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Weather Wiz Kids weather information for kids

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Weather Wiz Kids is a fun and safe website for kids about all the weather info they need to know. It contains tools for weather education, including weather games, activities, experiments, photos, a glossary and educational teaching materials for the classroom.

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Have you ever heard of a fire triangle? Wildfires need three things to thrive and firefighters call these three things the fire triangle. They include a fuel source, such as dry wood and plants; oxygen, which is delivered by wind and air; and a heat source, such as a cigarette, a spark from a campfire, a lightning strike or even the sun.

Every year in the U.S., wildfires burn more than 5 million acres. Wildfires can start in a second and move at about 14 miles per hour.

Facts about Wildfires for Kids

Most wildfires are caused by humans, but some fires are caused by nature.

Wildfires can destroy homes and buildings and even kill people.

In some ways, wildfires are good, though. They clear dead and diseased plants so new plants can grow.

Firefighters sometimes fight wildfires from planes or helicopters. They drop water or fire-retardant chemicals on or near the fire.

Firefighters also fight wildfires by cutting back brush and grass.

In August 2018 California suffered the largest wildfire in the history of the state.

In the event of a wildfire it is important to be prepared. Call 911 and take the advice of the authorities. If an order is made to leave the area, do so immediately. Leave all personnel belongings, you can replace them.

Fill bathtubs and sinks with water and stay indoors with windows and doors closed but unlocked.

Keep away from windows.

If you happen to be caught outside in a wildfire keep low, try find a ditch and lie face down in it, covering your body. Try find an area clear from vegetation like trees and bushes.

If you happen to be in your vehicle, close the vents and windows. Lie on the floor again covering your body. If you can find an area free from vegetation its safer, stay there, do not panic. It is very easy to become disorientated in a wildfire, so driving around unsure where you are going will only put you in more danger.

Visit this government website and be prepared https://www.ready.gov/wildfires

Wildfires Vocabulary

Learn More All About Wildfires

This is the best video we found for kids to learn about Wildfires:

This is a video animation about preventing wildfires.

Wildfires Q&A

Question : What can I do to prevent wildfires?

Answer: Most wildfires happen during the heat of summer in dry, western states, such as Utah, Idaho, California and Colorado. If you live in one of these states, follow local rules about fires and fireworks. Be extra careful with campfires.

Enjoyed the Free Geography Kids online resources all about Wildfires info? Take the FREE & fun all about Wildfires quiz and download FREE all about Wildfires worksheet for kids. For lengthy info click here.

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All About Wildfires Fun Geography Facts for Kids. Learn more all about Wildfires with our best online kids science resource. Easy Earth Science for Kids.

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Wildfires are destructive forces, but they can occur naturally. Because of this, certain plants and animals have evolved to depend on periodic wildfires for ecological balance. Prescribed burns can mimic the benefits of wildfires while also lowering the risks associated with larger, uncontrolled fires.

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Karner Blue Caterpillar

The food source for the Karner blue butterfly caterpillar (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) is a plant called wild lupine (Lupine perennis). The wild lupine requires fire to reduce overhanging plants that otherwise would outcompete it for needed sunlight.

Photograph by Science Stock

The year 2019 marked 75 years of Smokey Bear, the advertising icon of the United States Forest Service who encourages visitors and campers to prevent wildfires. Wildfires are destructive forces that can result from natural causes (like lightning), human-caused accidents (like cigarettes and campfires), or deliberate acts of arson. Despite Smokey's education campaigns, wildfires burned about four million hectares (10 million acres) of land during 2017, and in 2018, a single California wildfire, the "Camp Fire" destroyed nearly 20,000 structures and killed more than 80 people, with insured losses topping $10 billion. However, while these frightening and negative consequences dominate news headlines, forest fires have a positive side. Controlled use of wildland fires for positive environmental effects is common around the world.

While a wildfire refers to an unintentional, uncontrolled fire, the term "wildland fire" is broader and includes fires purposefully set as part of prescribed burns. While all fires have the potential to become dangerous to property and life, prescribed, or controlled, burns are planned extensively and performed with tight safety parameters. Humans have been performing such burns for thousands of years and for multiple reasons, but, today, they are mainly used to promote ecological health and prevent larger, more damaging, uncontrolled fires.

It might seem counterintuitive that a fire, which burns plant life and endangers animals within an ecosystem, could promote ecological health. But fire is a natural phenomenon, and nature has evolved with its presence. Many ecosystems benefit from periodic fires, because they clear out dead organic material-and some plant and animal populations require the benefits fire brings to survive and reproduce.

For example, as dead or decaying plants begin to build up on the ground, they may prevent organisms within the soil from accessing nutrients or block animals on the land from accessing the soil. This coating of dead organic matter can also choke outgrowth of smaller or new plants. When humans perform a prescribed burn, the goal is to remove that layer of decay in a controlled manner, allowing the other, healthy parts of the ecosystem to thrive. Moreover, nutrients released from the burned material, which includes dead plants and animals, return more quickly into the soil than if they had slowly decayed over time. In this way, fire increases soil fertility-a benefit that has been exploited by farmers for centuries.

Several plants actually require fire to move along their life cycles. For example, seeds from many pine tree species are enclosed in pine cones that are covered in pitch, which must be melted by fire for the seeds to be released. Other trees, plants, and flowers, like certain types of lilies, also require fire for seed germination.

Even some animals depend on fire. The sole food source for the endangered Karner blue butterfly caterpillar ( Lycaeides melissa samuelis) is a plant called wild lupine ( Lupine perennis). Wild lupine requires fire to maintain an ecosystem balance in which it can thrive. Without fire, the lupines do not flourish, and the caterpillars cannot consume enough food to undergo metamorphosis and become butterflies. In this way, healthier, post-burn plant populations generally have broad food web effects that trickle up to the foragers and other animals in the ecosystem. Similarly, animals that use pine trees for their homes benefit from the germinating powers of fire.

Perhaps surprisingly, the animal casualties from wildfires are low-animals survive by burrowing into the ground or fleeing to safer areas. Conversely, fires can help rid an ecosystem of invasive species that have not adapted to regular wildland fires. While animals and plants within fire-prone ecosystems have adapted to thrive within a cycle of wildfires, invasive plants and animals are less likely to recover and could thus be controlled or even eradicated from the ecosystem they invaded.

Moreover, prescribed burns are well established as a way to prevent more devastating naturally occurring fires. The buildup of decaying organic matter on the ground is fuel for wildfires. Without periodic fire to clear this out, a naturally occurring fire may grow and move quickly, doing much more damage that a prescribed burn-and without its safety parameters.

In the end, it is true that the burden of preventing uncontrolled wildfires lies with humanity. Smokey Bear's message is right-nearly 85 percent of wildfires originate from human activity, and we have to take action to prevent these damaging fires. But suppression is not enough. Nature needs fire, and ecologically benefits from periodic burning. In fact, suppression alone might make matters worse, depriving nature of its equivalent of spring cleaning and leading to hotter, larger blazes when built-up forest decay finally catches flame. Understanding and appreciating the benefits of fire is the only way to truly keep our homes, population, and ecosystem safe from its dangers.

Media Credits

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October 19, 2023

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Wildfires are destructive forces, but they can occur naturally. Because of this, certain plants and animals have evolved to depend on periodic wildfires for ecological balance. Prescribed burns can mimic the benefits of wildfires while also lowering the risks associated with larger, uncontrolled fires.

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Learn how prescribed fires help reduce wildfire risks, promote new growth, and support fire-dependent species.

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Wildfire is a general term which includes forest fires, grassland fires, bushfires, brush fires and any other vegetation fire in countryside areas.

Wildfires occur in every continent except Antarctica. They can occur naturally and spontaneously, but many are caused by humans, accidentally or deliberately. Fossil records and human history show that wildfires do occur at intervals. The Great Oxygenation Event and the spread of land plants made Earth a planet of fire.

Wildfires can cause extensive damage to property and human life, but they also have some beneficial effects on wilderness areas. Some plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction, although large wildfires may also have negative ecological effects.

Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection, and suppression have varied over the years. One of the more controversial methods is controlled burn: People permit or light small fires to burn away some of the fuel for a potential wildfire. While some wildfires burn in remote forested regions, they can cause extensive destruction of homes and other property in the zone between developed areas and undeveloped wilderness.

Plant adaptation

Plants in wildfire-prone ecosystems often have adaptations to their local conditions. Such adaptations include physical protection against heat, increased growth after a fire event, and flammable materials that encourage fire and eliminate competition. For example, plants of the genus Eucalyptus contain flammable oils that encourage fire and hard sclerophyll leaves that resist heat and drought. This makes them dominant over less fire-tolerant species. Dense bark, shedding lower branches, and high water content in external structures may also protect trees from rising temperatures. Fire-resistant seeds and reserve shoots that sprout after a fire encourage species preservation, as in 'pioneer' species that specialize in restarting ecological succession after a fire.

Smoke, charred wood, and heat can stimulate the germination of seeds. Smoke from burning plants promotes contains orange butenolide, which induces germination of seeds.

Grasslands in Western Sabah, Malaysian pine forests, and Indonesian Casuarina forests are believed to have resulted from previous periods of fire. The deadwood litter of Chamise (Californian greasewood shrub) is low in water content and flammable, and the shrub quickly sprouts after a fire. relies on periodic fires to reduce competition, release seeds from their cones, and clear the soil and canopy for new growth. Some have adapted to, and rely on, low-intensity surface fires for survival and growth. The optimum fire frequency for Caribbean pine in Bahamian pineyards is every 3 to 10 years. Too frequent fires favour herbaceous plants, and infrequent fires favour other tree species.

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Images for kids

In Spanish: Incendio forestal para niños

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Use this source in order to read a little bit about floods. Read just to get a general idea of what a flood is!

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A flood is an overflow of water on normally dry ground. This is most commonly due to an overflowing river, a dam break, snowmelt, or heavy rainfall. Less commonly happening are tsunamis, storm surge.

The most deadly flooding was in 1931 in China and killed between 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 people. The Kerala flood in India was another flood that has destroyed people's houses.

During a flood, people try to move themselves and their most precious belongings to higher ground quickly. The process of leaving homes in search of a safe place is called flood evacuation.

Bangladesh is the most flood prone area in the world.

Pollution of drinking water

During a flood there is plenty of water logging and overflow of water, but it is mostly polluted and not safe to drink. If people drink this dirty water, they may suffer from diseases such as typhoid and cholera, hepatitis and other such diseases. People can get ready to survive a flood by filling many containers with fresh and clean drinking water and storing other emergency supplies; like: medicine and food. During flood people try to go to higher sides because the flood water wouldn't reach high areas. Also drains overflow and mix with clean water and people who drink it might fall ill.

Causes of floods

Flooding is usually caused when a volume of water within a water body, such as a lake, overflows outside it. Sometimes if a dam breaks, it suddenly releases a large amount of water. The result is that some of the water travels to land, and 'floods' the area. Many rivers are in a channel, between river banks. They flood when the strength of the river causes it to flow beyond the banks. This is more common at bends or meanders.

Flood damage can be prevented by moving away from places that flood. However, people have long liked to have their homes and businesses alongside water because water is good for agriculture and transport and in other ways. Floods are also caused due to improper management of drains.

Rainfall is the most common cause. Snow melt is also a cause of flooding. Tsunamis and Storm Surge are less common ways that floods happen. Coastal Flooding is another common cause of flooding, and this is caused by low pressure systems or storms.

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Images for kids

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A flood is an overflow of water on normally dry ground. This is most commonly due to an overflowing river, a dam break, snowmelt, or heavy rainfall. Less commonly happening are tsunamis, storm surge. The most deadly flooding was in 1931 in China and killed between 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 people.

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What is a tsunami?
A tsunami is a large ocean wave usually caused by an underwater earthquake or a volcanic explosion. Tsunamis are NOT tidal waves. Tidal waves are caused by the forces of the moon, sun, and planets upon the tides, as well as the wind as it moves over the water. With typical waves, water flows in circles, but with a tsunami, water flows straight. This is why tsunamis cause so much damage!

How are tsunamis generated?
Tsunamis are generated by any large, impulsive displacement of the sea level. The most common cause of a tsunami is sea floor uplift associated with an earthquake. Tsunamis are also triggered by landslides into or under the water surface, and can be generated by volcanic activity and meteorite impacts.

How often do tsunamis occur?
On the average, two tsunamis occur per year throughout the world which inflict damage near the source. Approximately every 15 years a destructive, ocean-wide tsunami occurs.

Can strike-slip (horizontal motion) earthquakes trigger tsunamis?
Yes, approximately 10-15% of damaging tsunamis are triggered by strike-slip earthquakes. This type of earthquake is less likely to trigger a tsunami than one with vertical motion. The waves are likely generated by associated landslides or motion of a sloping bathymetric feature. Tsunamis generated by strike-slip earthquakes normally affect regions near the source only.

What does the word "tsunami" mean?
Tsunami (soo-NAH-mee) is a Japanese word meaning harbor wave.

How fast do tsunamis travel?
Tsunami velocity depends on the depth of water through which it travels. Velocity equals the square root of the product of the water depth times the acceleration of gravity. Tsunamis travel approximately 475 mph in 15,000 feet of water. In 100 feet of water the velocity drops to about 40 mph.

Did you know...A tsunami travels from the central Aleutian Islands to Hawaii in about 5 hours and to California in about 6 hours, or from the Portugal coast to North Carolina in about 8.5 hours.

How big is a tsunami?
Tsunamis range in size from inches to over a hundred feet. In deep water (greater than 600 feet), tsunamis are rarely over 3 feet and are not normally noticed by ships due to their long period or time between crests. As tsunamis propagate into shallow water, the wave height can increase by over 10 times. Tsunami heights vary greatly along a coast. The waves can be amplified by shoreline and sea floor features. A large tsunami can flood low-lying coastal land over a mile from the coast.

What does a tsunami look like when it reaches shore?
Normally, a tsunami appears as a rapidly advancing or receding tide. In some cases, a wall of water or series of breaking waves may form.

How is a tsunami different from a wind-generated wave?
Wind-generated waves usually have periods or time between crests between 5 and 15 seconds. Tsunami periods normally range from 5 to 60 minutes. Also, wind-generated waves break as they shoal and lose energy offshore. Tsunamis act more like a flooding wave. A twenty foot tsunami is a twenty foot rise in sea level.

What are nature's signs that a tsunami may be imminent?
There are a few signs like hard ground shaking for 20+ seconds near the coast or a sudden sea level withdrawal. Tsunamis may be accompanied by loud, booming noises.

Can earthquakes and tsunamis be predicted?
No, earthquakes cannot be predicted. Once an earthquake has occurred, the arrival time of a tsunami, if generated, can be determined accurately. There is not normally enough time to accurately predict tsunami heights near the source. Away from the source, tsunami wave heights can be estimated based on mathematical tsunami models and observed wave heights.

Aerial video of the tsunami that devastated Japan on March 11, 2011.

Click Here to see an animation of an earthquake and the resulting tsunami. It's great for kids, because they get to see how it actually happens!
What are some of the most damaging tsunamis?

