to the creation of new nations and shaped modern politics.

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WHP1750 213 Article  Unit 2 Introduction  2

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1. Before the Political revolutions most the government was made of nobles, royalty, the wealthy, and those who were born into the positions.

2. The people that were ruled over had no say in how they were treated and there right because the higher ups had made rules to suit themselves the most.

3. After 1750 the idea of governing oneself and liberalism was introduced to the people.

4. The new ideas that liberalism brought lots of freedom to those that were enslaved and were considered peasants.

5. After 1750s more creative inventions were made and liberalism brought the idea of different religions to many more country's.

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1. most people that ruled before 1750 were wealthy religious people

2. ordinary people had little to no political rights and little to no people

3. there were political revolution in this period that crated the most democratic and liberal states of the age

4. 1750 is a important because this is the time revolution started to happen

5. The new ideas from this period are generally called liberal political ideas from the word liberty

6. libral political ideas and nationalism were continue to have a impact well after 19 sentry

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10 things we found interesting were

1, Nationalism is when people rule and govern a state or land of their own

2, during the years before 1750s ideas were going around for a wider political participation

3, new ideas from that period were called liberal ideas since they were suggesting people should have freedom to rule themselves this was the starting ideas of democracy

4, Many did not really have any political power in this era only those who ruled by birth had political power

5, there were some pieces of land governed by small groups or council's, but they were rare

6, the revolutions helped those in need at the time to have a chance for a better life

7, The main idea that came out of these ideas were sovereignty

8, Many rulers where Nobles, Kings, and shahs or anyone else that had birth right ow power

9, Haitian, French, American and Latin revolutions were made from the new ideas of this era

10, Liberal political ideas and nationalism continued to change the way the century worked

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1. Political change in the Long Nineteenth Century

Before 1750 people ruled by the right of birth. For example, emperors, kings, and sultans inherited it the role from their parents.

2. Political change in the Long Nineteenth Century

Many people had no political rights or roles.

3. Political change in the Long Nineteenth Century

After 1750, most of the nations in the world allow their people to have a say in how they are governed.

4. Enlightenment

In the years before 1750 many new ideas have been circulating because of travelers and merchants.

5. Enlightenment

These new ideas and inventions were labeled as the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment.

6. Enlightenment

Many wealthy people saw revolutions as a way to take power from the kings and nobles who ruled them.

7. Political revolution

Many revolutions happened during this era such as the American/French/Haitian Revolution.

8. Political revolution

All these revolutions resulted in many ideas and governments.

9. Nationalism

Nationalism played an important role in the French/American Revolution.

10. Nationalism

In China and India nationalism played an important role in revolts but they failed.

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1. In the 1750's people started to like nationalism and started to drift to it. They fought for sovereignty and being able to rule themselves without a king.

2. During the Enlightenment, many saw it as a chance to have more freedom and take power from the nobles that ruled them previously.

3. Many nations were "birthed" during the spread of nationalism. People liked the ideas of ruling themselves. Ethnic minorities fought for their own state during this period.

4. There were rebellions based on nationalism in China and India during this time, but they were unsuccessful.

5. During this era, we really see the birth of new nationalist nations and more "open" ideas in the political world.

6. Revolution means 'change', and has a strong connotation

7. People never applied for a job during this era; they mainly inherited what they will do for the rest of their lives from their parents.

8. An exception was that some small states were governed by councils, but most of the world had little choice in how they were ruled

9. Lots of political transformations changed the way that people were governed during this time. More people like the enslaved or women had more power and freedom in this political state, even though it was a slow and gradual change.

10. The political ideas from this period included the suggestion that people should have the right to govern themselves and have a choice.

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exsclusive power held in the long nineteenth centry

hereditary rule

elite decision making

lack of political rights

prevalce of oligarchy

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1. A small group of people ruled over a large population.

2. Most people did not know how to read or write, so there were people who wrote and read for them.

3. The government wrote laws and made stuff happen, and the people who carried them out were scribes, soldiers, or servants.

4. There were three different revolutions: American, French, and Haitian.

5. The Europeans brought back ideas from around the world, such as new concepts about technology, government, religion, and individuality.

6. Wealthy people saw the revolutions as a chance to take power from the kings and others who ruled over them.

7. A lot of people still lacked basic political rights and a share in government.

8. Nationalism is the idea that people should rule and govern a state of their own.

9. Nationalism played a role in the birth of the nations of Italy and Germany, which had previously been many states split across those countries.

