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Colombia’s Goal: More Success in Higher Education, More Opportunities for Youth

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Colombia’s Goal: More Success in Higher Education, More Opportunities for Youth

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Investing in education and youth now can define the future of a nation. In Colombia, young people represent almost 30% of the working age population - a huge potential and opportunity for the country's development.

And as around 17% of young Colombians are unemployed, according to official statistics, quality education and training in skills that potential employers seek seems crucial.

The government has set a goal: by 2014, half of the young Colombians should continue their studies or training after high school. In 2010, only 37.2% did so.

Until then, although coverage has increased over the years, there are quite a few hurdles to overcome.

A newly released report "Reviews of National Policies for Education: Tertiary Education in Colombia" led by Ian Whitman from the OECD and Michael Crawford from the World Bank, analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of the Colombian tertiary education system and how it could be improved and made accessible to more people, regardless of their social condition or where they live.
On track with international standards, but high drop-out rates
In general, top Colombian universities and other institutions are making notable progress in access and quality, and are on track with international standards.

Moreover, the options that young people have are diverse: they can choose between technical training or a private or public university path, the study points out. The government aims at increasing the percentage of students who take the technical path to 45%.

However, 45.4% of students had dropped out of tertiary education in 2010. And 39% of young Colombians never continued studying after secondary school.

Why is that? Part of the answer lies in secondary school - students' results were low at the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a test that compares what 15-year-olds know in different countries.

In mathematics, Colombian youngsters lagged 3 years of schooling behind an average French student, and in reading, 2 years behind an average British student. Although Colombia's PISA score increased between 2006 and 2009, there is still much room for improvement.

"The academic standards Colombian students have achieved by the time they enter tertiary education are generally low in comparison with other countries. This lack of "college-readiness" leads to academic struggle and high dropout, with the least advantaged students the worst affected," the authors of the study explain. And that will have dire consequences on their future jobs, wages and life quality.

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Colombia's Goal: More Success in Higher Education, More Opportunities for Youth

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Investing in education and youth now can define the future of a nation. In Colombia, young people represent almost 30% of the working age population - a huge potential and opportunity for the country's development. And as around 17% of young Colombians are unemployed, according to official statistics, quality education and training in skills that potential employers seek seems crucial.

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Orientation

Identification. Since declaring independence on 20 July 1810 and achieving it in 1819, Colombia has changed its name seven times. Regional cultural traditions are diverse, with a broad range of distinct groups that have unique customs, accents, social patterns, and cultural adaptations. These groups are classified into three cultures: those in the interior, the countryside, and the coastal regions. Only during elections, sporting events, and beauty pageants do the regional cultures unite for a common goal.

Location and Geography. Covering about 440,000 square miles (1.14 million square kilometers), Colombia has coast on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Lowland coastal areas give way to rain forest, the Andes, and the Inland Ilanos (plains).

Colombia is connected to Central America by the Isthmus of Panama. It contains several small islands in the Atlantic, including San Andrea and Providencia, and in the Pacific, the Malpelo and Gorgona islands have been set aside as natural wildlife reserves. Colombia borders Ecuador and Peru to the south, Brazil and Venezuela to the east, and Panama to the northwest.

The Atlantic or Caribbean coastal lowlands receive less rainfall than the area along the Pacific. Many industries are located within this area, along with 20 percent of the population. The fertile land supports banana and sugarcane plantations along with cattle ranches. Lush rain forest and swamps characterize the Pacific lowlands. Because of the abundant rainfall and poor soil quality, few people inhabit this region.

The three Andean Cordilleras (mountain ranges) running the entire length of the country from the north to the south, occupy only 30 percent of the landmass. Most of the population lives in the inland Andean region, which begins along the Caribbean coast near Venezuela. Climatic effects are accentuated on the high elevations of these mountain ranges. The hot zone is marked by heavy annual rainfall along the Pacific coast. The temperate zone, in which 40 percent of the population lives, has moderate rainfall and moderate temperatures.

The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone usually are referred to as paramos (high plains), above which begin the nevados (snowcapped peaks). The cold zone receives heavy rainfall during the wet seasons from April to June and September to December. The northern end of this range is characterized by volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Despite the tectonic activity, almost 80 percent of the population lives in the Andeanregion.The highlands to the east of the Magdalena Valley include Cundinamarca, where Bogota, the capital, is located. Set in the central range to the west of the Magdalena are two of the most important cities: Medellín (the second largest city) and Manizales. Farther to the south in the Cauca Valley is Cali, the third largest city, which has some of the richest farmland. This area contains some of the richest mineral deposits in the world, including gold and emeralds. Coffee plantations are plentiful in the mild climate, which also supports banana, cassava, and coca.

To the east of the Andes is the broad expanse of the Ilanos, which contains more than 60 percent of the land area. The high plateau is striped with tributaries of the Amazon River and rain forest to the south. While few crops are grown in this hot, flat region, the grassland provides ample space to graze cattle.

Colombia has great biodiversity with 1,550 species of birds and over 13,000 species of plants.

Demography. With a population of 42.3 million (30 June 2000), Colombia is a nation of mixed race. It is estimated that about 75 percent of the population is of mixed heritage, with 55 percent of this

group being mestizos, 16 percent mulattoes, and 4 percent zambos . The other 20 percent of the population is of European, African, or Indian ancestry.

Caucasians, mainly descendants of Spaniards, constitute about 20 percent of the population. Antioquia and the coffee region are considered "white" departments or states because of the reluctance of European settlers to mix with blacks or Indians. Black people represent about 4 percent of the total population and live primarily on the Caribbean coast, the historical center of the slave trade. The Indian population, which is estimated to have been between 1.5 and 2 million people in the pre-conquest period, numbers between 300,000 and 400,000. There are over fifty Indian groups, many of which live in relative isolation.

Linguistic Affiliation. The official language is Spanish, which was imposed during the colonial period. All Colombians speak it except some of the indigenous populations in the Amazonian basin. In major cities, English is used, particularly by the upper class, but it is not commonly understood or spoken. Outside urban areas, Spanish is virtually the only medium of communication. Colombia takes great care to preserve the linguistic "purity" of Castilian Spanish. The Colombian Academy of Language was founded in 1871 by a commission from the Spanish Royal Academy of Language; it was the first such body established in Latin America. Colombian Spanish is marked by the presence of numerous cultural expressions. In addition to Spanish, over 200 indigenous languages and dialects are spoken.

Symbolism. Patriotic symbols represent the war of independence and the founding fathers. Francisco Miranda, a Venezuelan, designed the national flag in 1806. Adapting the red and yellow of the Spanish flag, Miranda divided the two colors by a stripe of blue to symbolize the ocean separating the independent country from the motherland. The upper half of the flag is yellow, symbolizing the natural riches of the country, while the lower half is divided into two equal parts of blue and red, with the red symbolizing the blood shed in the war for independence. In 1834, the national shield, Arms of the Republic, was added to the flag to represent the defensive armament used in early battles. Another important national symbol is the condor, which signifies liberty and sovereignty.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. The discovery of the country's coastal lands in 1499, followed by Spanish occupation for the next 300 years, indicates the integral role Spain played in the region's cultural, religious, and political development. In the early part of the 1500s, Spain attempted to control the Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, establishing Santa Marta in 1525 and Cartagena de Indias in 1533. In that year, the conquest of the Incas in Peru gave the Spaniards strategic positions in the north and south for the subjugation and colonization of Colombia. By the middle of the sixteenth century, the Spaniards had established a major foothold in the Americas.

During this period, the Andes were occupied by a number of indigenous groups that ranged from stratified agricultural chiefdoms to tropical farm villages and nomadic hunter-gatherer groups. The social structures of these groups were destroyed during the conquest, as Indians were forced into slavery to exploit the natural riches of the country. As the number of casualties in the Indian population increased due to starvation and disease brought by the conquistadors and to the intense labor of slavery, Spain imported slaves from Africa for gold and silver mining on the Pacific coast. The tri-ethnic composition of the population during this period led to the ethnic terminology still used today. Spaniards were referred to as Peninsulars, while their South-American-born descendants were called criollos (Creoles). Miscegenation produced people of mixed race known to the Spaniards as the castas (castes). These were mestizos from the intermarriage of whites and natives, mulattoes from that of blacks and whites, and zambos from that of blacks and Indians.

Unfair practices and decrees by the Spaniards created a desire for independence. Most traumatic was the practice of encomiendas, an institutionalized system in which Indians were "entrusted" to the care of Spaniards called Encomienderos .These "caretakers" provided the Indians with religious instruction and a livelihood in exchange for their labor. In practice, this system amounted to enslavement.

In 1781, 20,000 Indians and mestizos attempted to march on the capital in what became known as the Comuneros revolt, but the revolt was crushed and its leaders were executed. There was little or no support from the Creole population, but some Creoles were appalled by the brutality of the Spaniards and began to spread the rebellious sentiment. The call for vengeance spread to other provinces, as government officials excluded Creoles from high governmental positions. After several minor uprisings, Colombia achieved independence after the decisive battle of Boyacá on 9 August 1819 under Simon Bolivar, a Creole who joined the patriotic movement in 1810.