Japan: Major tsunami in 2011 generated in the Pacific Ocean.

Asia: Asian tsunami in 2004 generated in the Indian Ocean.

Alaska: Major tsunamis were generated along the Alaskan coast in 1946, 1957, 1958, 1964, and 1965. Many other locally generated tsunamis occurred prior to those dates.

US/Canada West Coast: Tsunamis were generated locally in 1812, 1873, 1878, 1927, 1930, 1946 and 1949. The west coast was also impacted by tsunamis generated in other regions in 1877, 1946, 1952, 1957, 1960, 1964, 1975, 2006, and 2010.

US/Canada Atlantic Coast: Tsunamis were recorded in 1755, 1884, 1886, and 1929.

Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands experienced damaging tsunamis in 1867 and 1918.

Click Here for the NOAA/National Geophysical Data Center tsunami catalog.

TSUNAMI WARNING- A tsunami warning indicates that a tsunami may be imminent and that coastal locations in the warned area should prepare for flooding. The initial warning is typically based solely on seismic information. After the tsunami is recorded on sea level gages, the warning will be cancelled, restricted, expanded, or downgraded to an advisory. Warnings indicate that flooding up to the maximum expected limit is possible and residents should follow their local emergency management instructions. Warnings are issued when the earthquake information or tsunami forecasts indicate that a wave over 1 meter in amplitude is expected, possible, or ongoing.

TSUNAMI ADVISORY- A tsunami advisory indicates a tsunami which may produce strong currents and is dangerous to those in or very near the water is expected. Large inundations are not expected in areas under advisory status. Advisories will be cancelled, extended, or upgraded to a warning depending on the event severity. Advisories are issued when the tsunami forecast is in the range of 0.3 to 1 meter, or an observed tsunami is in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 meters.

TSUNAMI WATCH- A tsunami watch is an early alert issued to areas which may later be impacted by a tsunami. Tsunami impact is normally at least three hours away for regions within a tsunami watch. The watch will either be upgraded to a warning or advisory in subsequent messages or cancelled depending on the severity of the tsunami. People within a watch area should stay alert for further information regarding tsunami threat.

CREST - The top of a wave.

FJORD - A narrow sea inlet between cliffs or steep slopes.

SURGE - A large wave or billow.

TROUGH - The lowest point between waves.

Click Here to get the latest tsunami warning information from the NWS.

PLAN FOR A TSUNAMI: Have a disaster plan. Know whether you're at risk for danger. Plan an evacuation route. Prepare a disaster supplies kit for your home and car. Include a first aid kit, canned food and a can opener, bottled water, battery-operated radio, flashlight, protective clothing and written instructions on how to turn off electricity, gas, and water.

DURING A TSUNAMI: Follow the instructions issued by local authorities. You will probably want to evacuate immediately. Get to higher ground and as far inland as you can.

AFTER A TSUNAMI: Help injured or trapped people. Stay out of a building if water remains around it. Tsunami waters can cause buildings to sink, floors to crack, or walls to collapse. When re-entering homes, use extreme caution. Check for gas leaks. Open windows and doors to help dry things out. Look for fire hazards.

Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan on learning about tsunamis. Note: This is a PDF file, so you need to have Adobe Acrobat Reader.

Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan on tracking a tsunami.

Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan on tsunamis and how they devastating effects they may cause in the world.

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What is a tsunami? A tsunami is a large ocean wave usually caused by an underwater earthquake or a volcanic explosion. Tsunamis are NOT tidal waves. Tidal waves are caused by the forces of the moon, sun, and planets upon the tides, as well as the wind as it moves over the water.

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Nor'easters can occur in the eastern United States any time between October and April, when moisture and cold air are plentiful. A Nor'easter is named for the winds that blow in from the northeast and drive the storm up the east coast along the Gulf Stream, a band of warm water that lies off the Atlantic coast. They are known for dumping heavy amounts of rain and snow, producing hurricane-force winds, and creating high surfs that cause severe beach erosion and coastal flooding. Winter Storms

How do winter storms form?
Winter storms derive their energy from the clash of two air masses of different temperatures and moisture levels. Winter storms usually form when an air mass of cold, dry, Canadian air moves south and interacts with a warm, moist air mass moving north from the Gulf of Mexico. The point where these two air masses meet is called a front. If cold air advances and pushes away the warm air, it forms a cold front. When warm air advances, it rides up over the denser, cold air mass to form a warm front. If neither air mass advances, it forms a stationary front.

What are snowflakes?
Snowflakes are made of ice crystals. Each snowflake is six-sided and made of as many as 200 ice crystals. Snowflakes form in clouds where the temperature is below freezing. The ice crystals form around tiny bits of dirt that has been carried up into the atmosphere by the wind. As the snow crystals grow, they become heavier and fall toward the ground. Why is snow white?
Bright snow blinds us with its gleaming white color because it reflects beams of white light. Instead of absorbing light, snow's complex structure prevents the light from shining through its lattice formation. A beam of white sunlight entering a snow bank is so quickly scattered by a zillion ice crystals and air pockets that most of the light comes bouncing right back out of the snow bank. What little sunlight is absorbed by snow is absorbed equally over the wavelengths of visible light thus giving snow its white appearance. So while many natural objects get their blue, red, and yellow colors from absorbing light, snow is stuck with its white color because it reflects light.

What is thundersnow? How is snow formed?
Snow is commonly formed when water vapor undergoes deposition, which is when water vapor changes directly to ice without first becoming a liquid, high in the atmosphere at a temperature of less than 32°F and then falls to the ground. What is sleet?
Sleet is just rain drops that freeze into ice pellets before reaching the ground. Sleet usually bounces when hitting a surface and does not stick to objects. However, it can accumulate like snow and cause a hazard to motorists.
What is an ice storm?
An ice storm is a type of winter storm caused by freezing rain. The U.S. National Weather Service defines an ice storm as a storm which results in the accumulation of at least 0.25-inch of ice on exposed surfaces.
What is freezing rain?
Freezing rain is just rain that falls onto a surface with a temperature below freezing. This causes it to freeze to surfaces, such as trees, cars, and roads, forming a coating or glaze of ice. Even small accumulations of ice can cause a significant hazard. How do ice storms form?
Ice storms form when a layer of warm air is between two layers of cold air. Frozen precipitation melts while falling into the warm air layer, and then proceeds to refreeze in the cold layer above the ground. This creates freezing rain or a glaze of ice.

What is frost? What is a frost quake?
Frost is white ice crystals that form on a surface, like the ground or leaves of a plant. Frost is created when the air temperature drops below freezing and the water vapor in the air freezes into ice crystals.

How is lake-effect snow formed?
As the cold air flows over the warm lake water, the relatively warm water heats the air's bottom layer as lake moisture evaporates into the cold air. Since warm air is lighter or less dense than cold air, the heated air rises and begins to cool. As the air cools, the moisture that evaporated into it condenses and forms clouds and snow begins falling from the cloud if the air is humid enough. (Graphic Credit: USA TODAY.) What is a Nor'easter?

What is Wind Chill? What is an Alberta Clipper? Click Here to calculate the Wind Chill.
An Alberta clipper is an area of low pressure that generally forms over Alberta, Canada, east of the Rocky Mountains. They develop east of the Rockies because air flowing eastward over the mountains creates favorable conditions. Once an Alberta Clipper forms it usually moves very rapidly to the southeast across the USA's northern Plains and then to the east off the mid-Atlantic Coast. Clippers usually cause only light precipitation with very few producing major snowstorms. However, if conditions are favorable, some Alberta clippers can rapidly intensify off the East Coast once the storm taps the relatively warm moist air over the Atlantic Ocean. The storms that rapidly intensify sometimes spread heavy snow over New England and southeastern Canada. Generally, the main weather features associated with Alberta clippers are some light snow and a reinforcement of cold air over the USA.
What is frostbite? How do blizzards form?

A blizzard is a long-lasting snowstorm with very strong winds and intense snowfall. You need three things to have a blizzard; cold air at the surface, lots of moisture, and lift. Warm air must rise over cold air.
What is an avalanche?
An avalanche is a moving mass of snow that may contain ice, soil, rocks, and uprooted trees. The height of a mountain, the steepness of its slope, and the type of snow lying on it all help determine the likelihood of an avalanche. Avalanches begin when an unstable mass of snow breaks away from a mountainside and moves downhill. The growing river of snow picks up speed as it rushes down the mountain. Avalanches have been known to reach speeds of 245 miles an hour (394 kilometers per hour)—about four times as fast as the speediest downhill skier.
Click Here to learn more about Avalanche Saftey.
Know the Lingo
WINTER WEATHER ADVISORIES - Issued for accumulations of snow, freezing rain, freezing drizzle, and sleet which will cause significant inconveniences and, if caution is not exercised, could lead to life-threatening situations.

Thundersnow is when thunder and lighting occur during a snowstorm. This occurs most often in late winter or early spring. To get thundersnow, you need a mass of cold air on top of warm air, plus moist air closer to the ground. Thundersnow starts out like a summer thunderstorm. The sun heats the ground and pushes masses of warm, moist air upward, creating unstable air columns. As it rises, the moisture condenses to form clouds, which are jostled by internal turbulence. The "tricky part" for making thundersnow is creating that atmospheric instability in the wintertime. For thundersnow to occur, the air layer closer to the ground has to be warmer than the layers above, but still cold enough to create snow. During thundersnow events, heavy snowfall is to be expected. In some cases, two inches per hour is possible.

Click Here to see if there are any active warnings in your area.

Winter Storm Safety Tips
BEFORE A WINTER STORM: Have a disaster plan and prepare a disaster supplies kit for your home and car. Include a first aid kit, emergency food supply, bottled water, battery-operated radio, flashlight, protective clothing, and blankets. Don't forget, be aware of changing weather. DURING A WINTER STORM: Stay indoors and dress warmly. Eat regularly, because food provides the body with energy for producing its own heat. Also, drink lots of water. If you must go outside, wear layered clothing, mittens and a hat. Watch for signs of hypothermia and frostbite. Remember to keep dry. Always change wet clothing to prevent the loss of body heat. If you must drive, carry a cell phone. Always, keep the gas tank full. Don't forget, let someone know where you're going, just in case your car gets stuck. If you're car gets stuck, stay with it and wait for help unless help is visible within 100 yards. Use maps and car mats to stay warm.

AFTER A WINTER STORM: Avoid driving until conditions have improved. Avoid overexertion! Heart attacks from shoveling snow are the leading cause of deaths during the winter. Also, check on neighbors to make sure they're okay.

Frost quakes are non-tectonic seismic events, meaning they are not caused by the shifting of the Earth's tectonic plates. Also known as cryoseisms, frost quakes are caused by a sudden rapid freezing of ground and bedrock, usually when temperatures go from above freezing to below zero. As moisture absorbed in the rock and soil freezes, it expands. This puts a great amount of stress on the areas around it. Eventually, the stress is too much and the soil and rock will crack in an "explosive" manner, creating a loud sound and even shaking the ground surface. Since temperatures are coldest in the overnight hours, most people experience frost quakes in the middle of the night. Winter Storm Activities
Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan on learning about winter weather. In this activity, kids investigate aspects of winter weather, such as temperature and wind. They familiarize themselves with weather-related words. It's a great activity for K-2nd graders.

Cold air moves over warm water and is warmed from below. Moisture evaporates in the air.

Warm moist air rises downwind of lakes and forms heavy snow.

Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan on learning about winter weather. In this activity, kids learn how winter storms form and about the different types of fronts. It's a great activity for 3rd-5th graders. Note: This is a PDF file, so you need to have Adobe Acrobat Reader.
Measuring Snow Experiment: Here is a great experiment that lets kids measure snow. They let the snow melt and then measure it again. It teaches kids that snow is very dense and is why it holds more space than water.

The wind chill is the temperature your body feels when the air temperature is combined with the wind speed. The higher the wind speed the faster exposed areas of your body lose heat and the colder you feel.Melting Snow Experiment: Here is another experiment that teaches kids the difference between the freezing and melting process. It allows kids to take the temperature of a glass of snow. Then, watch the snow melt and observe how the temperature changed.

Frost Experiment: Here is a great experiment that lets kids make frost. They can see how dew turns into frost in a matter of minutes.Examining Snowflakes Experiment: Here is a great experiment that lets kids see snowflakes up close. They can examine the snowflake's six sides.
Pressure Experiment: Here is an experiment that shows how pressure is created in our atmosphere by sucking an egg in a bottle. This is a very cool experiment!
Science Fair Project Ideas: Here is a complete list of science fair project ideas. Discover the science behind the weather that impacts us every day.
Make A Barometer Experiment: Here is an experiment that allows the kids to make a barometer.

Evaporation Experiment: Here is an experiment that shows kids how evaporation takes place.

Frostbite is damage to the skin due to prolonged exposure to cold temperatures, usually below 32° F.

WINTER STORM WATCH - Alerts the public to the possibility of a blizzard, heavy snow, heavy freezing rain, or heavy sleet. Winter Storm Watches are usually issued 12 to 48 hours before the beginning of a winter storm.

WINTER STORM WARNING - Issued when hazardous winter weather in the form of heavy snow, heavy freezing rain, or heavy sleet is occurring. Winter Storm Warnings are usually issued 12 to 24 hours before the event is expected.

BLIZZARD WARNING - Issued for sustained or gusty winds of 35 mph or more, and falling or blowing snow creating visibilities at or below 1/4 mile. These conditions should persist for 3 hours.

FROST/FREEZE WARNING - Issued when below freezing temperatures are expected.

LAKE EFFECT SNOW ADVISORY - Issued when accumulation of lake effect snow will cause significant inconvenience.

LAKE EFFECT SNOW WARNING - Issued when heavy lake effect snow is occurring.

WIND CHILL ADVISORY - Issued when the wind chill temperature is forecast to be between -15°F to -24°F.

WIND CHILL WARNING - Issued when the wind chill temperature is forecast to be -25°F or lower.

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Weather Wiz Kids weather information for kids

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Weather Wiz Kids is a fun and safe website for kids about all the weather info they need to know. It contains tools for weather education, including weather games, activities, experiments, photos, a glossary and educational teaching materials for the classroom.

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Use this source in order to read a little bit about earthquakes. Read just to get a general idea of what an earthquake is!

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What is an earthquake?
Earthquakes are the shaking, rolling or sudden shock of the earth's surface. They are the Earth's natural means of releasing stress. More than a million earthquakes rattle the world each year. The West Coast is most at risk of having an earthquake, but earthquakes can happen in the Midwest and along the East Coast. Earthquakes can be felt over large areas although they usually last less than one minute. Earthquakes cannot be predicted - although scientists are working on it!

Click Here to learn more about earthquakes from USGS.