10. In China and India, Nationalism played a role in rebellions, though these were ultimately unsuccessful.

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1. The people who ruled were typically ruled by right of birth.

2. After 1750, a shift in leadership was happening with fewer rulers.

3. The ideas that the majority had were called liberal political ideas; these were the first ideas of democracy.

4. A lot of new ideas were brought to the attention of merchants and travelers.

5. There were 4 major political revolutions that changed the era.

6. Women and the enslaved were still missing common rights and representation.

7. Revolutions changed the lives of the poor for the better.

8. Wealthy people saw this opportunity to gain power over their leaders.

9. A major idea that came out of this new era is the idea of sovereignty (self-rule).

10. Nationalism fueled smaller ethnic groups within empires to argue that they deserved their own nation.

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- revolution often makes us think of rebellion and war while that is often part of it, the word really just means “change”.

Nobles, kings, shahs, emperors, sultans, chieftains, and members of the elite never applied for the job – they inherited it from their parents.

In 1750, the few ruled the many in almost all parts of the world, and the many had little choice in how they were ruled.

In the years before 1750, Trade-hungry European merchants, religious travelers, and others had brought back ideas from around the world like new concepts about technology, government, religion, and individuality.

Haitian, French, American, and Latin American revolutions were born from the economics and ideas of this era.

Nationalism played an important role in the creation of a Haitian nation, a French nation, an American nation, and many new nations in Latin America. Each nation wanted their own state.

. Small group used to make a the decisions for large group with out the other people saying any thing .

. There was only one person in charge of making laws for all of the Mughal Empire.

.It’s a sad fact that history is full of great ideas that didn’t go anywhere.

. there were multiply country starting there own revolutions for freedom but they all had different outcomes

. But nationalism didn’t end with these revolutions. It found expression in the creation of more nations throughout this era. It played a role in the birth of the nations of Italy and Germany, which had previously been dozens of smaller European states.

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Unit 2 Lesson 23 What Causes Revolutions

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Revolutions Were About Change, Not Just War

The word “revolution” in this context means epic change, not just violent rebellion or war. Some changes, like nationalism, were gradual but deeply transformative.

2. Most Governments Before 1750 Were Not Democratic

Before the Long Nineteenth Century, kings, emperors, and nobles ruled by birthright, and the majority of people had no say in government decisions.

3. Liberalism Promoted Self-Government and Individual Rights

Liberal political ideas emerged from this era, emphasizing liberty, meaning freedom for people to govern themselves both as individuals and as communities.

4. The Enlightenment Helped Spark Political Revolutions

Enlightenment ideas about reason, individual rights, and freedom helped inspire revolutions, especially among the oppressed, wealthy, and business classes who each saw benefits in political change.

5. Four Major Political Revolutions Marked This Era

The Haitian, French, American, and Latin American revolutions were central political events, influenced by Enlightenment thinking and economic pressures.

6. Nationalism Was Born During This Period

Nationalism is the belief that a group of people (a nation) should govern their own independent state. This idea became a major force in global politics during and after this time. That's it!

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Revolutions Were About Change, Not Just War

1.The word revolution in this context means epic change, not just violent rebellion or war. Some changes, like nationalism, were gradual but deeply transformative.

2. Most Governments Before 1750 Were Not Democratic

Before the Long Nineteenth Century, kings, emperors, and nobles ruled by birthright, and the majority of people had no say in government decisions.

3. Liberalism Promoted Self-Government and Individual Rights

Liberal political ideas emerged from this era, emphasizing liberty, meaning freedom for people to govern themselves both as individuals and as communities.

4. The Enlightenment Helped Spark Political Revolutions

Enlightenment ideas about reason, individual rights, and freedom helped inspire revolutions, especially among the oppressed, wealthy, and business classes who each saw benefits in political change.

5. Four Major Political Revolutions Marked This Era

The Haitian, French, American, and Latin American revolutions were central political events, influenced by Enlightenment thinking and economic pressures.

6. Nationalism Was Born During This Period

Nationalism is the belief that a group of people (a nation) should govern their own independent state. This idea became a major force in global politics during and after this time.