National Identity. There is not a unique national culture separate from the cultural influence of colonial Spain. Instead of resisting Spanish cultural influences, most indigenous groups embraced them. Rather than having a common culture, Colombia is a country with many distinct regional cultures.

Ethnic Relations. Past relations with other regional cultures were based on the hierarchical society imposed by Spain, in which the upper echelon of "white" Spaniards enjoyed wealth, power, and prestige while blacks and Indians were at the bottom of the socioeconomic hierarchy. After independence, Creoles quickly replaced Spaniards in the upper echelons of the new society. Qualified mestizos and mulattoes also ascended to high positions, but their inclusion was based on their level of education, wealth, and "whiteness." Colombians continue to identify themselves according to their regional heritage, physical appearance, and socioeconomic status.

Urbanism,Architecture, and the Use of Space

The nation's architecture reflects seventeenth century Spanish colonial origins. Regional differences derive from those in Spain. Thus, hints of Moorish and Castilian architecture are evident in many cities. Many areas have had difficulty maintaining older structures, and the climate has destroyed many Baroque buildings. Some of the architectural gems are the many churches that dot the landscape. The detailed interiors of the country's churches are reflective of the Medieval and Renaissance churches in Spain. Newer buildings in larger cities utilize modern styles with adaptations of the Baroque style supplemented with wood and wrought-iron elements.

In the nineteenth century, a new form of architecture began to develop from the efforts of artisans who incorporated elements of Greek, Roman, and Renaissance art. This style, known as republicano, represented the independence of Colombian art. This movement incorporated cement and steel building materials. Many government buildings follow the republicano architectural style.

In the 1930s, Colombia began to embrace modern architecture. The new Liberal Party government tore down many older buildings to reject the conservative

past. In their place, it constructed modern buildings with an international flavor.

Republicano homes are typically built on a single level with an A-frame roof. Houses in the more crowded cities often have two or more stories and reflect a European influence. Most people lived in single-family dwellings until the migration to urban centers in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The need for adequate housing persuaded the government to invest in high-density public housing projects during the early 1950s. In the poorer areas, large families live in small houses constructed from cinder blocks and covered with an adobe made of clay, cow manure, and hay.

Park space is limited to larger towns and cities that were founded by the Spanish. Parks have areas where social activity is encouraged; long benches are placed close together so that people can have space around them without restricting communication. Few formal parks exist outside the cities, although people congregate around churches or other local monuments.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Most middle-class families eat elaborate meals that reflect Spanish and indigenous traditions. A typical meal is identified by size rather than content, such as a light breakfast, a substantive midday lunch, and a lighter meal in the early evening. Dinner consists of fresh fruit, homemade soup, and a main dish with meat or fish accompanied by rice and/or potatoes. Lower-income people eat a more carbohydrate-rich diet. Meals usually end with a very sweet dessert, frequently made from panela, a type of brown sugar.

There are regional differences in foods. In the interior rural regions, a hearty breakfast consists of a strip of pork, rice and beans, sweet plantains, and a large steak with fried eggs. Dinner is similar, except for the eggs. In the coastal region, the emphasis is on seafood. In Cartagena, the typical lunch consists of rice with coconut, fried plantains, and shrimp. Colombians enjoy a variety of national and international cuisines.

Specialty dishes are eaten during holidays. A dish associated with the capital is ajiaco, a stew with three types of potato, chicken, and corn, that is served with capers, cream, and avocado. Another dish served during religious holidays is pasteles, while along the coast, people eat sancocho, a fish or chicken stew. Colombians consume large quantities of beer and coffee and relatively little milk or wine. Aguardiente combines local rum and a corn of sugar brandy.

Basic Economy. The economy is dependent on manufacturing and agricultural exports, but this domestic production relies on expensive imports such as tractors, power generators, and industrial machinery. Commercial agriculture stresses bananas, cut flowers, sugar, and coffee. In the world's second leading exporter of coffee, the economy is sensitive to fluctuations in the market price. Manufacturing exports include textiles, garments, chemicals, and metal products. Despite rich mineral deposits, Colombia derives less than 4 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) from mining.

Economic progress has resulted from the government's efforts to make the economy more specialized and productive by encouraging trade, deregulation, and financial investment. While the executive and legislative branches can intervene in economic matters, the hands-off policy of the government has resulted in a 3 percent annual growth of the economy since the ending of government subsidies.

Land Tenure and Property. Most of the productive agricultural land forests are privately owned. The structure of owner-operator relationships varies: coffee is grown on small plots by sharecroppers, whereas plantation agriculture and forestry involve multinational joint ownership using local labor. Land containing valuable minerals and hydrocarbons generally reverts to the government, which arranges contracts between domestic and foreign corporations. Public land includes 43 national parks. The government has designated special lands for the indigenous groups. Land distribution has been a difficult issue, and deforestation is being examined in the context of management practices and trade policies.

Commercial Activities. Fifty-one percent of the GDP comes from the commercial sector, which includes utilities, transportation, communications, wholesale commerce, real estate, retail banking, and stock exchanges. While these business sectors operate domestically, many have an international presence, including investment banking, insurance, commercial real estate, hotels, and advertising.

Major Industries. The primary industries are in the manufacturing sector, which employs over 35 percent of the workforce. The largest industries in this sector are textile, garment, furniture, and corrugated box manufacturing. Heavy industries also make a significant contribution to the GDP, including oil production, coal mining, chemical and resin-producing plants, and forestry. Although tourism is a major industry, the growth of this sector has been hindered by instability in the Andean and forested regions.

Trade. Exports include coffee, cut flowers, emeralds, and leather goods-most of which go to the United States and Europe. Other significant exports are oil, coal, and bananas. A free-market economy has allowed the country to benefit from foreign trade and foreign investment. After the North American Free Trade Agreement, Colombia established a similar trade pact between itself and several Latin American nations. Colombia is seeking similar trade pacts with it neighbors to the north, including the United States.

Division of Labor. The labor force consists of manual and semi-skilled, highly skilled, managerial, and professional segments. In the agricultural and manufacturing sectors, manual or semi-skilled labor is physically demanding and wages are low. Workers who are classified as highly skilled include artisans and carpenters and supervisors in industrial plants and farms. Managers and professionals include highly educated individuals who occupy the top decision-making or policy-making roles in industries, universities, and the government.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. The massive urban migration that began in the 1950s saw a middle class emerge, resulting in a three-class system: upper, middle, and lower. The upper class, which includes 20 percent of the population, accounts for about 75 to 80 percent of the gross national product. This group tends to be made up of individuals of unmixed European ancestry. Within this class, there is an elite referred to as the "oligarchy" that enjoys wealth and financial security, political power, and education. This group may be considered a caste, since membership is largely due to birthright, not to individual ability. A wide gap separates the elite from the masses. Unlike the elite, this group has few opportunities for social mobility. Social inequality is evident in the lower class, whose members are often malnourished, poorly housed, disease-ridden, and illiterate.

White people continue to dominate the upper class, while mestizos and mulattoes constitute the middle and lower classes. Blacks and Indians make up a significant portion of the lower class. Historically, blacks felt socially superior to Indians despite the fact that Indians occupied an officially higher position in society.

Symbols of Social Stratification. White or light skin is associated with being Spanish. Today, people may not be aware of this association, but they still equate being white with being wealthy.

The style of clothing preferred by urban professionals and the middle and upper classes is similar to that in the United States. White, mestizo, and mulatto men and women prefer conservative dark suits. Individuals from rural areas often wear the same clothes in the fields and at home. Men usually wear loose-fitting pants, while women wear loose-fitting skirts. Cloaks are worn by both sexes in the cold, rural highlands.

All three classes in the interior, especially in Bogotá, speak a deliberate and grammatically correct Spanish, whereas coastal speech patterns have a rapid tempo. People from the interior are more proper and ceremonial in social interactions, while coastal inhabitants are usually more trusting and carefree.

Political Life

Government. The government has an executive branch led by an elected president, a bicameral (House of Representatives and Senate) legislative branch, and a judicial branch. The president is elected to a four-year term by popular vote and may not be reelected. The president runs for office with his vice president, and names the cabinet, which consists of ministers with administrative powers. The president's duties include enforcing laws, conducting foreign affairs, supervising public finances, maintaining public order, and serving as commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

In the Congress, senators are elected by national vote, while representatives are elected by the people in their districts. Members of both houses may be re-elected to an unlimited number of terms. Congress meets only twice a year but may be called for additional sessions by the president. The House of Representatives appoints an attorney general. The responsibilities of the Senate include approving military promotions, declaring war, permitting foreign troops to enter the national territory, litigating impeachment proceedings against the president, and electing supreme court justices.