What causes an earthquake?
There are about 20 plates along the surface of the earth that move continuously and slowly past each other. When the plates squeeze or stretch, huge rocks form at their edges and the rocks shift with great force, causing an earthquake. Think of it this way: Imagine holding a pencil horizontally. If you were to apply a force to both ends of the pencil by pushing down on them, you would see the pencil bend. After enough force was applied, the pencil would break in the middle, releasing the stress you have put on it. The Earth's crust acts in the same way. As the plates move they put forces on themselves and each other. When the force is large enough, the crust is forced to break. When the break occurs, the stress is released as energy which moves through the Earth in the form of waves, which we feel and call an earthquake. (Graphic Credit: Wheeling Jesuit University/NASA Classroom of the Future)

Click Here to see an animation of an earthquake. It's great for kids, because they get to see how it actually happens!

What is a fault?
A fault is an area of stress in the earth where broken rocks slide past each other, causing a crack in the Earth's surface. There are the major types of faults: dip-slip normal, dip-slip reverse, strike-slip, and oblique-slip.

What are plate tectonics?
The theory of plate tectonics is a interesting story of continents drifting from place to place breaking apart, colliding, and grinding against each other. The plate tectonic theory is supported by a wide range of evidence that considers the earth's crust and upper mantle to be composed of several large, thin, relatively rigid plates that move relative to one another. (See plate tectonic graphic above.) The plates are all moving in different directions and at different speeds. Sometimes the plates crash together, pull apart or sideswipe each other. When this happens, it commonly results in earthquakes.

Continental Drift: To see this animation again, just refresh this page! This animation shows you what our planet looked like millions of years ago and what it looks like now! (Graphic Credit: Geology Department at University of California, Berkeley)

What is a seismograph?
A seismograph is an instrument used for recording the intensity and duration of an earthquake.

Click Here to calculate the strength of earthquakes!

What is a tsunami? A tsunami is a large ocean wave usually caused by an underwater earthquake or a volcanic explosion. Tsunamis are NOT tidal waves. Tidal waves are caused by the forces of the moon, sun, and planets upon the tides, as well as the wind as it moves over the water. With typical waves, water flows in circles, but with a tsunami, water flows straight. This is why tsunamis cause so much damage!

Know the Lingo

EPICENTER - The point on the earth's surface directly above the source of the earthquake.

SEISMIC WAVES - The energy created by the quake travels in waves from the epicenter, where they are the strongest. The waves shake buildings, structures and the earth vertically, causing them to move horizontally!

RICHTER SCALE - A measurement of an earthquake's intensity. Each one-point increase on the scale indicates ten times the amount of shaking and 33 times the amount of energy. The energy released by a large earthquake may be equal to 10,000 times the energy of the first atomic bomb.

4

Minor Earthquake

5

Moderate Earthquake

6

Strong Earthquake

7

Major Earthquake

8

Great Earthquake

Richter Scale

Earthquake Safety Tips
BEFORE AN EARTHQUAKE: Have a disaster plan. Emergency preparedness can save lives. Choose a safe place in every room. It's best to get under a sturdy piece of furniture like a table or a desk where nothing can fall on you. Practice DROP, COVER AND HOLD ON! Drop under something sturdy, hold on, and protect your eyes by pressing your face against your arm. If you live in an earthquake prone area, bolt tall furniture to the wall and install strong latches to cupboards. Prepare a first aid kit for your home. By taking special precautions and checking for hazards before a disaster strikes, you will be much more likely to stay safe. DURING AN EARTHQUAKE: DROP, COVER AND HOLD ON! Stay indoors until the shaking stops. Stay away from windows. If you're in bed, hold on and stay there, protecting your head with a pillow. If you're outdoors, find a clear spot away from buildings, trees and power lines. Then, drop to the ground. If you're in a car, slow down and drive to a safe place. Stay in the car until the shaking stops.

AFTER THE SHAKING STOPS: Check for injuries. Inspect your home for damage. Eliminate fire hazards, so turn off the gas if you think its leaking. Expect aftershocks. Each time you feel one, DROP, COVER AND HOLD ON.
Earthquake Activities
Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan on learning about how thrust faults are responsible for the uplift of many mountain ranges across the world, including the Los Angeles Basin. This is a great lesson plan for middle and high school students.

Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan keeping track of earthquakes around the world. In this activity, kids keep a record of the location of earthquakes for a week and learn about plate tectonics.

Earthquake Experiment: Here is a great experiment that explains how to prepare for an earthquake.Science Fair Ideas: Here is a list of science fair project ideas that deal with earthquakes.

Science Fair Project Ideas: Here is a complete list of science fair project ideas. Discover the science behind the weather that impacts us every day.

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Weather Wiz Kids weather information for kids

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Weather Wiz Kids is a fun and safe website for kids about all the weather info they need to know. It contains tools for weather education, including weather games, activities, experiments, photos, a glossary and educational teaching materials for the classroom.

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Use this source in order to read a little bit about tornadoes. Read just to get a general idea of what a tornado is!

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Tornadoes

What is a tornado?
A tornado is a violent rotating column of air extending from a thunderstorm to the ground. The most violent tornadoes are capable of tremendous destruction with wind speeds of up to 300 mph. They can destroy large buildings, uproot trees and hurl vehicles hundreds of yards. They can also drive straw into trees. Damage paths can be in excess of one mile wide to 50 miles long. In an average year, 1000 tornadoes are reported nationwide.

How do tornadoes form?

Most tornadoes form from thunderstorms. You need warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and cool, dry air from Canada. When these two air masses meet, they create instability in the atmosphere. A change in wind direction and an increase in wind speed with increasing height creates an invisible, horizontal spinning effect in the lower atmosphere. Rising air within the updraft tilts the rotating air from horizontal to vertical. An area of rotation, 2-6 miles wide, now extends through much of the storm. Most strong and violent tornadoes form within this area of strong rotation.

Click Here to learn more about tornadoes from NOAA.

What are some other factors for tornadoes to form?
Several conditions are required for the development of tornadoes and the thunderstorm clouds with which most tornadoes are associated. Abundant low level moisture is necessary to contribute to the development of a thunderstorm, and a "trigger" (perhaps a cold front or other low level zone of converging winds) is needed to lift the moist air aloft. Once the air begins to rise and becomes saturated, it will continue rising to great heights to produce a thunderstorm cloud, if the atmosphere is unstable. An unstable atmosphere is one where the temperature decreases rapidly with height. Atmospheric instability can also occur when dry air overlays moist air near the earth's surface. Finally, tornadoes usually form in areas where winds at all levels of the atmosphere are not only strong, but also turn with height in a clockwise or veering direction.

What do tornadoes look like?
Tornadoes can appear as a traditional funnel shape, or in a slender rope-like form. Some have a churning, smoky look to them, and other contain "multiple vortices", which are small, individual tornadoes rotating around a common center. Even others may be nearly invisible, with only swirling dust or debris at ground levels as the only indication of the tornado's presence.

What is a funnel cloud? A funnel cloud is a rotating cone-shaped column of air extending downward from the base of a thunderstorm, but not touching the ground. When it reaches the ground it is called a tornado.

It is not fully understood about how exactly tornadoes form, grow and die. Tornado researchers are still trying to solve the tornado puzzle, but for every piece that seems to fit they often uncover new pieces that need to be studied. How do tornadoes stop?

A supercell thunderstorm is a long-lived thunderstorm whose updrafts and downdrafts are in near balance. These storms have the greatest tendency to produce tornadoes that stay on the ground for long periods of time. Supercell thunderstorms can produce violent tornadoes with winds exceeding 200 mph.
What is a supercell thunderstorm?

A mesocyclone is a rotating vortex of air within a supercell thunderstorm. Mesocyclones do not always produce tornadoes.
What is a mesocyclone?

A wall cloud is an abrupt lowering of a rain-free cumulonimbus base into a low-hanging accessory cloud. A wall cloud is usually situated in the southwest portion of the storm. A rotating wall cloud usually develops before tornadoes or funnel clouds. What is a microburst?
A microburst is a downdraft (sinking air) in a thunderstorm that is less than 2.5 miles in scale. Although microbursts are not as widely recognized as tornadoes, they can cause comparable, and in some cases, worse damage than some tornadoes produce. In fact, wind speeds as high as 150 mph are possible in extreme microburst cases.
What is a wall cloud?

A waterspout is just a weak tornado that forms over water. They are most common along the Gulf Coast. Waterspouts can sometimes move inland, becoming tornadoes causing damage and injuries.

What is a waterspout?

What is hail?
Hail is created when small water droplets are caught in the updraft of a thunderstorm. These water droplets are lifted higher and higher into the sky until they freeze into ice. Once they become heavy, they will start to fall. If the smaller hailstones get caught in the updraft again, they will get more water on them and get lifted higher in the sky and get bigger. Once they get lifted again, they freeze and fall. This happens over and over again until the hailstone is too heavy and then falls to the ground.

What is the largest hailstone recorded in the United States?
According to the National Weather Service, the largest hailstone is 8 inches in diameter and weights approximately 2 pounds. It fell in Vivian, South Dakota on July 23, 2010.
A gustnado is a short-lived, relatively weak whirlwind that forms along a gust front. A gust front is the surge of very gusty winds at the leading edge of a thunderstorm's outflow of air. Gustnadoes are not tornadoes. They do not connect with any cloud-base rotation. But because gustnadoes often have a spinning dust cloud at ground level, they are sometimes wrongly reported as tornadoes. Gustnadoes can do minor damage.

What is a gustnado?
A landspout is a very weak tornado that is not associated with a wall cloud or a mesocyclone. It is the land equivalent of a waterspout.

What is a landspout?
A dust devil generally forms in the hot sun during the late morning or early afternoon hours. These are mostly harmless whirlwinds and are triggered by light desert breezes that create a swirling plume of dust with speeds rarely over 70 mph. These differ from tornadoes in that they are not associated with a thunderstorm (or any cloud) and are usually very weak.

What is a dust devil? Tornadoes can happen at any time of the year and at any time of the day. In the southern states, peak tornado season is from March through May. Peak times for tornadoes in the northern states are during the summer. A few southern states have a second peak time for tornado outbreaks in the fall. Tornadoes are most likely to occur between 3 p.m. and 9 p.m.

The geography of the central part of the United States, known as the Great Plains, is suited to bring all of the ingredients together to forms tornadoes. More than 500 tornadoes typically occur in this area every year and is why it is commonly known as "Tornado Alley". Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas and Louisiana all make up Tornado Alley. When are tornadoes most likely to occur?

Where are tornadoes most likely to occur?

Know the Lingo

TORNADO WATCH - Tornadoes are possible in your area. Stay tuned to the radio or television news.
TORNADO WARNING - A tornado is either on the ground or has been detected by Doppler radar. Seek shelter immediately!

Click Here to see if there are any active warnings in your area.

Know the Facts
Tornadoes can occur at any time of the year. nd winds less than 110 mph.

No terrain is safe from tornadoes.

Never open windows in severe weather situations. This allows damaging wind and debris to enter the structure.

69% of all tornadoes are labeled "weak tornadoes" meaning they have a lifetime of 1-10+ minutes a

SCALE

WIND SPEED

POSSIBLE DAMAGE

Enhanced,
Operational
Fujita Scale

29% of all tornadoes are labeled "strong tornadoes" meaning they last 20 minutes or longer and winds reach 110-205 mph.
2% of all tornadoes are labeled "violent tornadoes" and can last over an hour.

Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity

Tornado Safety Tips
BEFORE A TORNADO: Have a disaster plan. Make sure everyone knows where to go in case a tornado threatens. Make sure you know which county or parish you live in. Prepare a kit with emergency food for your home. Have enough food and water for at least 3 days.

AFTER A TORNADO: Stay indoors until it is safe to come out. Check for injured or trapped people, without putting yourself in danger. Watch out for downed power lines. Use a flashlight to inspect your home. Tornado Activities

Lesson Plan: Here are some great lesson plans on learning about tornado safety. Note: This is a PDF file, so you need to have Adobe Acrobat Reader. DURING A TORNADO: Go to a basement. If you do not have a basement, go to an interior room without windows on the lowest floor such as a bathroom or closet. If you can, get under a sturdy piece of furniture, like a table. If you live in a mobile home get out. They offer little protection against tornadoes. Get out of automobiles. Do not try to outrun a tornado in your car, leave it immediately. If you're outside, go to a ditch or low lying area and lie flat in it. Stay away from fallen power lines and stay out of damaged areas.
Tornado Experiment: Here is a great experiment that allows the kids to make a tornado in a bottle.
IF YOU'RE AT SCHOOL DURING A TORNADO: Every school should have a disaster plan and have frequent drills. Basements offer the best protection. Schools without basements should use interior rooms and hallways on the lowest floor away from windows. Crouch down on your knees and protect your head with your arms.
Tornado Experiment: Here is a great experiment that allows the kids to make a tornado in a jar.
Pressure Experiment: Here is an experiment that shows how pressure is created in our atmosphere by sucking an egg in a bottle. This is a very cool experiment!
Science Fair Project Ideas: Here is a complete list of science fair project ideas. Discover the science behind the weather that impacts us every day.

Make A Barometer Experiment: Here is an experiment that allows the kids to make a barometer.

Evaporation Experiment: Here is an experiment that shows kids how evaporation takes place.

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Weather Wiz Kids weather information for kids

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Weather Wiz Kids is a fun and safe website for kids about all the weather info they need to know. It contains tools for weather education, including weather games, activities, experiments, photos, a glossary and educational teaching materials for the classroom.

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Use this source in order to read a little bit about hurricanes. Read just to get a general idea of what a hurricane is!

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Hurricanes only form over really warm ocean water of 80°F or warmer. The atmosphere (the air) must cool off very quickly the higher you go. Also, the wind must be blowing in the same direction and at the same speed to force air upward from the ocean surface. Winds flow outward above the storm allowing the air below to rise. Hurricanes typically form between 5 to 15 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The To learn more about hurricanes, Prepare a disaster supplies kit for your home and car. Include a first aid kit, canned food and a can opener, bottled water, battery-operated radio, flashlight, protective clothing and written instructions on how to turn off electricity, gas, and water. Have a NOAA weather radio handy with plenty of batteries, so you can listen to storm advisories. Have some cash handy as well, because following a hurricane, banks and ATMs may be temporarily closed. Make sure your car is filled with gasoline. Hurricanes

What is a hurricane?
A hurricane is a huge storm! It can be up to 600 miles across and have strong winds spiraling inward and upward at speeds of 75 to 200 mph. Each hurricane usually lasts for over a week, moving 10-20 miles per hour over the open ocean. Hurricanes gather heat and energy through contact with warm ocean waters. Evaporation from the seawater increases their power. Hurricanes rotate in a counter-clockwise direction around an "eye" in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The center of the storm or "eye" is the calmest part. It has only light winds and fair weather. When they come onto land, the heavy rain, strong winds and large waves can damage buildings, trees and cars.

>Click Here to get your very own Hurricane Tracking Chart.

How do hurricanes form?
Coriolis Force is needed to create the spin in the hurricane and it becomes too weak near the equator, so hurricanes can never form there.