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1 French and America revolutions were born from the economics and ideas of this era

2 government was a small group of people

3 The nineteenth century contain revolution and politics

4 noble ,kings emperors never applied for a job

5 trading brought new ideas

6 the wealthy and kings had power

7 the word liberal came from liberty

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government, religion, and individuality. These moments of bursts of new technologies and ideas have come to be called the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.

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In this unit, we look at this change in three ways. First, we examine how intellectual and economic changes leading up to the long nineteenth century set the stage for wider political participation

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suggesting people should have the freedom to govern themselves, as a group and as individual.

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The new ideas from this period are generally called liberal political ideas, from the word liberty,

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it’s common for many or most of the population to have some say in how they are governed,

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After 1750, things began to change. Today’s world of nation-states,

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In this unit, we look at the political transformations that altered the way communities were governed and how people participated in government.

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As for the more dramatic events of change, there were political revolutions in this period that created the most democratic and liberal nation

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Some changes were slow. The development of nationalism and its spread around the world was so gradual that its full story goes beyond even the end of this unit,

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What the long nineteenth century contains is a period of revolutions in politics

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1. They traded technology around with other nation-states

2. The people who had power like kings, emperors had power over the people

3. there was many revolutions during 1750 like the American and the French revolution

4. goverment back then was just small groups of people making decisions for larger groups of people

5. the people didn't really have any political rights or roles

6. The people suggested that they should be able to govern themselves and as a group and as a individual

7. people fought for equality, but the rights took time to reach everywhere

8. there were economic changes that fueled political and social revolutions

9. American, French, Latin american and Haitian were born from economics, they all had consequences and how they influenced eachother

10. The emperors back then were given their role from brith because they inherited it from their parents

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1. The people from the elite would not get their Jobs but be born with it< for example kings Shahs, sultans and more

2. 1750 was when the liberal changes as this was the time where the the govern changes started

3. A lot of people did not have political rights

4. The Nationalism is the idea that people should rule, and govern a state of their own

5. The long 19th century was a period of epic political changes.

6. it was mostly little groups that ruled and made all the decisions for

7. Some of the new thinking benefit some of the groups for example slaves, they were able to gain

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1. the development of individualism has become one of the most powerful forces in the way people act today

2. There were political revolutions in this period that created the most democratic and liberal nation-states of the age.

3. before this era, government pretty much everywhere in the world was a small group of people making decisions for a larger population.

4. these people ruled by right of birth. Nobles, kings, shahs, emperors, sultans, chieftains, and members of the elite never applied for the job – they inherited it from their parents.

5. Some small states were governed by councils, of sorts, in which quite a few people participated.

6. in the years before 1750, new ideas had been circulating around the world, and the European colonies in the Americas were listening.

7. Nationalism is the idea that a people should rule, and govern, a state of their own.

8. Nationalism played an important role in the creation of a Haitian nation, a French nation, an American nation, and many new nations in Latin America.

9. in China and India, nationalism played a role in rebellions, though these were ultimately unsuccessful.

10. they were among the most consequential types of changes in an era of many revolutions, helping to create the modern world we live in today.

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1. The word revolution often makes us think of rebellion and war.

2. Most of the political leaders in the 19th century were not appointed that role, but they inherited it

3.Most people didn't' have any political rights and they were in small states ruled by few people.

4. A lot of people had different views of liberty because some thought it was freedom as a group and others thought it was freedom for themselves as individuals

5. Economic and intellectual changes stared wider political participation.

6. Poor and enslaved people were for the enlightenment because they had a lot to gain and hoped for a better life.

7. Revolutions happened due to economic changes and the political revolution era.

8.Nationalism that people should rule and govern themselves.

9. Liberal political ideas and nationalism would continue to have an impact well after the long nineteenth century.

10. They were among the most consequential types of changes in an era of many revolutions, helping to create the modern world we live in today.

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1. The long 19th century contained a period of revolutions, economics, culture, and social life

2. The government in the world was small

3. Most people had no political rights at all

4. Trade Europeans bought back changes to the world

5. Concepts of technology, religion and individuality were brought

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6. revolutions happened in America, French, Haitian, and Latin America

7. before 1750, only kings and wealthy people had power

8. Sovereignty is the idea of people choosing who they want to be ruled

9. Revolutions inspired and led to one another

10. most of these issues are still going on today

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1.there was a lot of change going on in that era and nothing stayed the same

2.there werent many people involved in the government

3.people were born into roles in the government

4.people came became enlightened and realized they could control parts of their government

5.there were many revolutions that helped show people how things can be.