Under the constitution of 1991, the Constitutional Court and Council of State were added to the Supreme Court, which is the court of final appeals for ordinary legal matters, annulments, and contractual disputes. It also tries public officials for misconduct in office. The Council of State hears cases involving administrative issues and proposes laws regarding administrative practices, while the Constitutional Court is charged with reviewing laws, treaties, and other public policies to ensure that they do not violate the constitution.

Leadership and Political Officials. One of the most important informal decision-making groups among the upper class is referred to as roscas , a term that symbolizes the interconnecting networks in the political system. These groups have a membership structure that parallels the society of colonial Spain. These informal groups are found in the political, social, economic, and financial sectors. Roscas have been successful in monitoring and controlling some social, political, and economic changes. At this level, most political decisions are made and many careers are determined. Roscas link influential individuals and institutions so that universities, banks, industries, and agricultural interests may be coordinated and controlled by a few people. Inclusion in these such groups is limited to members of the upper-middle and upper classes. Another informal custom is the palanca ("leverage"), in which an influential friend or relative tries to help an individual gain a position. Allegiance to political parties and family ties are the source of most palancas .

After independence, the founding fathers formed the Centralist and Federalist parties, which later became the Conservative and Liberal parties. The Liberal Party advocates the separation of church and state, free enterprise, free commerce, no taxes on exportation, no intervention in matters of state by foreign nations, a free press, political liberty, decentralization of government, universal suffrage, and equal justice for all. The Conservative Party defends moral values, supports good customs, maintains close ties between church and state, protects traditional values, maintains a central government and central bank, favors tariffs, maintains the status quo and federal support of education, and calls for equal justice for all.

Social Problems and Control. The modern National Police, a branch of the armed forces, was created in 1891 to enforce federal laws. With the escalation of violence during the 1980s, the size of the national force increased. However, the National Police lack a presence in many municipalities. In a country racked by violence, some judges wear masks to hide their faces in order to avoid reprisal. These "judges without faces" demonstrate the inability of the judicial system to protect its members and the general public.

Over 50 years ago, many politicians tried to reform a corrupt political system that acted in favor of the privileged few. However, after the assassination of Jorge Eliécer Gaitán in 1948, old-line politicians fell into disfavor. Elected to many political positions, including his appointment as mayor of Bogotá, Gaitán had captivated the country with his dynamic oratory and articulation of social problems. The elite feared that Gaitán's popularity would ensure his election to the presidency. Gaitán's death resulted in an escalation of violence, especially in the countryside. The period between 1946 and 1956 is known as La Violencia; over 350,000 people died in an armed uprising against social and political injustice. After Gaitán's assassination, the guerrilla movements began to organize into large centralized groups.

Today the two major guerilla organizations- the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the Army of National Liberation (ELN)-have attempted to disrupt the government and the national economy to bring about reform and social justice. They have generally targeted government buildings, military positions, and police stations, but also have attacked energy distribution and communication networks, and engaged in extortion, kidnapping, and assassination.

Drug trafficking is a major economic and social problem that has enriched the drug cartels and financed

the guerrillas. To counter the effects of the drug trade, informal social control systems have risen to combat crime, including paramilitary organizations. Many people take the law upon themselves, and many crimes are committed in the context of personal or group retaliation.

Military Activity. Numbering 150,000, the military is divided into an army, a navy, and an air force. Mandated with protecting the country's borders and territorial waters, the military has been involved in internal conflicts such as fighting against guerrillas.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

The social security system developed in 1843 applied only to military personnel. Other social security programs have been slow to develop. While many programs available to the average laborer are relatively new, they provide health, pension, social security, and death benefits. Individual benefits in the public sector exceed those in the private sector. The social welfare system has been expensive and inequitably applied, with only 16 percent of the population currently covered by social insurance. The poorest segment of the population is not covered by any program. These groups rely on nongovernmental organizations to supplement the limited support provided by the government.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have been involved in agricultural, educational, and health programs. With the backing of the government and community leaders, organizations such as the Magdalena Medio Project have influenced public affairs. Among the priorities of NGOs are land reform projects to redistribute farmland in favor of family farming and the poor, human capital development in education to give communities control over local education, and public sector efficiency. Groups such as the Pasto Education Project and the Rural Education Project have advocated better-equipped public schools and teacher training.

In 1982, with help from the World Bank, the Women's World Bank was established to provide very small, low-interest loans to women micro-entrepreneurs in rural and remote regions. The Carvajal Foundation paved the way for other institutions promoting micro-enterprise, such as the

Women's World Bank and the Solidarios Financial Cooperative. Other NGOs focus on diverse aspects of the nation's economy, education, and people. The Colombian Indigenist Institute, is an advocate for many native groups. The first national labor organization, the Confederation of Colombian Workers (CTC), promotes labor reform. Having lost much of its influence, the CTC was supplanted by the Union of Colombian Workers backed by the Catholic Church and then by the Unified Central of Workers.

Gender Roles and Statuses

The Relative Status of Women and Men. Gender roles have changed with the migration from rural to urban areas, but family and household organization is still marked by sexual segregation and a difference between male and female goals and aspirations. As a result of colonial influence, Colombian society adopted a culture in which men occupy a dominant role within the household as breadwinner and disciplinarian and assume responsibility for maintaining family pride and position within the community. The role of machismo is an important characteristic of public life. Machismo is not synonymous with strict male dominance-it applies to the public personification of the male family head. Machismo requires separate male and female roles in economic life and consumption, the reliance of women on men, and distinct sets of life goals for men and women. With more women holding higher-paying jobs and occupying prominent positions in society, the role of machismo is now less dominant in urban centers but is still evident in rural regions.

Machismo defines a woman's role as a mother in addition to her conjugal role. The traditional male-female relationship assumes that the woman puts her husband's wishes before her own. She is responsible for the care of the children and household, but the husband makes decisions about the household's basic necessities.

While male familial roles are relatively consistent across economic groups, female roles vary as a result of the modern economy. In upper class and some middle class families, women avoid working outside the home in order to preserve family status, honor, and virtue. Women from lower class and lower-middle class families often hold jobs outside the home or work in the fields to contribute to the family's subsistence, giving them a greater degree of equality. Many couples farm fields owned through the wife's family, and in this case it is difficult for a husband living with his wife's family to exercise control over the wife.

Women have assumed visible and important roles in society. Upper class and middle class women dedicate themselves not only to the family but also to social issues and the church. Women from these groups hold a number of prominent public positions and are considered among the most politically active in Latin America.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Arranged marriages are no longer common, especially among the upper-middle and upper classes, but the members of these groups are encouraged to marry within their own class. While men and women can date whomever they wish, they must be accompanied by a chaperone. Before marrying, couples usually court for at least a year.

Members of the lower and middle classes strive to marry someone outside of their class; mestizos, mulattoes, and blacks prefer to marry into white families. However, when intermarriage takes place, it is generally white males who marry Indians or blacks.

Most people, especially in urban centers, are married in the Catholic Church. Upper class people use this religious rite to create powerful family unions. Church weddings are expensive and allow families to demonstrate their financial and social status. Because of the expense, members of the lower middle class may opt for a civil marriage. Others choose a consensual marriage. Divorce for civil marriages was not permitted until 1970.

Domestic Unit. The nuclear family consisting of a father, a mother, and their children is the basic household unit. Upper class families usually have many children. The father is the head of the household, while the mother is responsible for child rearing, homemaking, and the basic education of the children. Lower class and some middle class wives work in the city or next to kin in the fields.

Inheritance. Parents bequeath property to their children in equal shares. In rural families, sons and daughters may inherit property with the condition that they will continue to work the land. In urban centers, parents may leave a family business to their children to share and run.

Kin Groups. Large upper class families have an extended kin group in which the oldest member receives the most wealth and prestige. Family and kin group members interact regularly and generally live close to each other in urban areas or on the same land or estate in rural locations. Family members participate in social activities to expand the family's wealth. In times of severe financial difficulties, families lacking a socioeconomic network, may be displaced into a lower class.

Socialization

Infant Care. Mothers from the upper class prefer to give birth in clinical settings, while those in the lower class usually have babies at home, sometimes with the help of a midwife. Upper class families use cribs and playpens. The sleeping quarters of the child are usually separate from those of the parents. In poorer families, a child usually sleeps in the same bed as the mother or next to the mother on the floor.

Parents encourage a child to behave properly. From birth to adolescence, parents nurture children very carefully, inculcating moral values and raising them to respect themselves and their elders. Children

are taught right from wrong, encouraged to be obedient, and informed about the need for higher education. Obedience to adults, conformity to social expectations, and religious devotion are important qualities in a "good" child.

The only ceremonial initiations rural and urban children receive are the religious rites of the Catholic Church. Within the first year, a baby is baptized. Families often use the rite of baptism to achieve upward social mobility. Choosing distinguished godparents brings prestige to the parents and offers the child social and economic networks.

At age four or five, children enroll in elementary school where they learn to read, write, and do simple math as well as study geography and history. Completion of secondary school leads to a diploma that qualifies a student for college.