What is storm surge?
Storm surges are frequently the most devastating element of a hurricane. As a hurricane's winds spiral around and around the storm, they push water into a mound at the storm's center. This mound of water becomes dangerous when the storm reaches land because it causes flooding along the coast. The water piles up, unable to escape anywhere but on land as the storm carries it landward. A hurricane will cause more storm surge in areas where the ocean floor slopes gradually. This causes major flooding.
As you watch the storm-surge animations, notice the effect that the physical geography of each coastline has on storm surge. Also, note the waves on top of the ocean's surface. Wind, waves, and sea-level rise all contribute to storm-surge damage.

Shallow-Water Coastline

Deep-Water Coastline

With technology the way it is, there are computer models that allow forecasters to predict the amount of storm surge that will affect a coastal area. These are called Slosh Models and take into account a storm's strength, its path, how the ocean shallows, and the shape of the land. Then it calculates how much storm surge a hurricane will probably cause.

The Atlantic hurricane season is from June 1 to November 30, but most hurricanes occur during the fall months. The Eastern Pacific hurricane season is from May 15 to November 30. (Below is a graphic that shows you when hurricanes are most active across parts of the world.)
When does hurricane season start?

Who names hurricanes?
From 1950 to 1952, tropical cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean were identified by the phonetic alphabet (Able-Baker-Charlie-etc.), but in 1953 the US Weather Bureau switched to women's names. The rest of the world eventually caught on, and naming rights now go by the World Meteorological Organization, which uses different sets of names depending on the part of the world the storm is in. Around the U.S., only women's names were used until 1979, when it was decided that they should alternate a list that included men's names too. There's 6 different name lists that alternate each year. If a hurricane does significant damage, its name is retired and replaced with another.
Atlantic Hurricane Names
Eastern Pacific Hurricane Names
Nothing except geography. Tropical storms occur in several of the world's oceans, and except for their names, they are essentially the same type of storm. In the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and the Eastern Pacific Ocean, they are called hurricanes. In the Western Pacific Ocean, they are called typhoons. In the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal, and Australia, these types of storms are called cyclones.
What is the difference between a hurricane and a typhoon?
(This is a satellite animation of Hurricane Georges, which struck the Mississippi Gulf coast in 1998.)

The brave "hurricane hunters" work for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Each mission lasts about ten hours, with the crews passing four to six times through the storm. The planes carry radar, sophisticated computers, and weather instruments that determine characteristics such as temperature, air pressure, wind speed, and wind direction inside the hurricane. The crews also release instruments that measure temperature, air pressure, and wind at different levels as the devices drop through the hurricane toward the ocean. By mission's end, NOAA can warn everyone in the hurricane's path. (Below is a satellite image of Hurricane Mitch back in October 1998. The Hurricane Hunters flew into the eye of Mitch just as this Category 5 hurricane with winds of 155 mph smacked right into Central America.)

Who are the "Hurricane Hunters"?
Coastal beach erosion is the wearing away of land, the removal of beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, or drainage. Waves are generated by storms, wind, or hurricanes and can cause coastal erosion. This may take the form of long-term losses of sediment and rocks, or merely the temporary redistribution of coastal sediments.

What is coastal beach erosion?

Hurricanes...Past and Present
Tropical Tracks: Click to see the tracks of this year's storms.

Know the Lingo Past Hurricane Info: Click to find all the data and information about a specific hurricane by just knowing the year.
HURRICANE WATCH - Hurricane conditions with sustained winds of 74 mph or greater are possible in your area within the next 36 hours. This WATCH should trigger your family's disaster plan, and protective measures should be initiated. Especially, those actions that require extra time such as securing a boat and leaving a barrier island.
TROPICAL STORM WATCH - Tropical Storm conditions with sustained winds from 39 -74 mph are possible in your area within the next 36 hours.
HURRICANE WARNING - Hurricane conditions are expected in your area within 24 hours. Once this WARNING has been issued, your family should be in the process of completing protective actions and deciding the safest location to be during the storm.

COASTAL FLOOD WATCH - The possibility exists for the inundation of land areas along the coast within the next 12 to 36 hours.

COASTAL FLOOD WARNING - Land areas along the coast are expected to become, or have become, inundated by sea water above the typical tide action.

SMALL CRAFT ADVISORY - A small craft advisory is a type of warning issued by the National Weather Service, most frequently in coastal areas. It is issued when winds have reached, or are expected to reach within 12 hours, a speed marginally less than that which is considered gale force, usually 25-38 mph.

Click Here to see if there are any active warnings in your area.
Hurricane Stages
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale

Category

Winds (MPH)

Pressure (Millibars)

Pressure (Inches)

Storm Surge
(Feet)

Damage

3

111-130

964-945

28.47-27.91

9'-12'

Extensive

Click Here to watch a variety of videos teaching you the ins and outs of nature's fury. I would like to give a special thanks to Pinellas County Emergency management for putting these instructional videos together.
Hurricane Safety Tips

BEFORE A HURRICANE: Have a disaster plan and a pet plan ready. Before a storm threatens, contact your veterinarian or local humane society for information on preparing your pets for an emergency. Board up windows and b ring in outdoor objects that could blow away. Make sure you know which county or parish you live in and k now where all the evacuation routes are.

Stay away from low-lying and flood prone areas. Always stay indoors during a hurricane, because strong winds will blow things around. Leave mobile homes and to go to a shelter. DURING A HURRICANE: If your home isn't on higher ground, go to a shelter. If emergency managers say to evacuate, then do so immediately.
AFTER A HURRICANE: Stay indoors until it is safe to come out. Check for injured or trapped people, without putting yourself in danger. Watch out for flooding which can happen after a hurricane. Do not attempt to drive in flooding water. Stay away from standing water. It may be electrically charged from underground or downed power lines. Don't drink tap water until officials say its safe to do so.

Evacuation Tips: Here is a list of tips on what you should do, if you chose to evacuate as a hurricane approaches.
Hurricane Activities
Hurricane Supply Checklist: Here is a list of what what you will need if you chose to stay at your home during a hurricane.
Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan on learning about hurricane safety. In this activity, Owlie teaches kids about hurricanes and quizzes them about what they learned. Note: This is a PDF file, so you need to have Adobe Acrobat Reader.
Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan on understanding hurricanes. Students will learn how wind speed increases the height and why higher waves occur in shallower water. This activity is for grades 6-8.

Lesson Plan: Here is a great interactive lesson plan on allowing kids to create their very own hurricane. It lets you try to create ideal hurricane conditions by changing the winds, latitude, moisture, and sea temperature. It even keeps score! This is a great activity for 5-8th graders.Lesson Plan: Here is a great lesson plan on elementary reading comprehension. This lesson contains a broader vocabulary, more hurricane facts, and more thought-provoking writing prompts. It works well for grades 3-5. Note: This is a PDF file, so you need to have Adobe Acrobat Reader. Lesson Plan: Here is a great interactive lesson plan that lets kids aim a hurricane. It lets you move the hurricane symbol, high pressure symbol and low pressure symbol to track your very own hurricane. Sometimes your hurricane will make landfall, other times it misses the U.S. all together. It lets kid understand how important the setup of weather impacts where hurricanes go.

Pressure Experiment: Here is an experiment that shows how pressure is created in our atmosphere by sucking an egg in a bottle. This is a very cool experiment!
Science Fair Project Ideas: Here is a complete list of science fair project ideas. Discover the science behind the weather that impacts us every day.
Make A Barometer Experiment: Here is an experiment that allows the kids to make a barometer.

Evaporation Experiment: Here is an experiment that shows kids how evaporation takes place.

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Weather Wiz Kids weather information for kids

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Weather Wiz Kids is a fun and safe website for kids about all the weather info they need to know. It contains tools for weather education, including weather games, activities, experiments, photos, a glossary and educational teaching materials for the classroom.

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A shifting of tectonic plates, an underwater earthquake, a tidal surge and then--Tsunami! Learn about these forces of nature from Tim and Moby.

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Here is a video that explains what a flood is. If you feel interested to learn more and research this natural disaster more than the other natural disasters than flood is your choice!

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Why Do Floods Happen? | Weather Science | SciShow Kids

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A wildfire is a fire that burns out of control in a natural area, like a forest, grassland, or prairie. Wildfires can start from natural causes, such as lightning, but they are usually caused by humans, such as campers or hikers who did not put out their campfire properly. Wildfires spread quickly, burning brush, trees, and homes in its path. They can also affect natural resources (such as soil, animals, forests), destroy homes, and put people's lives in danger.

Words to know!

Am I at Risk?

What Can I Do?

Before

During

After

Learn More

Did you know?

The three elements needed to create and keep a fire burning are heat, fuel, and oxygen, also known as the fire triangle.

Incident Meteorologists (IMETs) are a group of around 70 specially-trained weather experts with the National Weather Service. They work closely with wildfire responders at wildfire sites to monitor, analyze, and report fire and weather conditions. Their forecasts help firefighters plan operations when dealing with the unpredictable nature of fire. This helps keep emergency responders safe.

Learn more with:

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Words to Know Am I at Risk? What Can I do? Learn More

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By definition, a blizzard is an extended, severe snowstorm. In order to qualify as a blizzard, winds have to be at least 35mph and rage for a longer period of time-at least three hours or more. The amount of snowfall has little to do with a storm qualifying as a snowstorm, but rather the intensity of the wind and length of time. There are two other classifications for blizzards:

--Severe blizzard: winds over 45mph, temperatures at 10 Fahrenheit or lower, near zero visibility.

--Ground blizzard: no falling snow, snow from the ground is blown by the strong winds.

A nor'easter gets it's name from the direction of the oncoming winds. This occurs on the Atlantic side of Canada and East Coast of the USA. These storms can start as far south as the Gulf of Mexico or the North Atlantic Ocean. However, the most common usage of the name is in the coastal regions of Atlantic Canada and New England. These storms are similar to a hurricane. One of the deadliest blizzards in the USA-the Great Blizzard of 1888-was a nor'easter, killing 400 people after dumping 40-50 inches of snow.

Blizzards are usually formed when the jet stream pitches very far south. This allows the cold air that comes from the north to collide with warm air coming from the south. This creates a strong storm system, usually developing on the northwest side of such storm systems.

Any area which is mostly flat is susceptible to blizzards, though there are some areas in the US, Australia, and the UK that suffer from blizzards more than others. However, the deadliest blizzard in recorded history occurred in Iran in 1972.

Blizzards are one of nature's deadlier storms, as the conditions make travel and movement hazardous. Snowstorms disrupt traffic, but blizzards make any kind of travel nearly impossible. Almost every blizzard results in at least a few deaths, with some of the bigger ones resulting in hundreds of people dying.

Visibility is drastically reduced, in some cases to as little as 3 meters or what is called zero visibility. In a ground blizzard, though no new snow is falling, the snow already on the ground is whipped up and around by the winds to where visibility is also close to zero.

Travel under these conditions is close to impossible. Cars have to come to a complete standstill as they can drive off the road. Because blizzards rage for so long, people can get trapped in their cars, freezing to death as they wait for it to clear. Once the storm is over, cars are often buried under mounds of snow, making it difficult for rescue teams to find them. Hypothermia sets in as people trapped outdoors try to find shelter and warmth.

Blizzards have been known to come suddenly and while it is possible to be warned in advance, it's not always possible to be entirely prepared for the intensity of the blizzard. Clearing roads is not possible until after the blizzard has passed and then takes a long time due to the intensity of the build up. The aftermath of the blizzard can be almost as dangerous as the storm itself, as people trapped inside vehicles, unheated buildings, or outdoors take longer to be found and brought to warmth and safety.

Though not as common as snowstorms, tornadoes, or even hurricanes, blizzards are deadly every time they hit. Not all blizzards are mentioned here, not even all of the most severe. This is just a sample of the havoc that blizzards can wreak.

--The white winter of 1880-1881 is one of the earliest blizzards mentioned in history books. This is considered the worst winter in US history. Because the first blizzard hit in October, before most farmers had the opportunity to bring in their crops. One after the other the blizzards continued to hit, making travel impossible, even by train. People were at the brink of starvation and train services stopped completely by January 1880 as no matter how often they cleared the tracks, another storm would come and cover them again. The snow never thawed and on February 2, 1881 a nine day blizzard hit again. By then, towns and farmers had to tunnel through the snow to get to livestock, wood for heating, and supplies. Once the snow started melting, huge areas were flooded, washing away huge areas around the Missouri river. The town of Yankton, currently South Dakota, was nearly completely washed away by the overflowing river.

--The Iran Blizzard of 1972 is the deadliest recorded blizzard. Starting on February 3, until February 9, more than 10 feet of snow fell, the worst areas in Southern Iran getting up to 26 feet of snow. Whole villages died, one being completely buried beneath the snow. Approximately 4000 people died.

--The Armistice Day Blizzard in 1947 came somewhat unexpected, resulting in a lot of deaths. On the morning of the blizzard, the weather was warm, resulting in many hunters going out to take advantage of ideal conditions. Within a few hours, the blizzard hit, raging through the night and into the next day. 145 deaths were reported as a result of the 1,000 mile wide storm. Many hunters were not dressed warmly enough to withstand the wind and snow. Many were stranded on islands in the Mississippi, or drowned trying to get back to land.

--The Schoolhouse Blizzard in 1888 is different from the nor'easter and in some ways more heart breaking. Because the day started out relatively fair, people went about their lives, with children going to school and adults going to work. The storm hit early in the day, leaving thousands stranded; mostly children in their one-room schoolhouses. 235 people died; including children.

Although meteorologists are now able to more accurately predict blizzards, the storms still have the ability to cripple whole cities at a time, and deaths are almost always inevitable. Over the years, rescue missions during and after blizzards are becoming better and preparedness goes a long way towards preventing large amounts of casualties. It has also become considerably easier to notify people of oncoming storms, with more reliable predictions and getting the word out quickly and effectively.

Countries which are not used to large amounts of snow, extreme cold, and long periods of strong winds tend to have a harder time coping when the storms hit. Regardless of where the blizzards hit, there is never a way to be completely prepared. There is always a chance of power outages, communications systems breaking down, people going for long periods with little or no heat, and getting trapped outdoors or in a vehicle. During winter months, people are advised to pay close attention to weather warning coming over the radio or TV. There are weather websites set up to help people prepare for blizzards and post warnings when a snowstorm is being upgraded to a blizzard.

Blizzard Related Articles

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By definition, a blizzard is an extended, severe snowstorm. In order to qualify as a blizzard, winds have to be at least 35mph and rage for a longer period of time-at least three hours or more. The amount of snowfall has little to do with a storm qualifying as a snowstorm, but rather the intensity of the wind and length of time.

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Here is a video that explains what an earthquake is. If you feel interested to learn more and research this natural disaster more than the other natural disasters than earthquake is your choice!

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Here is a video that explains what a tornado is. If you feel interested to learn more and research this natural disaster more than the other natural disasters than tornado is your choice!

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What is a Tornado? | Weather Science | SciShow Kids

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Here is a video that explains what a hurricane is. If you feel interested to learn more and research this natural disaster more than the other natural disasters than hurricane is your choice!

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What's a Hurricane? | Weather Science | SciShow Kids

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*Only use this source if you have chosen flood as your natural disaster for the project!*

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When you think of water and rain, maybe you think about splashing around in puddles or watching it roll down your window. But water can be dangerous if it causes flooding. Learn more about the awesome power of water and floods.