6.before many people were suppressed and not allowed to speak out

7.now people can support their own ideas and get involved with the government

8. they inspired each other

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1). The Nine-Teenth century was filled with politics, economics, culture, social life.

2). Small groups of people were making decisions for large groups of people

3). In 1750 new ideas started circulating the world like merchants and religious travelers

4). Wealthy people took their chances and started trying to take power away from the nobles kings queens etc.

5). Nationalism is the idea that people should rule and govern a state of their own

6).

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1. development of nationalism was spread through out the whole world.

2. They all made different decisions and they also wrote different laws that suited each person.

3. Mostly everybody had no political rights in any way.

4. All the wealthy people had a small chance of taking the power from the kings.

5. Economics ad politics came together to help different groups share governments.

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1.nobles and kings never applied for jobs.

2.they had to make choices on the laws for the people.

3.All the changes were very slow.

4. the goverment were a group of people.

5. many had littlr choices to rule.

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1. the revolution involves politics, economics, culture, and social life

2. most people think change happens because of war or rebellion usually when there is dramatic change its because political change

3. often rulers are ruled by right of birth they are usually nobles, kings, and emperiors and the inherit it from there parents

4. the idividuals getting a say in the goverment seemed to promise liberation and a better life

5. economics and politics came together to help these group of people get a share

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1. Many revolutions took place in the 1800s

2. The government more often than not were a small group of people making decisions for a much larger population of people

3. At this current age of time many people were suffering from systemic disadvantages meaning this would be a roadblock for moving up in wealth

4. the word revolution doesn't often mean something bad when it can be it often just means change

5. Most of the political leader in the 19th century were not given a role for a government position they were born into it

6. 80 percent of the population didn't have any rights in the government and making

7. Nationalism played a big role in many rebellions

8. after 1750 began to happen

9. They made decisions and laws that suited them

10. Many people hoped for a better life by trying to be enlightened

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1.Most people had no real political rights or role at all.

2.They made decisions and wrote laws that suited them.

3.Kings, emperors, and the church would rule the land, and normal people woudnt have a say.

4. Most people didn't have and political rights, or any rights at all.

5. Nationalism is the idea that a people should rule, and govern, a state of their own.

6. in 1750 most people didnt have a say in countrys

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1.) used to trade

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1. wealthy people saw the revolutions as a chance to take power from the kings and nobles who ruled them.

2. Nationalism is the idea that a people should rule, and govern, a state of their own.

3. Some small states were governed by councils, of sorts, in which quite a few people participated.

4. The development of nationalism and its spread around the world

5. Most people had no real political rights or role at all.

6. spread about freedom and rights

7. the government was a group of people

8. changed during the 19th century

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1. kings, emperors, and nobles ruled regular people had almost no say.

2. spread about freedom and rights

3. here's ideas inspired in America, France, Haiti, and Latin America.

4. Revolutions gave some people more rights, but women and enslaved people were mostly left out.

5. grew, the belief that people with the same culture/history should rule their own nation.

6. Nationalism helped create new countries like Italy and caused revolts in empires.

7. Liberalism and nationalism from this era still shape the world today.

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1. because of trade it brought new ideas across the world

2. most of the population was financially oppressed

3. only the rich and the church could affect the government

4. people weren't allowed to govern themselves

5. the word liberal comes from liberty

6. various groups of eligment had caused revolutions

7. the meaning of sovereingty means to govern yourself and your mind

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1.Before 1750, rulers held power by birthright, as kings, nobles, emperors, and other elites enacted laws and governed without the consent of the people.

2.The Enlightenment spread new ideas about liberty, rights, science, and reason, encouraging people to imagine greater

r freedom and equity in government.

3.Various groups used the ideas of the Enlightenment for their own purposes: slaves and peasants yearned for liberation, wealthy elites desired more power, and merchants and businessmen saw opportunities for profit.

4.Four major revolutions defined these eras—the Haitian, French, American, and Latin American—connected by shared ideas and mutually influencing their outcomes.

5.Not everyone gained rights after the revolutions. Even with the new freedoms, many groups, especially women and enslaved people, remained excluded from political participation.