Higher Education. The Catholic Church established the first universities before 1700; the first public universities were founded much later. Today there are over 40 universities. National universities receive funding from the government, which in the 1958 constitution was mandated to spend at least 10 percent of the national budget on education.

Higher education is considered necessary to achieve professional goals and to contribute to the progress and prosperity of the country. However, the university system reinforces social stratification. Higher education is coveted by all, but only the middle and upper classes can afford to attend a university.

Etiquette

Social interaction in the upper class is generally formal and respectful. The members of lower socioeconomic groups from the interior pride themselves on their good manners. Unlike their coastal counterparts, lower class individuals in the interior express mutual respect for each other and their elders; women are treated respectfully and given special attention.

Personal space is highly regarded, so conversations take place at arm's length. The violation of this space even in crowded stores and museums is considered disrespectful and hostile. Exceptions occur in crowded bus stations and on buses. Formal greetings among strangers are mandated, whereas salutations among acquaintances are informal.

Religion

Religious Beliefs. Ninety-five percent of the people consider themselves members of the Roman Catholic Church and attach great importance to Catholic sacraments. More than 85 percent of Catholics in urban parishes attend mass regularly.

People in rural areas are said to be more devout than those in the cities, but their Catholicism is different from that of the urban upper and middle classes. In the countryside, Catholic practices and beliefs have been combined with indigenous, African, and sixteenth-century Spanish customs. People pray to a patron saint, who is considered to be more accessible than God. Rural villages have a patron saint who is honored each year with a fiesta. Traces of rural folk religion also are found in urban lower class communities, particularly those with many rural migrants.

Although the 1991 constitution established religious freedom and does not mention the Church by name, the Catholic Church continues to have significant influence. A Protestant movement has attracted more than 260,000 people. Protestants are a minority on the mainland but a majority on San Andres and Providencia islands. There are also small contingents of Muslims and Jews.

The Spanish began a process of conversion among the Indians in the sixteenth century, and the institutionalization of the Catholic Church was a high priority for the colonial government. That church destroyed most of the indigenous rituals and religious customs. The Inquisition had the authority to summon and interrogate, often using torture, any subject accused of heresy and had the power to confiscate the property of convicted persons.

Religious Practitioners. Local priests are often the primary authority figures in small communities. Most priests and bishops were born in the country. Like most elites, priests have gravitated toward urban areas, leaving a void of religious leadership in some areas. Colombia supports more than 30 monasteries and 80 convents.

Rituals and Holy Places. Priests in churches perform most Catholic sacraments. The rite of baptism is the sacramental entry into Christian life, and communion is a memorial of Christ's death and resurrection.

Death and the Afterlife. Christian dogma holds that the spirit lives on after the body has died. A divine judgment of the person's life determines the well-being of the spirit after death. An elaborate ceremony involving the preparation of the deceased for burial by relatives is accompanied by prayer and followed by a period of mourning.

Medicine and Health Care

Health care has improved dramatically over the last 30 years, but this has occurred mostly in upper class and middle class urban areas. The urban poor and people in remote regions have limited access to food, housing, and medical treatment. There has been a reduction in the infant mortality rate and an increase in life expectancy over the last decade.

In rural areas, women must contend with cultural and legal restrictions on health care. Twenty percent to thirty percent of maternal deaths in those areas are due to induced abortions, which usually are performed outside of medical facilities.

Sangre muertes "blood deaths," are violent criminal attacks and murders related to activity by drug cartels that primarily affect men under age forty-five. The increase in guerilla activities also has resulted in many deaths, especially in remote areas.

Malaria affects approximately 15 percent of the population, although the prevalence of AIDS is low. The health care system has taken an aggressive role in controlling the spread of AIDS by giving patients free access to therapy. Colombians have been exposed to a number of endemic tropical diseases,

including dengue and yellow fever, and a variety of tropical parasitic infections.

Traditional remedies are commonly used, particularly in rural and remote areas. Many forms of traditional medicine rely on indigenous plants. Traditional healers called Taitas from the yagé culture have tried to maintain their indigenous medical practices. In recognition of the importance of the plants used in traditional medicine, those healers have attempted to preserve the forest in the Amazonian region.

Secular Celebrations

Numerous national holidays celebrate the country and its culture, and many religious holidays are celebrated as national holidays. Important church holidays include the Epiphany (6 January); Holy Week, which includes Easter (March or April); All Saints Day (1 November); the Immaculate Conception (8 December); and Christmas (25 December). Colombia also celebrates the feast days of various saints on both a national and a local level.

Feminine beauty is considered very important, and the country celebrates it each November with the crowning of Miss Colombia. Apart from soccer, the Reinado de Belleza is the most popular sports event.

Other important national holidays are Independence Day (20 July), which celebrates the declaration of independence in 1810, and 7 August, which commemorates the Battle of Bocayá, where Bolívar defeated the Spanish. Other holidays center on regional and local cultures, such as the Carnaval of Barranquilla, the Cartagena International Caribbean Music Festival, the Medellín flower fair, and the Festival of the Devil in Rio Sucio.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. Art is considered one of the defining features of Colombian culture. The arts are supported through private individuals and foundations such as the Telefonica Foundation, the Chamber of Commerce of Medellín, the Tobacco Company of Colombia, Federation of Coffee Producers, and the Bank of the Republic of Colombia, which supports the world renowned Museum of Gold. The government, through the Ministries of the Interior and Education, also provides substantial support for numerous museums, theaters, and libraries throughout the country. Among the government supported institutes are the National Museum of Colombia, and the Colombian Institute of Culture, both of which support artists while striving to preserve Colombia's rich history. In addition to these traditional institutes, local governments and private transportation companies support local artists by hiring them to colorfully decorate city and town buses.

Literature. Colombia did not begin to develop a literary tradition until the arrival of the Spanish, and its literature still shows a strong European influence. After independence, writers began to develop their own styles, and wrote about national themes instead of European ones. Early writers such as Jorge Isaacs and José Eustacio Rivera addressed the values of rural peasants and their struggle for existence. These and other stories about the regional populations influenced the development of distinct regional literary styles. One of the writers whose style grew out of the artistic influences of the Caribbean coast is Gabriel García Márquez, winner of the Nobel Prize in 1982. As a member of JoséFélix Fuenmayor's Group of Barranquilla, García Márquez became known for his juxtaposition of myths, dreams, and reality ("magic realism"). García Márquez and other writers are influencing a group of writers who embrace modern and post-modern themes.

Graphic Arts. Over 2,000 years ago, native peoples in the Andes produced intricate artwork. After colonization, native artistic influences were abandoned in favor of European styles. However, Colombia is attempting to carve a niche in the international art world with the production of works by painters such as Fernando Botero and Alejandro Obregón and the sculptor Edgar Negret.

One of the leaders of national art was Pedro Nel Gómez, whose murals featured social criticism. Other artists followed the nationalistic and indigenous themes of the movement, although their technique was more traditional. Colombia takes pride in its artists, many of whom still use nationalistic and indigenous themes while incorporating international elements.

Performance Arts. The diversity of Colombia's music is intimately linked to its many distinct regional differences. Vallenato, a type of Colombian music and dance, originated on the Atlantic coast and is enjoyed throughout the country. Currulao, a type of music from the Pacific coast, uses the sea, rain, and rivers as its central themes and employs mostly ordinary wooden instruments. In the interior of the country, the two traditional types of music played throughout the Andean region are the Bambuco and the Guabina. Both types of music have considerable mestizo influence, often using as their undercurrents themes that emphasize the earth, mountains, and lakes. Joropo is considered to be "fierce" or Plains' music because it is played in the Llanos Orientales, or Eastern Plains, and reflects the cattle ranch workers' arduous way of life. Cumbia music and dance are considered Colombian national treasures whose rhythmic cadence and melodies echo the mulatto and indigenous flavor; it has become the flagship of Colombia's musical genres. Special mention should be paid to the "musical city" of Ibagué, which has contributed to the enrichment and dissemination of Colombian music.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

The country has produced important work in biology, medicine, geology, mathematics, physics, genetics, psychology, and anthropology. As the home of several pre-Colombian archaeological sites, Colombia has become the source of much of what is known about Latin America before European settlement.

Colombia also has been at the forefront of studies of volcanology and seismology. Medical research in the country is considered among the best in Latin America. Individuals who have made important contributions to the field include José Ignacio Barraquer, Rodolfo R. Llinás, and Manuel Patarroyo. Research in the physical and social sciences is funded largely by the government, although numerous private organizations also provide assistance.

Bibliography

Bagely, Bruce M. "The Society and Its Environment." In Colombia: A Country Study, 1990.

Berquist, Charles W. Coffee and Conflict in Colombia, 1886-1910, 1986.

Blossom, Thomas. Narino: Hero of Colombian Independence, 1967.

Brusco, Elizabeth E. The Reformation of Machismo: Evangelical Conversion and Gender in Colombia, 1995.

Bushnell, David. The Libertor, Simón Bolívar, 1970.

--, and Neill Macaulay. The Emergence of Latin American in the Nineteenth Century, 1988.