What Is a Flood?

A flood is an area that has an excess of water. The water overflows and goes into areas that are typically dry. For example, too much water in a stream or river can cause it to go over roads and into people's houses. Excess water also causes the rivers to swell and spill over into areas that are typically dry, like the forest or farms. A flood is one of the most common natural disasters. Out of natural disasters that occurred from 1995 to 2015, 43 percent of them were floods.

Related Articles

Causes

Floods can be caused by a multitude of different scenarios. These include:

Heavy rain

Dam or levee breaking

Reservoir overflowing

Thunderstorm

Tsunami

Hurricane

Tornado

Rapidly thawing snow

Ice jams

Where Do Floods Occur?

Floods occur all over the world and in almost every place. However, some places are more susceptible to flooding.

Flood Plains

Flood plains are areas near a river or stream that are first impacted when the water starts to collect in the river or stream from excess rain or other factors. The water of the river or stream will start to rise and cover the area in the flood plain.

Coastal Flood Plain

Another area that is a natural flood area is land by the ocean. This is because storms like hurricanes or tsunamis can cause the ocean water to crash into the land creating flood areas.

Places

However, there are specific areas that get more floods than most.

In the U.S., floods typically happen most in the Northeast and Midwest.

India, Bangladesh and China are listed as having the most exposure to floods around the world.

When Do Floods Happen?

Floods can happen at any time. But there are times when floods are more likely to occur. There are not specific flood seasons like there are hurricane or tornado seasons. However, floods typically occur when there is more rainfall. This is typically from the spring to the fall in the United States.

Interesting Facts About Floods

Now check out some interesting facts about floods around the world.

Not all floods are considered a natural disaster; the flooding of the Nile is actually beneficial.

The worst flood in history is considered to be the 1931 Yangtze River flood caused by extreme rainfall in China.

Thailand holds the record for the most expensive flood in 2011 which cost 45 billion in damage.

Snow from the mountains can cause floods if the area heats up too fast.

A flash flood can happen at any time and place without much warning.

Floods are so powerful they can carry away cars full of people and houses. They can also wash out roads.

Flood Resources

There are several resources out there that can provide facts to kids about floods and how to prepare for them.

KidKonnect offers not only interesting facts about floods and how they form but also has worksheets available.

Ready.gov offers information on how to prepare for a flood before, during and after one happens. It breaks down how to be ready and create a preparedness kit.

Science for Kids offers information on how floods happen and a few fun facts.

If you are looking for videos, check out the Dr. Binocs Show about floods.

The Power of Water

Water is a necessity for life but too much of it can be bad. Water that creates floods can wreak havoc. Not only can it remove roads, but it can destroy crops and wipe out entire houses. While floods can happen at any time, there are some times that floods happen more often. To learn more about storms and water, check out LTK's Tsunami Facts for Kids.

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When you think of water and rain, maybe you think about splashing around in puddles or watching it roll down your window. But water can be dangerous if it causes flooding. Learn more about the awesome power of water and floods. A flood is an area that has an excess of water.

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*Only use this source if you have chosen earthquake as your natural disaster for the project!*

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Kid's learn about the science of earthquakes. What causes them and where they happen.

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*Only use this source if you have chosen tornado as your natural disaster for the project!*

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Tornadoes are one of the most violent and powerful types of weather. They consist of a very fast rotating column of air that usually forms a funnel shape. They can be very dangerous as their high speed winds can break apart buildings, knock down trees, and even toss cars into the air.

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Kids learn about tornadoes including how they form, characteristics, types including supercell and waterspout, categories, and fun facts.

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*Only use this source if you have chosen hurricane as your natural disaster for the project!*

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Science >> Earth Science for Kids

Weather - Hurricanes (Tropical Cyclones)

What is a hurricane?

A hurricane is a large rotating storm with high speed winds that forms over warm waters in tropical areas. Hurricanes have sustained winds of at least 74 miles per hour and an area of low air pressure in the center called the eye.

Different Names for Hurricanes

The scientific name for a hurricane is a tropical cyclone. Tropical cyclones go by different names in different places. In North America and the Caribbean they are called "hurricanes", in the Indian Ocean they are called "cyclones", and in Southeast Asia they are called "typhoons."

How do hurricanes form?

Hurricanes form over the warm ocean water of the tropics. When warm moist air over the water rises, it is replaced by cooler air. The cooler air will then warm and start to rise. This cycle causes huge storm clouds to form. These storm clouds will begin to rotate with the spin of the Earth forming an organized system. If there is enough warm water, the cycle will continue and the storm clouds and wind speeds will grow causing a hurricane to form.

Parts of a Hurricane

Eye - At the center of the hurricane is the eye. The eye is an area of very low air pressure. There are generally no clouds in the eye and the wind is calm. Don't let this fool you, however, the most dangerous part of the storm is at the edge of the eye called the eye wall.

Eye wall - Around the outside of the eye is a wall made up of very heavy clouds. This is the most dangerous part of the hurricane and where the highest speed winds are. The winds at the eye wall can reach speeds of 155 miles per hour.

Rainbands - Hurricanes have large spirally bands of rain called rainbands. These bands can drop huge amounts of rainfall causing flooding when the hurricane hits land.

Diameter - Hurricanes can become huge storms. The diameter of the hurricane is measured from one side to the other. Hurricanes can span a diameter of over 600 miles.

Height - The storm clouds that power hurricanes can become very tall. A powerful hurricane can reach nine miles into the atmosphere.

The structure of a hurricane

Where do tropical cyclones occur?

Tropical cyclones occur over the ocean in areas near the equator. This is because there is plenty of warm water in these areas to allow the storms to form. There are seven major areas in the world that tend to produce tropical cyclones. See the map below.

Locations of tropical cyclones throughout the world

When do hurricanes occur?

Hurricanes that form in the Caribbean and the Atlantic Ocean occur between June 1st and November 30th each year. This is called hurricane season.

Why are hurricanes dangerous?

When hurricanes strike land they can cause huge amounts of damage. Most of the damage is caused by flooding and storm surge. Storm surge is when the ocean level rises at the coastline due to the power of the storm. Hurricanes also cause damage with high speed winds that can blow downtrees and damage homes. Many hurricanes can develop several small tornados as well.

How are they named?

Hurricanes in the Atlantic are named based on a list of names maintained by the World Meteorological Organization. The names go in alphabetical order and the storms are named as they appear. So the first storm of the year will always have a name that starts with the letter "A." There are six lists of names and each year a new list is used.

Categories

Tropical cyclones are categorized according to the speed of sustained winds.

Tropical Depression - 38 mph or less

Tropical Storm - 39 to 73 mph

Hurricane

Category 1 - 74 to 95 mph

Category 2 - 96 to 110 mph

Category 3 - 111 to 129 mph

Category 4 - 130 to 156 mph

Category 5 - 157 or higher mph

Interesting Facts about Hurricanes

Hurricanes rotate counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. This is due to the rotation of the Earth called the Coriolis effect.

The letters Q, U, X, Y, and Z are not used for the first letter when naming hurricanes.

The names are alternated between boy and girl names.

Weather forecasters draw a cone showing where they think the hurricane is most likely to travel.

You can always find out the latest information on hurricanes at the website of the National Hurricane Center which tracks and forecasts hurricanes.

Activities

Take a ten question quiz about this page.

Listen to a recorded reading of this page:

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Earth Science Subjects

Science >> Earth Science for Kids

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Kids learn about hurricanes (Tropical Cyclones) including how they form, names, eye, eye wall, rainbands, locations, seasons, facts, and categories.

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*Only use this source if you have chosen flood as your natural disaster for the project!*

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FLOODS - The Dr. Binocs Show | Best Learning Videos For Kids | Peekaboo Kidz

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What is a Blizzard? | Winter Science | Weather Science | SciShow Kids

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*Only use this source if you have chosen earthquake as your natural disaster for the project!*

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What Is An Earthquake? | The Dr. Binocs Show | Educational Videos For Kids

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*Only use this source if you have chosen tornado as your natural disaster for the project!*

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What is a Tornado? The Dr. Binocs Show | Best Learning Videos For Kids | Peekaboo Kidz

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*Only use this source if you have chosen hurricane as your natural disaster for the project!*

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Hurricane | The Dr. Binocs Show | Educational Videos For Kids

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A dark greenish tinge covers the sky, and black storm clouds threaten above. The wind roars loudly while cats hide under couches and dogs start howling. A tornado is forming.

Also known as twisters, tornadoes are violently spinning, funnel-shaped columns of air that stretch from the dark thunderclouds they form in all the way to the ground. The wind from a tornado can top 250 miles an hour-that's faster than a race car! These extreme gusts can rip apart buildings, destroy bridges, flip trains, and send cars flying. They can even tear the bark off trees and suck all the water from a riverbed.

Tornadoes occur all over the planet, but the United States leads the world in the strength and number of storms: About a thousand twisters touch down every year. ( Argentina and Bangladesh are next.) As part of larger U.S. storm systems, they cause about 80 deaths a year and close to $1 billion in damage.

How tornadoes develop

Thunderstorms form when cold, dry air is pushed over warm, humid air. When that warm air rises through the colder air, it causes an updraft, or a change in wind direction.

If winds from the thunderstorm vary greatly in speed or direction, the updraft will begin to rotate. As the rotating updraft draws in more warm air from the moving thunderstorm, its rotation speed increases, and a funnel cloud begins to form. As the twister gains strength, the funnel becomes longer. (The funnel becomes more visible as more dirt and debris is caught in its rotation.) It's most dangerous when it touches the ground.

The most violent tornadoes come from supercells-the name scientists give to large thunderstorms with winds already in rotation. About one in a thousand thunderstorms becomes a supercell, and one in five or six supercells creates a tornado.

For all their power, the average tornado lasts only about 10 minutes, though some can rage for over an hour. Twisters usually die when they move over colder ground or when the clouds above it start to break up.

The Tri-State Tornado of 1925 holds the record for time and distance of a tornado. Named for the three states it hit- Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana -the tornado took three and a half hours to tear through 219 miles.

Where and when tornadoes form

Although tornadoes have been spotted in every U.S. state, many form in a region called Tornado Alley. This zone in the Midwest extends from Texas to Ohio and includes Iowa, Kansas, South Dakota, Oklahoma, and Nebraska.

These states are in the path of warm, moist air traveling from the Gulf of Mexico as well as cool air blowing from the Rocky Mountains. When the warm and cool airstreams meet, tornadoes are likely to form.

Though the storms can happen at any time of the year, tornado season in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas occurs in May through early June. In North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa, and Minnesota, tornadoes are more likely to form in June or July.

Tracking tornadoes

During thunderstorms, meteorologists use weather satellites, weather balloons, and buoys to gather data like wind speed and temperature. Then they analyze that data with supercomputers. This helps scientists pinpoint where and when a twister might form, as well as how strong or long-lasting it might be.

If weather conditions are right for a tornado to form, experts issue a tornado watch for a region, like a county or large part of a state. This doesn't mean that a tornado is on the way. But it could be-meteorologists issue the watch so people can be prepared.

When a tornado is spotted or picked up on weather radar, scientists issue a tornado warning for a smaller area, like a town or part of a city. People there are urged to take cover.

Some experts actually drive into areas where storms are forming! Vehicles tricked out with special science equipment measure things like temperature, humidity, and air pressure that's submitted to meteorologists at weather service headquarters. But the information that these "tornado chasers" gather also helps scientists better understand the science of tornados.

Thanks to these tools, meteorologists are now able to quickly predict when and where a tornado will form, giving people in a twister's path more time to seek shelter. For instance, in the 1980s, people only had about a five-minute warning before a tornado hit; by the late 2000s, the warning time grew to 13 minutes.

How to survive a tornado
Before a tornado
* Listen to weather reports for tornado warnings.
* Close all the windows.
* Prepare a safe room. This can be your basement or the lowest room in the center of your house or apartment building, away from outer walls and windows. Window-free closets and bathrooms work well, too.
* Fill the safe room with blankets, pillows, sleeping bags, and your family emergency kit (water, food, flashlight, and radio).
* Have an emergency safety plan. If you live in a trailer or mobile home, make sure you know where to go to evacuate.
During a tornado
* Stay inside-never attempt to watch or chase a tornado.
* Do not go near windows. It's not the tornado itself that causes most injuries; it's the flying debris-or the windows they crash through-that cause most injuries.
* Cover yourself with the pillows, blankets, and sleeping bags. If there's a sturdy piece of furniture, like a table, crawl under it.
* Cover your head and neck with your arms.
* If you're caught outside and can't find shelter, look for a ditch, gulley, or just a flat piece of ground away from trees and cars. Lie down as flat as you can and cover your head and neck with your arms. (Do not try this under a bridge or overpass.)
After a tornado
* Do not leave your shelter until local authorities give the OK. Follow their instructions.
* If you go outside, watch where you step-dangerous debris can be anywhere.
* Continue to monitor tornado reports. Sometimes more than one can whip up in the same place.
Learn more about tornadoes at National Geographic.
Tornado safety tips from the Nat Geo Kids book Extreme Weather by Thomas Kostigen and How to Survive Anything by Rachel Buchholz

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Find out what causes these deadly twisters-and how to stay safe.

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Use this online source to read and watch a video to help you discover the sequence of tornado forming.

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Tornadogenesis is the scientific word for how a tornado forms. Tornadoes are powerful spinning columns of air that touch both the ground and a storm cloud. There are different kinds of tornadoes, and they don't all form in the exact same way. Even with lots of scientific study, like the VORTEX projects, how tornadoes start is still a bit of a mystery.

A tornado happens when air that is already spinning (called vorticity) gets stretched and pulled together. This makes the spin much faster and tighter, creating a strong vortex. Most tornadoes go through a life cycle: they form, grow stronger, and then fade away. Scientists are very interested in how tornadoes form, how long they last, and how strong they get. They also study how tornadoes disappear, a process sometimes called tornadolysis.

How Supercell Tornadoes Form

The most well-known tornadoes are those that come from powerful thunderstorms called supercells. These storms have a special way of forming tornadoes.

The process starts when a strong thunderstorm develops a spinning area of air a few miles up in the atmosphere. This spinning part is called a mesocyclone. As rain falls in the storm, it pulls down a fast-moving area of air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft speeds up as it gets closer to the ground, pulling the spinning mesocyclone down with it.

As the mesocyclone gets lower, it starts to pull in cool, moist air from the downdraft. When this cool air mixes with the warm, rising air in the storm, it forms a rotating wall cloud that you can see under the main cloud. The RFD also helps focus the mesocyclone's spin, making it pull air from a smaller area on the ground. As the storm's updraft (rising air) gets stronger, it creates an area of low pressure near the surface. This low pressure pulls the focused mesocyclone down, forming a visible funnel cloud.

When the funnel cloud reaches the ground, it officially becomes a tornado and starts causing damage. This usually happens within a few minutes of the RFD hitting the ground. Scientists have learned that certain conditions, like the temperature of the air in different parts of the storm, play a role in whether a supercell will produce a tornado.