6.Nationalism became a powerful force as people began to believe that every community or nation should have the right to govern itself

7.Nation building expanded beyond the Americas; nationalism led to the unification of Italy and Germany.

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1.The wealthy people saw a chance to take power

2.they changed the ways how people participate in the government

3. The government was not a big group of people

4. It changed in the 19th century

5. The new changed affected the unwealthy but atleast it benif

6. Many people were still econoically oppressed

7. the word liberal came from liberty

# data[].attributes.body
1. the nineteenth was a period of revolutions in politics.

2. most people didn't have real political rights.

3. new technology and ideas were called the scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.

4. the individuals in government were promised liberation and a better life.

5. plantation owners and merchants in the European empires in the Americas and Europe.

6. Nationalism is a idea of people that should rule, and govern a state on their own.

7. most consequential types of changes of an era of many revolutions.

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, kings, emperors, and nobles ruled — regular people had almost no say.

2. spread about freedom, rights, and self-rule liberism

3. hese ideas inspired n America, France, Haiti, and Latin America.

4. Revolutions gave some people more rights, but women and enslaved people were mostly left out.

5grew — the belief that people with the same culture/history should rule their own nation.

6. Nationalism helped create new countries like Italy and g and caused revolts in empires.

7. Liberalim and nationalim from this era still shape the world today.

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the government was a group of people

the wealthy people rule

in 1750 the liberal ideas where introduce

change during the 19th century

nationalism is the believe that people should rule a govern stated

affected the unwealthy

benefit wealthy

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1. The Long Nineteenth Century had big political changes with new ideas like nation-states and freedom.

2. Before this time kings and nobles ruled without involving most people.

3. After 1750 more people wanted a say in government because of new ideas about liberty.

4. The Enlightenment inspired people to demand rights and freedom.

5. Major revolutions happened in America, France, Haiti, and Latin America.

6. Nationalism made people want their own countries and self rule.

7. Nationalism helped create new nations like Italy and Germany and caused many revolts.

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1- The word “revolution” means big change, not just war or rebellion.

2- In 1750, most people in the world had no say in how they were ruled.

3- Enlightenment ideas spread through trade, travel and book before 1750.

4- Different groups, like peasants and merchants, wanted change for different reasons.

5- The American, French, Haitian, and Latin American revolutions were connected by shared ideas.

6- Nationalism helped create new countries like Italy and Germany.

7- Even trough the revolution brought change, many people still had no right, especially women and enslaved people

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1. The government was a small group of people

2. The word liberal came from liberty.

3. It changed during the 19th century.

4. The wealthy people saw this as a chance to take power from the kings and nobels.

5. They changed the way communities were governed and how people participated in government.

6. Nationalism is the belief that a people should rule and govern a state.

7. This new change affected the unwealthy but it benefited the wealthy.

# data[].attributes.body
1.government in most place was a small group of people That made decisions for a larger population

2.Liberal comes from the word liberty. it suggest people should have the freedom to govern themselves

3. Many people were still economically oppressed. These included slaves in the Americas and peasants in Europe.

4. The word revolution can mean rebellion and war but, it can also mean change

5. They changed the way communities were governed and how people participated in government

6. After 1750 things began to change. The new ideas are generally called liberal political ideas

7. The bright glow of the Enlightenment did not fully address the darkness of oppression and Many more people still lacked basic political rights.

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1. They changed the way communities were governed and how people participated in government.

2. Change during 19th century

3. Government in most places was a small group of people

4. The wealthy people saw this as a chance to have power

5. The word liberal came from liberty

6. Nationalism is the belief that a people should rule and govern a state

7. This new change affected the unwealthy but it benefited the wealthy.

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Directions:

1. Find your class period and click on "+" to create a post.

2. Under "Subject" type you and your partner's name.

3. Read Unit 2 Introduction each on your own.

4. Discuss and write 5 things of interest, facts, etc. in your own words.

5. Include one image that summarizes/symbolizes the main idea of the reading.

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The Long Nineteenth Century was a period of epic political change. Ideas like the nation-state, sovereignty, and liberalism led to revolutions with enduring effects.