--, and Wilheim G. M. Hegel. The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite of Itself, 1993.

Davis, Robert H. Historical Dictionary of Colombia, 2nd ed., 1993.

Griffin, Charles C. "Enlightment and Independence." In John Lynch, ed., Latin American Revolutions, 1808- 1826, 1994.

LeGrand, Catherine. Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colombia, 1830-1936, 1986.

Martz, John D. The Politics of Clientelism: Democracy and the State of Colombia, 1997.

Pearce, Jenny. "The People's War." NACLA Report on the Americas, 23 (6): 13-21, 1990.

Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. Colombia: Ancient People and Places, 1965.

Sánchez, Gónzalo. "The Violence: An Interpretive Synthesis." In Charles Bergquist, Ricardo Penaranda, and Gónzalo Sánchez, eds., Violence in Colombia, 1992.

Schultes, Richard Evans. Where the Gods Reign: Plants and Peoples of the Colombian Amazon, 1988.

Sharpless, Richard E. Gaitán of Colombia: A Political Biography, 1988.

Smith, T. Lynn. "The Racial Composition of Colombia." Journal of Interamerican Studies, 8: 213-235, 1965

--. Colombia: Social Structure and the Process of Development, 1967.

Wade, Peter. Blackness and Race Mixture: The Dynamics of Racial Identity in Colombia, 1993.

Williams, Raymond L., and Kevin G. Guerrieri. Culture and Customs of Colombia, 1991.

Also read article about Colombia from Wikipedia

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Culture of Colombia - history, people, clothing, traditions, women, beliefs, food, customs, family Bo-Co

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"Why are you leaving Colombia?" Someone asked me thisat the airport of Bogotá just before taking the plane to the United States. It took me a few moments to come up with an honest answer that would sufficiently express the reasons why I was leaving my beloved country. I replied to the question after some hesitation and followed up with an assurance that I will definitely be returning in a couple of months. Nevertheless, I thought about that simple but deep question during most of the long hours of my flight.

Over the last several decades, immigration to Colombia has been decidedly low in comparison with other Latin American countries. This can be attributed to a number of factors, the majority of which relate to the violent internal conflict and social struggles prevalent in the nation. The same can be said to explain the markedly higher rates of emigration. It is for this reason that I will focus on the issues surrounding emigration, as it has been one of the biggest problems in my country for many years.

In Colombia, as in many other countries, there are two types of migration: voluntary and forced. According to the Administrative Department of Security (DAS), which is the governmental agency in charge of migration control, it was between 1996 and 2003 that almost 1.6 million Colombians left the country voluntarily, primarily as a result of the internal social conflict. As stated by Myriam Bérubé in her article Colombia: In the Crossfire, "there were about 770,000 Colombians officially registered in consulates worldwide in 2003, but it is estimated that as many as 4.2 million Colombians live abroad." The United States, Venezuela, Spain, and Ecuador are some countries that have received the most Colombians in the last decades.

On the other hand, when we talk about forced migration we should make reference to the term Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), which is defined as "persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border," (Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, Introduction, paragraph two). Let us remember that Colombia has one of the longest-running armed conflicts in the world, which began in 1964 and has resulted in innumerable casualties along the years. Forced migration is one of the main consequences of this conflict and the amount of internally displaced persons that have to migrate to the main cities as result of the violence is very high. These displacements make people vulnerable and significantly reduce the quality of life of those who have fled their rural homes, leaving all property, roots, and often family behind.

While most of those that leave the country voluntarily - in many cases to escape violence or other life threatening situations - can afford to begin a new life in a different country, those who are internally displaced do not have enough economic resources that allow them to have the same life standards they used to have in their rural homes. The governmental aids are almost non-existent; the vast amount of corruption, administrative deficiencies and flaws in the current laws, in conjunction with other things, are some of the reasons why the IDPs do not receive the support they need. As I already mentioned, they are unreasonably vulnerable and at the end of the day this situation primarily provokes poverty, hunger and crime.

Finally, I would like to point out that although the amount of people who intentionally leave the country is rather high, and despite the fact that they have to face difficult situations as Colombian migrants, the dilemmas of those who are forced to displace to the big cities are exceedingly complicated. In the same line of thought, I would prefer to change the question with which I titled this paper for a more appropriate inquiry. Why are Colombians forced to leave their hometowns? What will happen to them? Despite the reduction in newly displaced persons over the last few years, and with many of the displaced managing to return to their hometowns and retaking part of their lives, their situation in general is still intricate and the efforts to help them to confront their difficult reality are proving inadequate.

Check the following link and you will find a trailer for The Colors of the Mountains, a Colombian drama film that highlights the problem of forced displacement from a child's perspective:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X03s0zkjIZs

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"Why are you leaving Colombia?" Someone asked me thisat the airport of Bogotá just before taking the plane to the United States. It took me a few moments to come up with an honest answer that would sufficiently express the reasons why I was leaving my beloved country.

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Significance: Although Colombian immigrants are relative newcomers to the United States, their numbers began increasing greatly during the last decades of the twentieth century. By 2008, Colombians were the largest South American immigrant group in the United States, accounting for 30 percent of all South Americans in the country and 2.65 percent of all documented immigrants.

Since the mid-twentieth century, tumultuous developments in Colombia have spurred large numbers of Colombians to emigrate to the United States. As in many other Latin American countries, Colombia's political instability has played a major role in motivating people to leave the country. Colombia has, in fact, lacked political stability since it became independent from the Spanish Empire in 1819. In 1948, a civil war broke out between conservative and liberal factions within the country. Throughout the 1950's-a period remembered as the Violencia-hundreds of thousands of Colombians were killed or displaced from their homes. The election of President Carlose Lleras Restrepo during the late 1960's brought some stability to the country. However, political turmoil returned in 1974, with the defeat of the ruling political party. The 1980's witnessed a dramatic upsurge of Colombia's political, social, and economic problems, due to the unprecedented factor of drug-related crime. The widespread sale and use of illegal drugs, particularly cocaine, was the primary catalyst for the continuing unrest in Colombia.

Colombian Diaspora

The early twenty-first century has seen much debate over the actual number of Colombians residing in the United States. Colombia's own census bureau has estimated that 4.1 million Colombians were living abroad in 2005; about one-half of these people were living in the United States. However, data from the U.S. Census Bureau show only 730,510 Colombians living within U.S. borders during that year. The discrepancy between the Colombian and U.S. government figures is almost certainly due to the high levels of undocumented Colombian immigration into the United States.

The large number of Colombian natives living outside their homeland is evidence of a major diaspora. Historically, the numbers of Colombians who immigrated to the United States did not become significant until about 1948, when Colombia's civil war began. That war caused many rural Colombians to move into Colombia's urban areas. An overabundance of workers in the cities helped cause an economic recession, which in turn increased emigration to the United States. The disruptions of the Violencia era and growing social networks of Colombians in the United States also encouraged more Colombians to emigrate.

Immigration from Colombia, 1930-2008

Source: Department of Homeland Security, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, 2008. Figures include only immigrants who obtained legal permanent resident status.

Through the end of the 1980's, Colombians living in the United States were almost exclusively upper-middle- and upper-class professionals. Migration of these individuals resulted in a massive brain drain from Colombia. During the 1990's, however, less educated Colombian laborers began immigrating to the United States in larger numbers.

The emergence of Colombia's illegal narcotics industry during the 1980's compounded the nation's political and economical problems. Drugrelated crime began affecting the lives of everyday Colombians. Through murder, assassination, bombings, and kidnappings, the drug cartels gained so much power that they demanded political control and threatened the very foundation of Colombia's political structure. Growing political instability brought new levels of internal population movements and emigration. Many Colombians fled to Venezuela, Spain, and the United States. Colombia's problems with drug cartels, economic recession, and political instability persisted throughout the 1990's.

Colombian Immigrants to the United States

Escalating violence and political disorder in Colombia have driven increasing numbers of its citizens to seek asylum in other countries, and most asylum seekers have come to the United States. In 2003, 11,600 Colombian immigrants classified as asylum seekers were in the United States, making Colombians the second-largest asylum applicant population. The U.S. government has the option of granting Colombians temporary protective status (TPS). This status is normally reserved for refugees from countries whose citizens are in grave imminent danger. However, that status is rarely granted, and the United States has not acknowledged appeals from human rights organizations and the Colombian government to grant Colombians the status. Colombians attempting to enter the United States must instead secure legal immigrant status-a process all immigrants face but whose difficulty many underestimate. Although many Colombians are granted legal permanent residence status, many others are stuck in an ambiguous, undocumented category. In 2000, Colombia was believed to have the fourth-largest number of undocumented residents in the United States.

Profile of Colombian immigrants

Country of origin

Colombia

Primary language

Spanish

Primary regions of U.S. settlement

New Jersey, South Florida

Earliest significant arrivals

Prob. nineteenth century, but U.S. did not record Colombians until 1930

Peak immigration period

1990's-Present

Twenty-first century legal residents*

201,061 (25,133 per year)

*Immigrants who obtained legal permanent resident status in the United States.