While some people imagine tornadoes forming from the top down (from the cloud to the ground), scientists are finding more and more evidence that many tornadoes actually start forming near the ground, or even at the same time from the ground up to the cloud.

Other Types of Tornadoes

Not all tornadoes come from supercells. Some form in different ways and are often weaker.

Waterspouts

A waterspout is simply a tornado that forms over water. Most waterspouts are much weaker than supercell tornadoes. They usually form in areas with lots of moisture and not much change in wind direction with height. They often appear where winds come together, like near coastlines or over large lakes.

Waterspouts usually develop as their parent clouds are still growing. Scientists believe they start spinning from horizontal air movement near the water's surface. This spin then stretches upwards into the developing cloud. The cloud they form from can be a simple cumulus cloud or a stronger thunderstorm.

Landspouts

Landspouts are tornadoes that form over land but are not from supercells. They look and act a lot like the weaker waterspouts. They are thought to form when a growing cloud's updraft pulls in and tightens existing spinning air near the ground.

Small Swirls and Tornadoes

Sometimes, smaller spinning areas, called mesovortices or mini-swirls, can lead to tornadoes.

Squall Line Tornadoes

Tornadoes can sometimes form within lines of thunderstorms called squall lines. This happens most often in places that are in the middle latitudes (not too close to the equator or the poles). Sometimes, even supercells can be hidden within these squall lines and produce tornadoes.

Tropical Cyclone Tornadoes

Strong tropical cyclones, like hurricanes, can also produce tornadoes. These often form from small swirls within the storm's eyewall (the ring of strong thunderstorms around the center). Tornadoes can also form in the outer rainbands of these powerful storms.

Fire Whirls

Most spinning columns of air caused by fires or volcanic eruptions are not true tornadoes. However, very rarely, the spinning air from large wildfires or eruptions can connect with a cloud base. In extremely rare cases, a special type of cloud called a pyrocumulonimbus cloud can form with a spinning mesocyclone, leading to a true tornado.

Cyclogenesis

Convective storm detection

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Floods may cause damage and lots of problems for the affected areas, however, there are also positive effects from floods. Watch this video to learn about the positive effects of floods.

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While a tornado can be a destructive and dangerous natural disaster, people who live in places where tornados are frequent are starting to consider adding storm cellars for extra safety. You can watch this video to see what a storm cellar is. (Keep in mind, many homes in places that have frequent tornados do not have basements.)

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Hurricanes can be a destructive force of nature but there are also benefits that result from hurricanes. Watch this quick video about the benefits of hurricanes.

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Skip to main content

Official websites use .gov
A.gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS
A lock () or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

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Originally written by Lisa Wald (U.S. Geological Survey) for "The Green Frog News"

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Use this online source to read and discover the sequence of how floods form and why they happen to research the sequence of a flood.

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There are very few areas in the world where flooding isn't a concern. Not even mountainous regions are resistant to the devastation of floods. Where there is rain, floods can easily follow. Floods are among the leading causes of global deaths. Flash floods can hit without warning, taking thousands of lives and costing nations billions of dollars in damage repairs. The complexity of the dangers of floods can be better understood through scientific research. Understanding the facts and science behind the formation of floods allows for a greater understanding of just how dangerous these natural disasters can be.

Here's what you need to know:

1. How Do Floods Form?

By definition, a flood is an overflow of water beyond it's normal confines, covering a stretch of dry land. Floods submerge what is typically dry land under a mass of water. The science of a flood begins with the water cycle. The water cycle allows for continuous evaporation, condensation, and precipitation of clouds. When clouds become to cold and heavy, they fall down on a locale as rain. Small amounts of rain are not a problem, but when the rain is consistent, strong, and torrential it can become a problem. These types of violent rains is what often leads to natural disasters, flood damage, and the need for flood damage restoration.

Where Does Flooding Occur?

Different places feel the effects of floods differently, but there are many commonalities within the locations effected. One commonality is the presence of a large body of water nearby. When consistent or strong rains occur, these bodies of water tend to overflow and full up lower lying areas. When this happens, water spills into roads and trails. The lower-lying areas work as a basin, accumulating as much water flow as possible. This leads to flooding, increasing in height as more water rushes in.

While floods are more common in areas with bodies of water, they can still occur without a present body of water. Different geolocations have varying heights, even in the same town, every area will have different terrain elevations. Terrain elevation is crucial in floods. Stormwater goes to lower areas, streaming to such places until they are filled up. Once filled up, it will stream towards similar low-lying areas. The varying terrain elevation is a crucial factor in flood occurrences, meaning that when rain starts pouring- floods can happen regardless of your geography. This can cause heavy storm damage to your home.

2. Why Do Floods Happen?

The first factor in flood occurrences is the local source of water. Excessive rainfall, a damaged dam, or snow melting too quickly are all events that can result in floods. The movement of excess water can overwhelm local bodies of water, and spread inland towards floodplains or coastlines. Many floods require a bit of time to form and rise, however floods that come from dams do not require this time. Tsunami's or dam overflows result in a concurrent flash flood.

Another key factor is your general area, since many areas in the world are lower in height than others. Water flows through connected areas, which results in the heavy outflow of water from high places to low places. This is why the most flood-prone areas are locales near dams and at the bottom of tall landforms, such as mountains. These places are the typical victims of flash floods, which are very dangerous and occur with no prior warning.

The last factor is climate change. No matter what position you hold on the issue, the effect of climate change is increasing the sea levels. The increase in sea levels has a trickle-down effect on the global ecosystem. Chronic flooding is happening in flood plains and costal areas. Cities such as Venice and many US cities will experience more flood-risks due to this rise in water levels. Costal communities are at the highest risk of danger, because the higher the water goes the more land areas it will begin to claim.

3. How Dangerous Are Floods?

Floods are among the most lethal and damaging natural disasters in the world. Flood damages and repairs cost around $40 Billion worldwide per year. The US alone experiences as much as $8 Billion in damages and insurance repairs. Many flood-related property damages stem from the mud and silt build up on said properties, which can wreak destruction. Along with the cost of damages, flood-related deaths are also increasing. Yearly, more than 100 people die as an effect of floods. Other dangers associated with floods is their contribution to excess water contamination. Pollutants and man-made objects tend to contaminate locales with various harmful materials- such as shattered debris and untreated sewage that can directly contribute to diseases in the general area.

4. What Can We Do About Floods?

Unfortunately there is no magical cure-all for floods. However, contributing and helping to alleviate climate change can aid future generations. Consistent preparation is something that can be done regarding floods that can effect the here and now. Ensuring you have a bug out bag so you can evacuate in a moments notice. Once the water level starts rising, move furniture and other important possessions to the upper levels of your home. If you notice the telltale signs of flooding, consider relocating your family, pets, and livestock somewhere safe. For those living in a flood-prone area, it is wise to get insurance as it can help you rebuild any damages your home incurs. In the event your property is damaged or destroyed, you should hire a reputable contractor to perform water damage restoration to your residence or business.

Knowing How Floods Form Is Vital to Survival

Having an understanding of how floods form is a key factor leading to successful preparation and survival. Knowing what distinguishes as dangerous can help you make the right choices in a moment's notice. As a rule-of-thumb, you should remember that if it seems dangerous you should evacuate as soon as possible, and secure all things necessary for a rebuild. If your property is affected by a flood, it is difficult to bounce back. Which is why you need a team that can help get you rebuilt, and back up and running as soon as possible.

That is where we come in to help!

Get in touch and learn more about how we can help you. Don't let flood damage keep you down. We'll make sure you're back on your feet in no time.

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Science & Dangers of How Floods Form | BMS CAT

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There are very few areas in the world where flooding isn't a concern. Not even mountainous regions are resistant to the devastation of floods. Where there is rain, floods can easily follow. Floods are among the leading causes of global deaths.

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Use this online source to read and watch a video to help you discover the sequence of hurricane forming.

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How is a TSUNAMI FORMED? 🌊 (Definition and Phases)

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Words to Know Am I at Risk? What Can I Do? Learn More

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Researchers use drones to better predict tornadoes

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Hurricanes don't only affect people living along the coast. They can cause damage hundreds of miles from the shore. Learn how to be prepared.

Featured Resource:
Be Ready! Hurricanes Infographic
Learn more >

Make a Plan.

Hurricane season starts on May 15 in the north Pacific and June 1 in the Atlantic and the Caribbean. It ends on November 30. Before hurricane season each year, make sure you and your family are prepared by planning ahead.

Write down emergency phone numbers and keep them on the refrigerator or near every phone in your house. Program them into your cell phone too.

Prepare an emergency supply kit.

Locate the nearest shelter and different routes you can take to get there from your home. If shelter locations in your area have not been identified, learn how to find them in the event of a storm.

Pet owners: Pre-identify shelters, a pet-friendly hotel, or an out-of-town friend or relative where you can take your pets in an evacuation. Local animal shelters may be able to offer advice on what to do with your pets if you are asked to evacuate your home.

Gather emergency supplies.

During and after a hurricane, you may need supplies to keep your family safe and healthy. Remember that a hurricane could cut off your power and water supply. You also may not be able to drive because of damage to your car. Roads may be flooded or blocked.

That's why it's best to be prepared-stock up on everything you might need now. Be sure to prepare the following:

Know the difference between a hurricane "watch" and "warning."

Listen for National Weather Service alerts on TV or radio or check for them online. There are two kinds of alerts:

A hurricane watch means hurricane conditions (sustained winds of 74 miles per hour [mph] or higher) are possible in a stated area. Experts announce hurricane watches 48 hours before they expect tropical-storm-force winds (sustained winds of 39 to 73 mph) to start.

A hurricane warning is more serious. It means hurricane-force winds are expected in a stated area. Experts issue these warnings 36 hours before tropical-storm-force winds are expected in the area to give people enough time to prepare for the storm.

For more information about hurricane watches and warnings, check out the National Weather Service's Hurricane Center. If you hear that there is a hurricane watch or warning in your area, you can take steps to get ready.

Get your car ready.

Make sure your car is ready before the storm hits.

Fill your car's gas tank.

Move cars and trucks into your garage or under cover.

Always keep an emergency kit in your car.

Visit Ready.gov for information on how to prepare your car and what to include in your kit.

If you don't own a car, consider making plans with friends or family or call authorities to get a ride if you need to evacuate.

Get your family and pets ready.

Go over your emergency plan with your family.

Keep checking for updates about the storm. Watch TV, listen to the radio, or check online.

Call the hospital, public health department, or the police about special needs. If you or a loved one is older or disabled and won't be able to leave quickly, get advice on what to do.

Put pets and farm animals in a safe place. Read more about pet safety during an emergency.

Get your home ready.

Clear your yard. Make sure there's nothing that could blow around during the storm and damage your home. Move bikes, lawn furniture, grills, propane tanks, and building material inside or under shelter.

Cover up windows and doors. Use storm shutters or nail pieces of plywood to the outside window frames to protect your windows. This can help keep you safe from pieces of shattered glass.

Be ready to turn off your power. If you see flooding, downed power lines, or you have to leave your home, switch your power off.

Fill clean water containers with drinking water. You'll want to do this in case you lose your water supply during the storm. You can also fill up your sinks and bathtubs with water for washing.

Check your carbon monoxide (CO) detector's battery to prevent CO poisoning

Be ready to evacuate or stay at home.

Always listen to authorities regarding whether you should evacuate or stay at home.

If a hurricane is coming, you may hear an order from authorities to evacuate (leave your home). Never ignore an order to evacuate. Even sturdy, well-built houses may not hold up against a hurricane. Staying home to protect your property is not worth risking your health and safety.

You may hear an order to stay at home. If driving conditions are dangerous, staying at home might be safer than leaving.
If you need to evacuate:

Grab your emergency supply kit and only take what you really need with you (cell phone, chargers, medicines, identification like a passport or license, and cash).

Unplug your appliances. If you have time, turn off the gas, electricity, and water.

Follow the roads that emergency workers recommend even if there's traffic. Other routes might be blocked or flooded. Never drive through flooded areas-cars and other vehicles can be swept away or may stall in just 6 inches of moving water.

Contact your local emergency management office and ask if they offer accommodations for owners and their pets. Learn more about evacuating with your pet.

If you need to stay home:

Keep your emergency supply kit in a place you can easily access.

Listen to the radio or TV for updates on the hurricane.

Stay inside. Even if it looks calm, don't go outside. Wait until you hear or see an official message that the hurricane is over. Sometimes, weather gets calm in the middle of a storm but then quickly gets bad again.

Stay away from windows-you could get hurt by pieces of broken glass or flying debris during a storm. Stay in a room with no windows, or go inside a closet.

Be ready to leave. If emergency authorities order you to leave or if your home is damaged, you may need to go to a shelter or a neighbor's house.

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how to find pet shelters in an evacuation

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centers for disease control and prevention

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Preparing for a Hurricane or Other Tropical Storm

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Hurricane season starts on May 15 in the north Pacific and June 1 in the Atlantic and the Caribbean. Before hurricane season each year, make sure you are prepared. Learn the basics about making a hurricane plan, buying supplies, evacuating, and getting your home ready. Provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

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New York is building a wall to hold back the ocean

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How To Board Up Windows with Plywood | HURRICANE PREP

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FloodBreak passive flood barriers deploy automatically at customer location - January 2013

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New York is building a wall to hold back the ocean

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PS Flood Barriers. Solutions that Hold Water.

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Winter storms or snowstorms happen when warm, wet air meets with cold air. The warm, wet air mass and the cold air mass can each be 1000 km or more in diameter. Snowstorms affecting Northeastern United States often get their moisture from air moving north from the Gulf of Mexico and cold air from air masses coming down from the Arctic. In the Northwest United States warm, wet air from the Pacific Ocean cools when it is pushed upward by the mountains. Many different things can affect the direction of movement, moisture content and temperature of air masses. All of these differences affect the type and severity of the snowstorm.

Winter storms and blizzards can make several feet of snow that blow into big drifts. Sometimes the drifts can be over ten feet tall. They could even cover a house.

Lots of popular winter storms are part of North America's history. In 1846 the Donner Party traveled away by covered wagons from Illinois headed for Sutter's Fort near Sacramento, California. As an answer of bad decisions and slow going, they tried to go across the big Sierra Nevada Mountains in the late October. Usually, California is still warm at that time of the year. As the party crossed the Sierra Nevada Mountains, they did not see any snow and was not worried. However, after they left, a huge snowstorm hit. The party was forced to camp near Truckee, California. The snow was so deep that the wagon wheels became stuck, so they could not move anyplace. They tried to wait the storm out, but when one blizzard ended, another began immediately before they had time to escape. Their food became short, so some of the people decided to hike out and find help rather than to starve to death. Most of them died in the freezing weather, and many of those who stayed behind in the camp survived. Of the 87 people who started in Illinois, only 47 lived.

Images for kids

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Winter storms or snowstorms happen when warm, wet air meets with cold air. The warm, wet air mass and the cold air mass can each be 1000 km or more in diameter. Snowstorms affecting Northeastern United States often get their moisture from air moving north from the Gulf of Mexico and cold air from air masses coming down from the Arctic.