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What the long nineteenth century contains is a period of revolutions in politics, economics, culture, and social life. The word revolution often makes us think of rebellion and war. While that is often part of it, the word really just means "change"-on a pretty epic scale. Some changes were slow. The development of nationalism and its spread around the world was so gradual that its full story goes beyond even the end of this unit, and it has become one of the most powerful forces in the way people act today. As for the more dramatic events of change, there were political revolutions in this period that created the most democratic and liberal nation-states of the age. In this unit, we look at the political transformations that altered the way communities were governed and how people participated in government.

Political change in the Long Nineteenth Century

To understand political change in the long nineteenth century, we must remember that before this era, government pretty much everywhere in the world was a small group of people making decisions for a larger population. Often, these people ruled by right of birth. Nobles, kings, shahs, emperors, sultans, chieftains, and members of the elite never applied for the job - they inherited it from their parents. They made decisions and wrote laws that suited them, and their commands were carried out by clerks, scribes, soldiers, or servants. Most people had no real political rights or role at all. Some small states were governed by councils, of sorts, in which quite a few people participated. But these were rare exceptions. In 1750, the few ruled the many in almost all parts of the world, and the many had little choice in how they were ruled.

After 1750, things began to change. Today's world of nation-states, where it's common for many or most of the population to have some say in how they are governed, is a world that started with those changes. The new ideas from this period are generally called liberal political ideas, from the word liberty, suggesting people should have the freedom to govern themselves, as a group and as individual.

Three approaches to studying political change

Enlightenment

In this unit, we look at this change in three ways. First, we examine how intellectual and economic changes leading up to the long nineteenth century set the stage for wider political participation. In the years before 1750, new ideas had been circulating around the world, and the European colonies in the Americas were listening. Trade-hungry European merchants, religious travelers, and others had brought back ideas from around the world, including new concepts about technology, government, religion, and individuality. These moments of bursts of new technologies and ideas have come to be called the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.

Some of this new thinking called for greater personal and group rights. It's a sad fact that history is full of great ideas that didn't go anywhere. But this time there were different groups of people who found these concepts useful, even if for different reasons. For starters, those who were economically oppressed, like enslaved people in the Americas and peasants in Europe, had everything to gain. The notion of more individuals getting a say in government seemed to promise liberation and a better life. At the same time, wealthy people saw the revolutions as a chance to take power from the kings and nobles who ruled them. Then there were the business people - plantation owners and merchants in the European empires in the Americas and Europe - who thought they could profit from the changes called for in these new ideas. Economics and politics came together in these revolutions to help these groups of people get a share of government for the first time. But the bright glow of the "Enlightenment" did not fully address the darkness of oppression. Far from it. Many more people - particularly women and the enslaved - still lacked basic political rights and a share in government.

Political revolution

In the second part of this unit, we look more closely four major political revolutions of this era. We see how the Haitian, French, American, and Latin American revolutions were born from the economics and ideas of this era. We follow each one to see their causes and consequences, and how they influenced each other. We also look at the limits of these revolutions - who got to participate in the new politics in each place, and who did not.

Nationalism

Finally, we explore these changes through one of the principal ideas that emerged from them - nationalism. Nationalism is the idea that a people should rule, and govern, a state of their own. It is tied to another important idea from this era: sovereignty, meaning "self-rule". Nationalism played an important role in the creation of a Haitian nation, a French nation, an American nation, and many new nations in Latin America. Each nation - defined in this context as a community of people - wanted their own state, ¹ and each of them got it. But nationalism didn't end with these revolutions. It found expression in the creation of more nations throughout this era. It played a role in the birth of the nations of Italy and Germany, which had previously been dozens of smaller European states. It led ethnic minorities within large empires to argue that they deserved a state of their own. It led to revolts in the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg Empire, and other big states. In China and India, nationalism played a role in rebellions, though these were ultimately unsuccessful.

Liberal political ideas and nationalism would continue to have an impact well after the long nineteenth century. But we really see their birth in this era. They were among the most consequential types of changes in an era of many revolutions, helping to create the modern world we live in today.

1 Okay, state can be a confusing word. Here it means a country, though it can also mean a province or territory within a country. The United States of America is one state in this sense, but it contains 50 territories that are called states in the other sense of the word. In this course, we only use the word state to mean a country with laws, borders, and self-government.

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Unit 2 Introduction: Liberal and National Revolutions

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The Long Nineteenth Century was a period of epic political change. Ideas like the nation-state, sovereignty, and liberalism led to revolutions with enduring effects.