Source: Department of Homeland Security, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, 2008.

Colombians in the United States

Since they first arrived in the United States in substantial numbers, Colombians have strived to establish their own identity among the numerous Hispanic populations and find their place within mainstream America. However, many immigrants endure the effects of stereotyping and discrimination because of negative American perceptions of Colombia as a drug-trafficking, criminal country, even though a minuscule number of Colombians in the United States engage in illegal activities.

Remittances, the transfers of money from Colombian Americans to relatives in Colombia, are an important part of immigrant life. In 2006 alone, Colombian residents of the United States remitted an estimated $4.2 billion to Colombia to aid relatives and friends. From 1990 to 2004, the dollar value of remittances to Colombia grew 25 percent annually. The increasing number of remittances further illustrates the dramatic rise in migration from Colombia to the United States, and provides evidence of greater interdependence between the two nations and their peoples.
Alexandria J. Murnan Further Reading

Aysa-Lastra, Maria. Diaspora Philanthropy: The Colombia Experience. Cambridge, Mass.: Philanthropic Initiative and Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2007. Overview of the Colombian diaspora and the remittances of Colombians in the United States to their homeland. This eighteen-page paper is available online in PDF format.

Collier, MichaelW., et al. The Colombian Diaspora in South Florida: A Report of the Colombian Studies Institute's Colombian Diaspora Project. Dallas: Latin American Studies Association, 2003. Overview of the effects of the mass exodus from Colombia to South Florida. Available online in PDF format.

González, Juan. Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America. New York: Viking Press, 2000. Useful historical overview of the many Hispanic peoples who have immigrated to the United States.

Reuners, David M. Other Immigrants: The Global Origins of the American People. New York: New York University Press, 2005. Broad examination of American immigrants that includes a useful chapter on Central and South Americans.

See also: "Brain drain"; Censuses, U.S.; Drug trafficking; Ecuadorian immigrants; Latin American immigrants; Remittances of earnings; Stereotyping.

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Significance: Although Colombian immigrants are relative newcomers to the United States, their numbers began increasing greatly during the last decades of the twentieth century. By 2008, Colombians were the largest South American immigrant group in the United States, accounting for 30 percent of

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Historical background and context of emigration

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One historical characteristic of Colombia has been the high mobility of its population, recorded in three waves: the 1960s (mostly to the United States, first wave), the early 1980s (to Venezuela, second wave) and the 1990s nineties (to Spain, third wave).

Colombian emigration to the United States occurred in particular in the 1960s and 1970s, and was repeated in the 1990s, especially due to economic factors such as employment prospects and increased revenue and, to some extent, to political reasons related to the threat of illegal armed groups. This emigrants were typically a highly-educated group, with good knowledge of English, with more women than men and a significant presence of the middle and upper class.

Emigration to Spain rose sharply in 1998, which is explained in large part by the economic crisis in the country in 1998-1999, especially in certain regions such as the Coffee Belt, and this country's appeal in relation to job opportunities for the immigrant community - in addition, of course, to the ease of language for Colombians. Currently, the Colombians in Spain are the fourth largest nationality group, preceded by Moroccan, Ecuadorian and Romanian. Colombian immigrants in Spain are mostly women; their education level is average; and they are in the middle and lower- middle class level.
Evolution of Colombian emigrants 1960 - 2005
Source: CELADE Database and DANE census

According to the figures since 1985, DANE has estimated that by 2005 there were 3,378,345 Colombians permanently residing abroad. According to DANE, the destinations chosen by Colombian migrants were the United States (34.6%), Spain (23.1%), Venezuela (20.0%), Ecuador (3.1%), Canada (2, 0%), Panama (1.4%), Mexico (1.1%), Costa Rica (1.1%), and a very small percentage in Australia, Peru and Bolivia.
Causes of Migration
Colombian international migration is a growing and heterogeneous phenomenon: Its causes and consequences are strongly linked to local and global situations. Colombians who migrate do so for different reasons and to different destinations. One of the main reasons is to find work, taking into account the demand for relatively unskilled labor in developed countries and the effect of globalization on a workforce seeking higher pay in developed countries. Other reaons for emigration are family reunification, improved levels of quality of life and the offer of higher education studies in other States.

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Historical background and context One historical characteristic of Colombia has been the high mobility of its population, recorded in three waves: the 1960s (mostly to the United States, first wave), the early 1980s (to Venezuela, second wave) and the 1990s nineties (to Spain, third wave).

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English Language Learner Demographics Report for the 2016-17 School Year

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English Language Learner Demographics Report for the 2016-17 School Year

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In December 2016, Colombia formally brought to a close a 52-year civil war that resulted in the deaths of more than 220,000 people, the flight of more than 7.6 million within and beyond the country's borders, and an incalculable cost to the economy and public well-being. Approved by Congress after four years of negotiations between the Colombian government and the left-wing rebel group known as the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the historic peace deal ended the longest-running civil conflict in the Western Hemisphere, one that has taken a huge toll on Colombian society, most profoundly in the area of migration.

Violence-driven displacement in rural areas has given Colombia the dubious distinction of hosting the most internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the world, with 7.3 million individuals registered as of 2016-more than 15 percent of the national population. In addition, hundreds of thousands of Colombians are estimated to live abroad as refugees, primarily in neighboring countries. Ongoing violence by other guerrilla and paramilitary groups is making return difficult for these refugees.

Historically known for large-scale emigration, Colombia experienced little immigration during the 19 th and 20 th centuries as a result of conditions including political violence, recurring economic crises, excess labor, and poor infrastructure. Instead, millions of Colombians sought refuge abroad or emigrated in search of better opportunities during that period. Faced with a sizeable diaspora, the Andean country has slowly adopted a comprehensive migration system targeted at improving services for emigrants. In recent years Colombia has worked to attract highly skilled foreign labor, in line with an economic model that prioritizes foreign investment.

As the country enters a post-conflict phase and turns its focus to peace and stability, addressing the main causes of internal displacement and developing effective strategies to improve immigration services will be key. Colombia is also grappling with a number of international migration issues, including transiting flows of irregular migrants from beyond the continent and a humanitarian crisis in Venezuela. This country profile outlines the historical trends that have defined Colombia's migration history and policy, and examines the current and future migration challenges facing a country unsteadily emerging from war.
New World Gateway
Considered a strategic gateway to South America, the area now encompassed by Colombia began experiencing migration from Mesoamerica as early as 14,000 BC, providing a passage for hunter-gatherers to gradually populate other parts of the continent in the pre-Columbian era. In the early 16 th century, a leading indigenous group in the area called the Muisca became the inspiration for El Dorado, the gold-rush legend that would fuel immigration and Spanish conquest of the continent for centuries.

Spanish colonization proved to be a defining event in Colombian history. By the 17 th century, 95 percent of the indigenous population had been killed off by settlers or newly introduced diseases. A major slave market emerged and Spanish colonists brought an estimated 120,000 African slaves. The vast majority of settlers were of Andalusian and Basque descent, as immigration of non-Spaniards was highly regulated. Otherwise, Colombia was not a recipient of large migratory flows between the 16 th and 18 th centuries.

Immigration to Colombia remained limited following its independence in 1819. Over the course of the 19 th and 20 th centuries, occasional migrant flows arrived from Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Germany, Italy, Spain, France, and Japan, but Colombia did not experience the same large-scale immigration seen elsewhere in Latin America.

Syrian, Lebanese, and Palestinian immigrants first arrived in Colombia in the 1880s. An estimated 5,000 to 10,000 Middle Easterners settled between 1890 and 1930, making them the second-largest immigrant group. These communities transformed commerce and trade in Colombia and had significant political involvement in the first half of the 20 th century. Although the flow of Arab-Christian immigrants decreased in the late 1900s, a large number of descendant communities remain active.

European immigration to Colombia increased between the mid-19 th and mid-20 th centuries. Two waves of Jewish immigrants settled in Colombia between 1830 and 1938, contributing significantly to regional financial sectors through trade and business. Germans arrived in the mid-1800s, and by the early 1900s were leading revitalization of the coffee, tobacco, and banking industries. After World War II, many European technicians and agricultural experts migrated to Colombia. Other immigrant communities that developed successful enterprises were the Spanish, French, Italians, and Americans, who settled in the capital of Bogotá for the most part, and the Japanese who settled in the Cauca Valley region.

Regional and hemispheric migration flows have prevailed in Colombia since the 1960s. Venezuela, the United States, and Ecuador have been the leading countries of origin for immigrants in recent years (see Figure 1). According to the United Nations, more than 133,000 immigrants lived in Colombia in 2015, representing 0.2 percent of the population of 47 million. A substantial number are returning migrants holding dual citizenship.
Figure 1. Top Ten Origin Countries for the Immigrant Population in Colombia, 2015
Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA), "Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by Origin and Destination," United Nations database, POP/DB/MIG/Stock/Rev.2015, available online.
Civil War Deters Immigration
Despite efforts beginning in 1953 to promote immigration by offering tax exemptions and land to foreign settlers, most would-be immigrants were deterred by violence and the uneven economy. Political violence has been present through much of Colombia's history. Rooted in high levels of inequality and the concentration of land in the hands of a small group of elites, conflict was exacerbated by the political exclusion of nontraditional movements, government neglect of underdeveloped rural areas, the privatization of natural resources, and drug trafficking. Rebels aimed to represent the rural poor against Colombia's wealthy families, who for decades have controlled the government and much of the private sector.