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"Did you know? Blizzards are actually important for our water supply! When a blizzard drops lots of snow in the mountains, that snow slowly melts in spring and fills up rivers and reservoirs. In the western United States, up to 75% of drinking water starts as mountain snowpack. So even though blizzards cause problems, they help make sure people have enough water all year long!"

Source: Water Calculator / Winter Wildlands Alliance — snowpack provides 60–80% of freshwater in many western states

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The temperature outside is below freezing, the winds are howling, and you can barely see the tree in your front yard. A large amount of snow has been falling for more than three hours-a blizzard is under way.

According to the National Weather Service, blizzards are snowstorms with winds higher than 35 miles an hour and visibility (meaning, how far you can see) of less than a quarter mile. Winds from a blizzard can travel over 120 miles an hour-that's faster than a cheetah, the world's fastest land animal.

These conditions can be dangerous-low visibility can cause drivers to crash on roads, and high winds can topple power lines, which means some homes will be without heat. Large amounts of snowfall can trap people inside their homes. And those stuck outside in freezing temperatures can face frostbite or hypothermia, a condition in which your body temperature becomes dangerously low.

Learn more about these dangerous winter storms-and what to do if one comes your way.

How blizzards develop

Before you can have a blizzard, you first need snow. And for snow, you need clouds.

Clouds form when part of the air becomes cold enough that water vapor, which is the gas form of water, condenses and becomes tiny water droplets that form around things like dust and sea salt. When those droplets collect more water, they fall as rain. At temperatures between about minus 40°F and 32°F, the water droplets crystallize. When enough crystals stick together, they form snowflakes and fall to the ground.

What makes a snowstorm a blizzard is strong wind. First, warm air from the Equator mixes with cold air from the Arctic. Wind forms when warm air rises over the cold air; the faster the warm air rises over the cold air, the stronger the wind becomes.

Another type of winter storm is called a ground blizzard. This is when gusty winds-often 50 to 60 miles an hour-lift up snow that's already on the ground. Both types of blizzards can cause whiteouts, a condition in which so much snow is blowing so fast that it's hard to see anything. Sometimes you can't even tell the difference between the sky and the ground!

Blizzards in the future

Blizzards occur all over the world. But because they're closer to the Arctic, places like Russia, central and northeastern Asia, northern Europe, Canada, and the northern United States experience more blizzards than other parts of the globe.

And though most blizzards occur during winter, they can happen during other seasons, too. One of the most severe blizzards in the United States-known as the Great Blizzard of '88-happened in March 1888, killing more than 400 people.

Scientists believe that as global temperatures continue to rise because of climate change, blizzards could become more extreme. A warmer atmosphere means more moisture in the air that will eventually fall as snow (or rain); many also believe that warmer temperatures will create higher winds.

How to survive a blizzard

The best way to survive a blizzard is to prepare for extreme weather. Meteorologists use certain words and phrases that will help you know when a blizzard is coming. For instance:

Wind chill factor: This is what the temperature feels like outside, even if the real temperature is higher. Blizzards usually have wind chill factors of 10°F or lower.
Winter storm outlook or watch: This means that conditions are right for a snowstorm or blizzard to form.
Winter weather advisory: This means that dangerous winter weather is happening, which could be a blizzard.

Learn more about ways you can protect your family from dangerous winter weather.
Before a blizzard:
* Ask your parents to "winterize" your house: Check that heating sources are clean and working, and make sure windows are insulated so cold air can't come in. (If they're not, apply plastic sheets on the inside.)
* If you have a fireplace, stock up on firewood or coal.
* Make sure your family has a home emergency kit: water (at least a gallon for each person per day for several days), food (non-perishable or canned items for several days), flashlight, extra batteries, first-aid kit, manual can opener, local maps, battery-powered radio, and cell phone with a backup battery.
* Charge devices like cell phones.
During a blizzard:
* Listen to local radio or news for updated weather information.
* Layer up if you lose power. Try a t-shirt under a long-sleeved shirt under a sweater under a coat. That way you can take off items if you start to sweat. (Being cold and wet will just make you colder!) Other must-haves: two pairs of socks, mittens instead of gloves, a thick scarf, and a hat.
* Drink lots of water-or hot cocoa, or tea, or whatever-to stay hydrated. You might not think you need as much liquid in the winter as you do in summer, but staying hydrated helps your body generate enough heat to maintain a healthy body temperature.
* Evacuate only if you lose power and your home becomes too cold to stay in. Try to find a shelter-like a nearby school or library-that has heat and electricity.
If you must leave your house:
* Try to travel during the day when visibility will be better.
* Load up on blankets, canned fruits, bottles of water, and warm fluids in a thermos; bring an external battery in case you need to recharge your cell phone.
* Don't forget the layers!
* If you get stuck in your car, huddle with your companions for extra warmth.
* If you're caught outside, huddle together against a tree or a rock ledge to block the wind, and do not sit down on snow. (Your non-frozen butt will thank you.) And don't eat the snow-that could dangerously lower your body temperature.
* If you or your companions show signs of hypothermia or frostbite (shivering, feeling very tired, confusion, drowsiness, memory loss, slurred speech), seek help immediately.

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Learn how these winter snowstorms form-and how you can stay safe if one blows your way.

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Nor’easter Survival Guide: How To Prepare Your Home For The Blizzard | TODAy

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High-tech snowplows and AI help cities clean up from big storms

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Cities across the U.S. have been integrating video monitoring, GPS mapping and artificial intelligence into snow removal operations that once relied almost entirely on manual planning.

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Earthquake engineering is the study of the behavior of building structures subject to earthquake impacts. It is a subset of civil engineering.

Objectives of the earthquake engineering

The main goals of earthquake engineering are:

Understand what happens between buildings and the ground.

Understand what strong earthquakes or tsunamis might do to building structures.

Design, build and maintain structures to last during an earthquake while following building codes.

A properly engineered structure does not necessarily have to be extremely strong or expensive.

The most powerful and affordable tools of earthquake engineering are vibration control technologies and, in particular, base isolation.

To test seismic performance of a building structure with experiments, it is may be put on a shake-table that behaves like the earth shaking. The earliest shake-table experiments were performed more than a century ago

Tsunami preparedness and protection

Tsunami or a chain of fast moving waves in the ocean caused, mostly, by powerful earthquakes is a very serious challenge for people's safety and for tsunami protection of buildings and civil infrastructure. Those waves can flood coastal areas, destroy houses and even swipe away whole towns.

Though tsunami can not be prevented, there are warning systems developed recently which warn the population before the big waves reach the land to let them enough time to rush to safety.

Seismic design

Seismic design is based on authorized engineering procedures, principles and criteria meant to design or retrofit structures subject to earthquake exposure. Those criteria are only consistent with the contemporary state of the knowledge about earthquake engineering structures. Therefore, a building design which exactly follows seismic code regulations does not guarantee safety against collapse or serious damage.

The price of poor seismic design may be enormous. Nevertheless, seismic design has always been a trial and error process whether it was based on physical laws or on empirical knowledge of the structural performance of different shapes and materials.

To practice seismic design, seismic analysis or seismic evaluation of new and existing civil engineering projects, an engineer should, normally, pass examination on Seismic Principles which, in the State of California, include:

Seismic Data and Seismic Design Criteria

Seismic Characteristics of Engineered Systems

Seismic Forces

Seismic Analysis Procedures

Seismic Detailing and Construction Quality Control

To build up complex structural systems, seismic design largely uses the same relatively small number of basic structural elements (to say nothing of vibration control devices) as any non-seismic design project.

Normally, according to building codes, structures are designed to "withstand" the largest earthquake of a certain probability that is likely to occur at their location. This means the loss of life should be minimized by preventing collapse of the buildings.

Seismic design is carried out by understanding the possible failure modes of a structure and providing the structure with appropriate strength, stiffness, ductility, and configuration to ensure those modes cannot occur.

Seismic design requirements

Seismic design requirements depend on the type of the structure, locality of the project and its authorities which stipulate applicable seismic design codes and criteria. For instance, California Department of Transportation's requirements called The Seismic Design Criteria (SDC) and aimed at the design of new bridges in California incorporate an innovative seismic performance-based approach.

The most significant feature in the SDC design philosophy is a shift from a force-based assessment of seismic demand to a displacement-based assessment of demand and capacity. Thus, the newly adopted displacement approach is based on comparing the elastic displacement demand to the inelastic displacement capacity of the primary structural components while ensuring a minimum level of inelastic capacity at all potential plastic hinge locations.

In addition to the designed structure itself, seismic design requirements may include a ground stabilization underneath the structure: sometimes, heavily shaken ground breaks up which leads to collapse of the structure sitting upon it. The following topics should be of primary concerns: liquefaction; dynamic lateral earth pressures on retaining walls; seismic slope stability; earthquake-induced settlement.

Nuclear facilities should not jeopardise their safety in case of earthquakes or other hostile external events. Therefore, their seismic design is based on criteria far more stringent than those applying to non-nuclear facilities. The Fukushima I nuclear accidents and damage to other nuclear facilities that followed the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami have, however, drawn attention to ongoing concerns over Japanese nuclear seismic design standards and caused other many governments to re-evaluate their nuclear programs. Doubt has also been expressed over the seismic evaluation and design of certain other plants, including the Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant in France.

Failure modes

Failure mode is the manner by which an earthquake induced failure is observed. It, generally, describes the way the failure occurs. Though costly and time consuming, learning from each real earthquake failure remains a routine recipe for advancement in seismic design methods. Below, some typical modes of earthquake-generated failures are presented.

The lack of reinforcement coupled with poor mortar and inadequate roof-to-wall ties can result in substantial damage to an unreinforced masonry building. Severely cracked or leaning walls are some of the most common earthquake damage. Also hazardous is the damage that may occur between the walls and roof or floor diaphragms. Separation between the framing and the walls can jeopardize the vertical support of roof and floor systems.

Soft story effect. Absence of adequate stiffness on the ground level caused damage to this structure. A close examination of the image reveals that the rough board siding, once covered by a brick veneer, has been completely dismantled from the studwall. Only the rigidity of the floor above combined with the support on the two hidden sides by continuous walls, not penetrated with large doors as on the street sides, is preventing full collapse of the structure.

Soil liquefaction. In the cases where the soil consists of loose granular deposited materials with the tendency to develop excessive hydrostatic pore water pressure of sufficient magnitude and compact, liquefaction of those loose saturated deposits may result in non-uniform settlements and tilting of structures. This caused major damage to thousands of buildings in Niigata, Japan during the 1964 earthquake.

Landslide rock fall. A landslide is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement, including rock falls. Typically, the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur though in this case there was another contributing factor which affected the original slope stability: the landslide required an earthquake trigger before being released.

Pounding against adjacent building. This is a photograph of the collapsed five-story tower, St. Joseph's Seminary, Los Altos, California which resulted in one fatality. During Loma Prieta earthquake, the tower pounded against the independently vibrating adjacent building behind. A possibility of pounding depends on both buildings' lateral displacements which should be accurately estimated and accounted for.

At Northridge earthquake, the Kaiser Permanente concrete frame office building had joints completely shattered, revealing inadequate confinement steel, which resulted in the second story collapse. In the transverse direction, composite end shear walls, consisting of two wythes of brick and a layer of shotcrete that carried the lateral load, peeled apart because of inadequate through-ties and failed.

Improper construction site on a foothill.

Poor detailing of the reinforcement (lack of concrete confinement in the columns and at the beam-column joints, inadequate splice length).

Seismically weak soft story at the first floor.

Long cantilevers with heavy dead load.

Sliding off foundations effect of a relatively rigid residential building structure during 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake. The magnitude 5.9 earthquake pounded the Garvey West Apartment building in Monterey Park, California and shifted its superstructure about 10 inches to the east on its foundation.

If a superstructure is not mounted on a base isolation system, its shifting on the basement should be prevented.

Re inforced concrete column burst at Northridge earthquake due to insufficient shear reinforcement mode which allows main reinforcement to buckle outwards. The deck unseated at the hinge and failed in shear. As a result, the La Cienega-Venice underpass section of the 10 Freeway collapsed.

Loma Prieta earthquake: side view of reinforced concrete support-columns failure which triggered the upper deck collapse onto the lower deck of the two-level Cypress viaduct of Interstate Highway 880, Oakland, CA.

Retaining wall failure at Loma Prieta earthquake in Santa Cruz Mountains area: prominent northwest-trending extensional cracks up to 12 cm (4.7 in) wide in the concrete spillway to Austrian Dam, the north abutment.

Ground shaking triggered soil liquefaction in a subsurface layer of sand, producing differential lateral and vertical movement in an overlying carapace of unliquified sand and silt. This mode of ground failure, termed lateral spreading, is a principal cause of liquefaction-related earthquake damage.

Severely damaged building of Agriculture Development Bank of China after 2008 Sichuan earthquake: most of the beams and pier columns are sheared. Large diagonal cracks in masonry and veneer are due to in-plane loads while abrupt settlement of the right end of the building should be attributed to a landfill which may be hazardous even without any earthquake.

Twofold tsunami impact: sea waves hydraulic pressure and inundation. Thus, the Indian Ocean earthquake of December 26, 2004, with the epicenter off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, triggered a series of devastating tsunamis, killing more than 230,000 people in eleven countries by inundating surrounding coastal communities with huge waves up to 30 meters (100 feet) high.

Earthquake-resistant construction

Earthquake construction means implementation of seismic design to enable building and non-building structures to live through the anticipated earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with the applicable building codes.

Design and construction are intimately related. To achieve a good workmanship, detailing of the members and their connections should be as simple as possible. As any construction in general, earthquake construction is a process that consists of the building, retrofitting or assembling of infrastructure given the construction materials available.

The destabilizing action of an earthquake on constructions may be direct (seismic motion of the ground) or indirect (earthquake-induced landslides, soil liquefaction and waves of tsunami).

A structure might have all the appearances of stability, yet offer nothing but danger when an earthquake occurs. The crucial fact is that, for safety, earthquake-resistant construction techniques are as important as quality control and using correct materials. Earthquake contractor should be registered in the state/province/country of the project location (depending on local regulations), bonded and insured .

To minimize possible losses, construction process should be organized with keeping in mind that earthquake may strike any time prior to the end of construction.

Each construction project requires a qualified team of professionals who understand the basic features of seismic performance of different structures as well as construction management.

Adobe structures

Around thirty percent of the world's population lives or works in earth-made construction. Adobe type of mud bricks is one of the oldest and most widely used building materials. The use of adobe is very common in some of the world's most hazard-prone regions, traditionally across Latin America, Africa, Indian subcontinent and other parts of Asia, Middle East and Southern Europe.

Adobe buildings are considered very vulnerable at strong quakes. However, multiple ways of seismic strengthening of new and existing adobe buildings are available.

Key factors for the improved seismic performance of adobe construction are:

Quality of construction.

Compact, box-type layout.

Seismic reinforcement.

Limestone and sandstone structures

Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in North America and Europe. Many landmarks across the world are made of limestone. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone and sandstone masonry. They are the long-lasting materials but their rather heavy weight is not beneficial for adequate seismic performance.

Application of modern technology to seismic retrofitting can enhance the survivability of unreinforced masonry structures. As an example, from 1973 to 1989, the Salt Lake City and County Building in Utah was exhaustively renovated and repaired with an emphasis on preserving historical accuracy in appearance. This was done in concert with a seismic upgrade that placed the weak sandstone structure on base isolation foundation to better protect it from earthquake damage.

Timber frame structures

Timber framing dates back thousands of years, and has been used in many parts of the world during various periods such as ancient Japan, Europe and medieval England in localities where timber was in good supply and building stone and the skills to work it were not.

The use of timber framing in buildings provides their complete skeletal framing which offers some structural benefits as the timber frame, if properly engineered, lends itself to better seismic survivability.

Light-frame structures

Light-frame structures usually gain seismic resistance from rigid plywood shear walls and wood structural panel diaphragms. Special provisions for seismic load-resisting systems for all engineered wood structures requires consideration of diaphragm ratios, horizontal and vertical diaphragm shears, and connector/ fastener values. In addition, collectors, or drag struts, to distribute shear along a diaphragm length are required.

Reinforced masonry structures

A construction system where steel reinforcement is embedded in the mortar joints of masonry or placed in holes and after filled with concrete or grout is called reinforced masonry.

The devastating 1933 Long Beach earthquake revealed that masonry construction should be improved immediately. Then, the California State Code made the reinforced masonry mandatory.

There are various practices and techniques to achieve reinforced masonry. The most common type is the reinforced hollow unit masonry. The effectiveness of both vertical and horizontal reinforcement strongly depends on the type and quality of the masonry, i.e. masonry units and mortar.

To achieve a ductile behavior of masonry, it is necessary that the shear strength of the wall is greater than the flexural strength.

Reinforced concrete structures

Reinforced concrete is concrete in which steel reinforcement bars (rebars) or fibers have been incorporated to strengthen a material that would otherwise be brittle. It can be used to produce beams, columns, floors or bridges.

Prestressed concrete is a kind of reinforced concrete used for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be applied to beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load which produces a compressive stress that offsets the tensile stress that the concrete compression member would, otherwise, experience due to a bending load.

To prevent catastrophic collapse in response earth shaking (in the interest of life safety), a traditional reinforced concrete frame should have ductile joints. Depending upon the methods used and the imposed seismic forces, such buildings may be immediately usable, require extensive repair, or may have to be demolished.

Prestressed structures

Prestressed structure is the one whose overall integrity, stability and security depend, primarily, on a prestressing. Prestressing means the intentional creation of permanent stresses in a structure for the purpose of improving its performance under various service conditions.

There are the following basic types of prestressing:

Pre-compression (mostly, with the own weight of a structure)

Pretensioning with high-strength embedded tendons

Post-tensioning with high-strength bonded or unbonded tendons

Today, the concept of prestressed structure is widely engaged in design of buildings, underground structures, TV towers, power stations, floating storage and offshore facilities, nuclear reactor vessels, and numerous kinds of bridge systems.

A beneficial idea of prestressing was, apparently, familiar to the ancient Rome architects; look, e.g., at the tall attic wall of Colosseum working as a stabilizing device for the wall piers beneath.

Steel structures

Steel structures are considered mostly earthquake resistant but some failures have occurred. A great number of welded steel moment-resisting frame buildings, which looked earthquake-proof, surprisingly experienced brittle behavior and were hazardously damaged in the 1994 Northridge earthquake. After that, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) initiated development of repair techniques and new design approaches to minimize damage to steel moment frame buildings in future earthquakes.

For structural steel seismic design based on Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) approach, it is very important to assess ability of a structure to develop and maintain its bearing resistance in the inelastic range. A measure of this ability is ductility, which may be observed in a material itself, in a structural element, or to a whole structure.

As a consequence of Northridge earthquake experience, the American Institute of Steel Construction has introduced AISC 358 "Pre-Qualified Connections for Special and intermediate Steel Moment Frames." The AISC Seismic Design Provisions require that all Steel Moment Resisting Frames employ either connections contained in AISC 358, or the use of connections that have been subjected to pre-qualifying cyclic testing.

Prediction of earthquake losses

Earthquake loss estimation is usually defined as a Damage Ratio ( DR) which is a ratio of the earthquake damage repair cost to the total value of a building. Probable Maximum Loss ( PML) is a common term used for earthquake loss estimation, but it lacks a precise definition. In 1999, ASTM E2026 'Standard Guide for the Estimation of Building Damageability in Earthquakes' was produced in order to standardize the nomenclature for seismic loss estimation, as well as establish guidelines as to the review process and qualifications of the reviewer.

Earthquake loss estimations are also referred to as Seismic Risk Assessments. The risk assessment process generally involves determining the probability of various ground motions coupled with the vulnerability or damage of the building under those ground motions. The results are defined as a percent of building replacement value.

Images for kids

In Spanish: Ingeniería sísmica para niños

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Learn Earthquake engineering facts for kids

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When it comes to flooding, there are essentially two ways to approach it: prevention or protection.

Preventing floods involves proper urban planning, proper sea-wall construction, and proper home-building practices. Even with all of the prevention that goes into modern infrastructure, there are many cases where prevention just doesn't cut it.
RELATED: GOOGLE TAKES ITS FLOOD PREDICTION TOOLS FOR INDIA TO THE NEXT LEVEL
In those cases, what we need is protection. This can involve equipment like sandbags, or building temporary flood barriers, and the likes. Let's examine seven different possible solutions to prevent and minimize the risk of flooding.

1. The rapid response water-gate

When flooding is imminent, you often need a barrier to protect yourself. Sandbags serve this task in many scenarios, but they may require a significant amount of preparation and set-up time, plus it's cumbersome to carry around. A device known as the water-gate can be a useful alternative. This is a rapidly deployable device made of a PVC material. It utilizes the pressure of oncoming water to stabilize itself. This essentially means that the floodwaters are used to build their own dam.
RELATED: VENICE MOSE FLOOD SYSTEM FINALLY COMES INTO OPERATION
Because the device leverages lightweight PVC and a design that leans on the water pressure to inflate it, the device itself is very compact and can be deployed by a single person in a matter of minutes to hours depending upon the size.

By surrounding a structure with the water-gate, a makeshift dam is created around the building. It's also completely reusable, so it's a great option for those living in a region at risk of flooding.

2. The Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier in the Netherlands

Netherlands' Deltaworks system is one of the most comprehensive flood protection systems in the entire world. This complex network of flood barrier infrastructure comes as a result of the country sitting almost entirely below sea level.

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7 Inventions and Ideas to Stop Flooding and Mitigate its Effects

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When it comes to flooding, there are essentially two ways to approach it: prevention or protection. Preventing floods involves proper urban planning, proper sea-wall construction, and proper home-building practices. Even with all of the prevention that goes into modern infrastructure, there are many cases where prevention just doesn't cut it.

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Deeper Reading: Miscellaneous Tsunami Info

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Deeper Reading: Miscellaneous Tsunami Info

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While tsunamis came to the forefront of the world's attention when the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami hit the coast of Sumatra, they have taken place several times in the past. There are very destructive and deadliest tsunamis in terms of loss of lives caused by them or magnitude.
Sumatra, Indonesia - 26 December 2004
A colossal earthquake with a 9.1 magnitude struck the coast of Sumatra on December 26, 2004 resulting in an ensuing tsunami which killed an estimated 230,000 people and caused US$10b in property damage. Known as the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, this tsunami reached to a height of 50 m and travelled 5 km inland near Meubolah, Sumatra and caused destruction in as a many as 14 countries.
Lisbon, Portugal -1 November 1755
The colossal earthquake that took place in Lisbon in 1755, registered 9.0 on the Richter scale. That quake in this coastal city of Portugal and much of Europe triggered a tsunami that killed as many as 100,000 people in Portugal, Spain and Morocco. The incident cased extensive damage to Lisbon which lost one fourth of its populace. The famous philosopher Voltaire penned a poem on this colossal loss of life.
North Pacific Coast, Japan - 11 March 2011
A powerful tsunami generated by an earthquake of 9.0 magnitude over the east coast of Japan resulting in the death of over 18,000 people. According to the estimates of the World Bank, it will take five years to financially overcome the $235 billion damages.
Prince William Sound, Alaska - 27 March, 1964
The Alaskan Good Friday earthquake which is considered to be the largest one in North America resulted in a tsunami that travelled at a speed of over 400 mph. Though the loss of life was just more than 100 people, the tsunami caused extensive damage to large parts of the Alaskan coastline. The earthquake had a magnitude of 9.2.
Krakatau, Indonesia - 27 August 1883
Eruptions from the Krakatau caldera volcano triggered tsunamis and shockwaves that killed about 40,000 people. Several waves as high as 37 m swept the Indonesian Islands of southern Sumatra and western Java and destroyed the towns of Merak and Anjer.

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While tsunamis came to the forefront of the world's attention when the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami hit the coast of Sumatra, they have taken place several times in the past. There are very destructive and deadliest tsunamis in terms of loss of lives caused by them or magnitude.

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Flooding is a pervasive problem and one that is becoming worse as the world heats up. From the rising sea levels due to melting arctic ice to extreme weather events causing monster storms, populations along coastlines and in flood plains face flood threats like those never before seen.

When it comes to flooding, there are essentially two ways to approach it: prevention or protection.

Preventing floods involves proper urban planning, proper sea-wall construction, and proper home-building practices. Even with all of the prevention that goes into modern infrastructure, there are many cases where prevention just doesn't cut it.
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In those cases, what we need is protection. This can involve equipment like sandbags, or building temporary flood barriers, and the likes. Let's examine seven different possible solutions to prevent and minimize the risk of flooding.

1. The rapid response water-gate

When flooding is imminent, you often need a barrier to protect yourself. Sandbags serve this task in many scenarios, but they may require a significant amount of preparation and set-up time, plus it's cumbersome to carry around. A device known as the water-gate can be a useful alternative. This is a rapidly deployable device made of a PVC material. It utilizes the pressure of oncoming water to stabilize itself. This essentially means that the floodwaters are used to build their own dam.
RELATED: VENICE MOSE FLOOD SYSTEM FINALLY COMES INTO OPERATION
Because the device leverages lightweight PVC and a design that leans on the water pressure to inflate it, the device itself is very compact and can be deployed by a single person in a matter of minutes to hours depending upon the size.

By surrounding a structure with the water-gate, a makeshift dam is created around the building. It's also completely reusable, so it's a great option for those living in a region at risk of flooding.

2. The Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier in the Netherlands

Netherlands' Deltaworks system is one of the most comprehensive flood protection systems in the entire world. This complex network of flood barrier infrastructure comes as a result of the country sitting almost entirely below sea level.

One notable barrier that stands as part of the Deltaworks is the Maeslantkering, otherwise known as the Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier. This Barrier was finished in 1997 and today it is still one of the largest moving structures in the entire world.

As water rises in the surrounding area, sensors trigger the walls to close and water tanks to fill along the barrier. This water weight causes the walls to push firmly down on their foundation, keeping floodwaters from breaching the gates.

3. Aquobex flood guard

We've spent some time discussing larger-scale barriers. For a smaller-scale appliance, we have the Aquobex entry barrier system. It's a small-scale dam that is designed to seal off doorways and entrances to buildings. By creating a seal with the surrounding surfaces, the rising water is kept from coming into the structure when these barriers are applied to all of the building's entryways.

The barrier is completely reusable and can be quickly deployed in times of emergency.

4. The Thames Barrier

Flooding along the Thames River in England has been a persistent problem throughout its history. To combat this, engineers have designed a movable barrier system that is made of hollow steel. These structures form water gates that in times of high flooding can be revolved shut to stop water from flowing through. This design allows ships and other water traffic to pass through with ease during normal times, but authorities can still form it into a barrier quickly when a flood is looming.

These structures have been in place since construction was completed on them in 1984 and have since been used over 100 times to protect the surrounding area from destruction.

A look at how the WIPP protects the entry to a building. Source: Hydroresponse

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7 Inventions and Ideas to Stop Flooding and Mitigate its Effects

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Flooding is a pervasive problem and one that is becoming worse as the world heats up. From the rising sea levels due to melting arctic ice to extreme weather events causing monster storms, populations along coastlines and in flood plains face flood threats like those never before seen.

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Blizzard survival guide: These tips could help save your life

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These tools, tips and essential winter kit items could help save your life if you're ever stranded in a blizzard.

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Deeper Reading: Miscellaneous Earthquake Reading

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Deeper Reading: Miscellaneous Earthquake Reading

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According to the United States Geological Survey, scientists at the National Earthquake Information Center record more than 20,000 earthquakes each year, and estimate that millions occur globally. Many earthquakes are small and barely noticeable. However, some earthquakes, such as Japan's 2011 earthquake, can unleash devastating amounts of energy, killing thousands of people and destroying large areas of land. Despite this devastation, earthquakes can also have positive benefits for humans.

Measuring small earthquakes allows geologists to study areas underground. Geologists can measure the way that the vibrations of earthquakes travel and make inferences about the type of material the vibrations pass through. Geologists can find water aquifers, oil and natural gas deposits and other important resources based on information they gain from earthquakes. Geologists can also measure the size and extent of these resources to better understand exactly how large the deposits are.

Earthquakes are the earth's way of releasing energy stored in plate tectonics as they move. If plate tectonics could not move, the world would look dramatically different, with no mountains and distinctly smaller oceans. As plate tectonics move, it naturally cycles materials from the mantle of the earth. The seafloor that new material creates harbors thousands of species of plants and animals, which themselves play important roles in the human ecosystem by doing things like absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen through photosynthesis. Without the movement that allows earthquakes, none of this could occur on the earth.

Major earthquakes can kill thousands of people. The earthquake off the coast of Indonesia in 2008 released a tsunami that killed more than 280,000 people. The 2010 earthquake in Haiti killed more than 230,000 people. Earthquakes can be especially deadly for developing areas because they often do not have stringent construction standards and technology that would protect people.

In addition to the death toll, earthquakes can cost billions of dollars in damage to repair. The 2011 Japanese earthquake will cost approximately $232 billion dollars to repair. The damage the 2004 Indonesian earthquake wrought is estimated at $8.4 billion dollars. In addition to physical damage, the destroyed infrastructure may cause the economies of the affected areas to suffer. Again, areas with poor building standards suffer the most, although as evidenced by the case of Japan, earthquakes can devastate developed economies as well.

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Positive and Negative Effects of Earthquakes

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According to the United States Geological Survey, scientists at the National Earthquake Information Center record more than 20,000 earthquakes each year, and estimate that millions occur globally. Many earthquakes are small and barely noticeable. However, some earthquakes, such as Japan's 2011 earthquake, can unleash devastating amounts of energy, killing thousands of people and destroying large areas of land.

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Deeper Reading: Miscellaneous Wildfire Info

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Deeper Reading: Miscellaneous Wildfire Info