The protracted fight for political and economic control led to La Violencia (1948-58), a civil war that instigated the emergence of armed guerrillas in the 1960s. Guerrillas rose up to fight the power-sharing agreement between the Liberal and Conservative parties, which ended the war and eliminated political competition while failing to address land reform and social justice. Conflict escalated during the 1980s and 1990s due to the rise of drug cartels and paramilitary groups. The FARC, one of Colombia's strongest and oldest guerrilla groups, and others have used profits from drug trafficking, kidnapping, extortion, and natural resource exploitation to finance their fight.

After four years of negotiations, the Colombian government reached a peace agreement with the FARC in 2016. In early 2017, it also initiated peace talks with the National Liberation Army (ELN), the second-largest guerrilla group. Although the peace agreement symbolizes unprecedented progress, the country has a long way to go to achieve stability. And addressing internal displacement will be a fundamental challenge throughout implementation of the peace deal. Among the key issues: Recognition and protection of the rights of victims, and allowing them to participate in implementation of the accords.
Highly Concentrated Emigration Flows
Large-scale emigration from Colombia began in the mid-20 th century, owing to lack of jobs and economic opportunities and the armed conflict. Venezuela, the United States, and Ecuador were the leading countries of destination for migrants in the late 1960s and early 1970s. An estimated 557,000 Colombians migrated to Venezuela, the United States, Ecuador, Panama, Canada, Peru, Chile, and Bolivia between 1963 and 1973, according to the Administrative Department of National Statistics of Colombia (DANE). In the late 1990s, as the armed conflict progressed, Spain and other European countries also became popular destinations for Colombians. Approximately 80 percent of Colombian emigrants in 2012 lived in the United States, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Spain. More recently, immigration restrictions and changing socioeconomic conditions have encouraged Colombians to move to other South American countries such as Chile, which experienced a 47 percent increase in Colombian immigrants between 2010 and 2015.
Emigration to Venezuela and Ecuador
A boom in oil production and economic growth drew many Colombians to Venezuela and Ecuador in the 1970s and 1980s. Amid the armed conflict, an estimated 1 million Colombians migrated to Venezuela during the last four decades, making them the largest immigrant group there. Many have returned to Colombia since the start of Venezuela's economic and humanitarian crisis in 2015. In Ecuador, nearly 90,000 Colombians accounted for half the total immigrant population and 98 percent of refugees in 2011. As more Colombians return and Venezuelans flee poor conditions at home, traditional migration dynamics in the region are shifting.
Emigration to the United States
Facilitated by the U.S. Immigration Act of 1965, which abolished national-origin quotas favoring European migration, approximately 150,000 Colombians had migrated to the United States by the early 1970s. The first large wave included low- and highly skilled workers who would facilitate future Colombian migration. In 2014, an estimated 1.2 million residents claiming Colombian heritage resided in the United States, making them the seventh-largest Hispanic group in the country. Colombian immigrants, who numbered 699,000 in 2015, represented the largest group of South Americans in the United States, accounting for roughly 25 percent of all South Americans.
Emigration to Spain
Starting in the 1990s, Spain attracted a large number of Colombian migrants energized by the shared language and growing economic opportunities there and elsewhere in Europe. More recently, Spain's sagging economy and high unemployment have driven some Colombians to return or migrate elsewhere in Europe. Some 136,000 Colombians lived in Spain in 2016, down from approximately 145,500 in 2015, according to the Spanish National Center of Statistics.
Figure 2. Top Ten Destinations for Colombian Immigrants, 2015
Source: UN DESA, "Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by Origin and Destination," 2015 revision, available online.
Migration in a Conflict and Post-Conflict Landscape
Colombia's migration policy and institutional framework have evolved slowly. Despite various efforts to regulate migration and develop initiatives to promote immigration, it was not until the early 2000s that Colombia adopted far-reaching migration policies.
Moving Migration from a National-Security Lens
Historically, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs oversaw the formulation, implementation, and monitoring of migration policy, while the Administrative Department of Security (DAS), Colombia's national security and intelligence agency, served as the main migration control and statistical agency. DAS regulated migration flows and gathered data from a national security perspective, using intelligence and criminal investigations to identify risks and threats to the state.

DAS retained control of migration management for decades, until corruption scandals led to its dismantling in 2011. In 2009, the government began to divorce migration regulation from the national security apparatus. And in 2011, the national migration system was created by law, and Migración Colombia emerged as the leading migration management agency, responsible for controlling and overseeing population flows into and out of the country. The 2010-14 National Development Plan and Integral Migratory Policy set further guidelines for migration management in border areas, promoted bilateral labor migration, encouraged return of Colombians abroad, and improved services for immigrants.
Connecting with the Diaspora
Today, Colombia remains a country of emigration and the largest sending country of migrants in South America. Some 4.7 million Colombians lived abroad in 2012, according to Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimates. In 2015, Colombia received US $4.6 billion in remittances, making it the fourth largest recipient in Latin America (after Mexico, Guatemala, and the Dominican Republic), and the second fastest-growing recipient in the region. The government has set up a number of programs to reconnect with and provide services to the Colombian diaspora, including Colombia Nos Une, RedEsColombia, Plan Comunidad Exterior, and Colombiano Seguro en el Exterior. These and other programs provide guidance on social security, housing, banking services, remittances, and degree recognition, and foster connections among the Colombian diaspora.
Internal Displacement and Colombian Refugees
Meanwhile, far more Colombians are displaced by violence within their own country than live abroad. There are 7.3 million registered IDPs in Colombia, according to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). At least half of those displaced, primarily from rural areas, have fled to slums of the 27 largest cities. An estimated 340,000 Colombians live as refugees abroad, primarily in Venezuela, Ecuador, the United States, Canada, Panama, and Costa Rica. While many refugees and IDPs are formally registered with UNHCR, a large number of Colombians living abroad remain unregistered and as a result are unable to access basic services in their host countries.

As Colombia continues to emerge from civil war, a number of migration-related issues have emerged to test the country's newfound migration management capacity.

By taking control of vast portions of territory over the course of the war, rebel groups forced millions to flee their homes. Fighting between rebel groups, paramilitary organizations, and Colombian armed forces caused an uptick in displacement over the last two decades. As the FARC now abandons its long-occupied territories, remaining rebel groups have stepped into the vacuum, resulting in further displacement and violence in areas where state presence is almost nonexistent. In the first three months of 2017, more than 3,500 people were displaced along the Pacific coast as paramilitary groups such as the Autodefensas Gaitanistas de Colombia continue fighting for control of territories where Afro-Colombians and indigenous peoples live.

Efforts to protect the millions of IDPs have led to the creation of mechanisms to support humanitarian response, reparation, and integration. Several programs and laws, shaped in cooperation with international organizations, have been adopted to provide sustainable solutions:

Law 387 of 1997: Recognized the existence of internal displacement and sought to adopt measures to prevent forced displacement, including attention, protection, and socioeconomic stabilization of displaced peoples.

In 2011, the Law of Victims and Restitution of Land for the first time incorporated a judicial mechanism for the restitution of land seized from or abandoned by victims of the conflict. Since then, it has provided financial assistance, reparation, and a pathway to land restitution for victims. By 2015, the government had restored land to 4,127 families, of a total 81,050 requests. Many land restitution processes must await better conditions.

In 2012, UNHCR and the UN Development Program launched the Transitional Solutions Initiative, a joint program intended to restore communities and facilitate humanitarian assistance for IDPs.

Government-provided emergency assistance is available for IDPs in urban centers, for a three-month period. Many IDPs are not aware of their rights, and as a result, do not register for assistance. This has led to the establishment of informal settlements which sometimes become hotspots for drug trafficking and extortion. Despite precarious conditions in urban settings, most IDPs in cities expect to establish permanent residence there and are reluctant to return or relocate to rural areas.

While the flow of refugees to neighboring countries has decreased in recent years, the need for protection remains high. Continued violence in some parts of Colombia makes voluntary repatriation unpopular for most refugees.
Colombia-Venezuela Migrant Crisis
Although Colombians have been migrating to Venezuela since the 1970s, this pattern began to reverse in 2004. The first wave of Venezuelan immigrants was comprised of oil industry professionals who migrated in the aftermath of mass layoffs from the state-run oil company, Petroleos de Venezuela (PDVSA). A second wave, starting in 2010, included Venezuelan executives and investors seeking to protect their assets from rising inflation, currency devaluation, and state nationalization policies. A third wave of professionals and students arrived following widespread antigovernment protests in 2014. The Association of Venezuelans in Colombia estimates 1.2 million Venezuelans reside in Colombia, legally and illegally.

Amid Venezuela's rapidly deteriorating economic and political situation, which brought hyperinflation, unemployment, and food shortages, migration flows have sharply increased over the past two years. The current wave is mostly comprised of Colombian returnees. The Venezuelan government closed the border in 2015 and deported hundreds of Colombians, after accusing Colombians of causing shortages by smuggling goods across the border. Thousands of Colombians and Colombo-Venezuelans returned voluntarily due to the state of emergency declared in Venezuela. Upon the reopening of the border in July 2016, an estimated 200,000 people rushed into Colombia to buy food and medicine and access health services no longer available to many in Venezuela.

Official data show an uptick in numbers of arrivals from Venezuela. Some 379,000 Venezuelans entered Colombia in 2015, up from 251,000 in 2012. While most were temporary stays, a growing number have remained, with almost 67,700 Venezuelans who entered in 2016 remaining, up from 13,500 in 2012. Applications for permanent residency have more than doubled since 2012, increasing from around 7,000 to 15,500 in 2016.

Local authorities in Colombia have raised concerns about the numbers of immigrants and returnees seeking access to basic services. Some of the most pressing challenges include reallocating limited resources to accommodate the needs of migrants, returnees, and the local population. At the national level, the Colombian government has increased oversight of irregular migrants from Venezuela and has issued special border transit cards (Tarjetas de Tránsito Fronterizo) to facilitate and track migrant flows between Colombia and Venezuela.
Irregular Migration from Beyond South America
Due to its strategic location, Colombia has also seen increases in irregular mixed migration flows from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, making it a major transit country for extracontinental migrants in recent years. Migrants from Africa and Asia often fly into countries with relatively lax visa policies such as Ecuador, then travel by land through South and Central America toward the United States and Canada. As the only land gateway from South America to Central America, Colombia receives a considerable amount of unauthorized migrants who arrive via Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador. In 2016, Migración Colombia deported 34,000 unauthorized migrants, the highest number since tracking began in 2011.
Figure 3. Top Five Countries of Origin of Unauthorized Migrants in Colombia, 2016

Source: Migración Colombia, "Cerca de 34mil Migrantes Fueron Detectados por Migracion Colombia en 2016" (press release, January 12, 2017), available online.

Irregular migration often coexists with criminal activity in remote border areas where state presence is limited. Most irregular migrants use smuggling networks to pass through Colombia without being intercepted. Smugglers often recruit and use migrants to smuggle drugs over the border. Some migrants request asylum, allowing them to move freely within the country and across borders.

Triggered by the rapprochement between the United States and Cuba and anticipated end of U.S. policies that are uniquely preferential to Cubans, a surge of Cuban migrants arrived in northwest Colombia in 2016, causing a crisis. Key border crossings in the region were closed, leaving hundreds of Cubans and other extracontinental migrants stranded.
Figure 4. Irregular Migration Routes through Colombia
Source: Map created by Valentina Carvajal using route information from Jacqueline Charles, "New Migration: Haitians Carve a Dangerous 7,000 Mile Path to the U.S.", Miami Herald, September 24, 2016, available online; and Karl Vick, "The Long Way to America," TIME, October 12, 2016, available online.

Colombia is also a source of illegal immigration. Major migrant smuggling networks are responsible for facilitating the transit of Colombians with counterfeit visas to North America and Europe. Unauthorized Colombians are also found in large numbers in South America, including Venezuela, Ecuador, Chile, and Peru, with a growing number heading to Chile in particular.

Human trafficking is also an issue of significant concern for Colombian authorities. Although Colombia is predominantly a country of origin for human trafficking, it is also one of transit and destination for traffickers and victims. Sexual exploitation and forced labor account for the majority of victims sent to the Caribbean, the United States, Europe, Asia, and elsewhere in South America.
Labor Migration
Flexible labor policies introduced during the 1990s progressively facilitated labor migration to Colombia and helped usher in a flow of foreign investment, multinational companies, and highly skilled professionals. The introduction of a new visa regime in 2004 eased controls on investors and professionals. Work permits for foreign workers are now regulated by Decree No. 834 of 2013, which eliminated previous restrictions and improved conditions for foreign workers.

Labor migration has increased as the oil, mining, transport, and manufacturing industries have grown, attracting significant foreign investment in recent years. After tourism and temporary stays, labor migration accounted for the third largest flow of foreigners arriving in Colombia in 2015. Venezuela was the top origin for labor migrants to Colombia in 2013, accounting for 20 percent of the total. It was followed by the United States (14.7 percent) and Mexico and Argentina (7.2 percent each).

Colombia has also seen considerable growth in Chinese labor migration over the last decade, owing to the promotion of commercial and cultural ties between the two countries. An estimated 25,000 Chinese resided in Colombia in 2014, up from 10,000 in 2008. This highly skilled labor force works primarily in the oil, telecommunications, timber, and auto industries.
Brain Drain
Brain drain is a major issue for Colombia. Nearly one-third (29 percent) of Colombian immigrants living in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries in 2011 were college-educated professionals. Spain, the United States, France, Germany, Australia, Brazil, and Argentina have been the leading destinations for highly qualified Colombians. Those with postgraduate or doctoral degrees in engineering and science are particularly likely to emigrate. Although the government has developed initiatives to encourage the return of Colombian professionals, the lack of a comprehensive plan guaranteeing employment, competitive salaries, and further investment in science and research discourages the return of many.
A Sustainable Peace?
After Colombian voters narrowly rejected a historic peace deal between the government and the FARC in October 2016, Congress approved a revised version in December 2016. Multiple unsuccessful negotiations over three decades and four years of talks in Cuba finally resulted in a comprehensive agreement to end the war. The deal encompasses a wide range of issues, including agrarian development policy, political participation and inclusion of marginalized groups, victim reparation, and end to the violence. Under UN supervision, 7,000 FARC rebels have demobilized to transition zones and pledged to give up their arms.

Although the peace agreement represents unparalleled progress toward a conflict-free Colombia, thousands remain at risk of displacement due to ongoing conflict between remaining guerrillas, right-wing paramilitary groups, and criminal bands as they fight for the formerly FARC-controlled illicit drug trade, illegal mining sites, and rural zones. Rural, indigenous, and Afro-Colombian communities are particularly vulnerable. If provided the opportunity for safe return or relocation, IDPs could be the key to sustainable peace and reconciliation.

Still struggling to emerge from decades of war, Colombia faces new challenges that will test its policies, migration and otherwise. Amid the recent influx of extracontinental migrants and Colombian returnees from Venezuela, Colombia faces a growing demand for services for asylum seekers, refugees, and returned migrants. And most crucially, the post-conflict era will continue to be defined by the need for full integration of IDPs into Colombia's future, by ensuring the sustainable development of the urban areas that have become home to so many and that those who return or relocate to rural areas are not at risk of becoming victims again. Developing strategies targeted at facilitating local integration, protecting populations at risk such as indigenous groups and Afro-Colombians, and promoting the active participation of IDPs, refugees, and the diaspora abroad in the implementation of the peace deal will be crucial in Colombia's search for lasting peace.
Sources
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Banco de la Republica Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango. N.d. Prehispanic Societies: A Timeline. Accessed March 17, 2017. Available online.

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Chambers, Roberts and William Chambers. 1903. The Chambers Journal. A Treasure Lake in South America. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers, Limited.

El Tiempo. 2011. Las Huellas de los Judíos en Colombia. El Tiempo, March 19, 2011. Available online.

Erazo, Claudia. 2016. Colombia: Las Amenazas al Proceso de Restitución de Tierras. Kaos en la Red, May 12, 2016. Available online.

Kelleher, Richard. 2017. Colombia Deported a Record Number of Migrants in 2016: Authorities. Colombia Reports, January 17, 2017. Available online.

Kraul, Chris. 2017. Colombia Has a Peace Deal, but Can It Be Implemented? Los Angeles Times, March 13, 2017. Available online.

Lane, Kris and Matthew Restall. 2012. The Riddle of Latin America. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

López, Gustavo. 2015. Hispanics of Colombian Origin in the United States, 2013. Statistical Profile, Pew Hispanic, September 15, 2015. Available online.

Mendoza Weber, Cristina. 2011. Alemanes en Colombia: En Búsqueda de Oportunidades. Deutsche Welle, April 17, 2011. Available online.

Migración Colombia. 2017. Cerca de 34mil Migrantes Fueron Detectados por Migracion Colombia en 2016. Press release, Migración Colombia, January 12, 2017. Available online.

Naranjo, Alberto. 2014. Migración Venezolana: Reto para Economía Colombiana. Dinero, March 3, 2014. Available online.

Otis, John. 2016. Colombia, FARC Reach Deal to End Armed Conflict. National Public Radio, August 25, 2016. Available online.

Pew Research Center. 2016. Origins and Destinations of the World's Migrants, from 1990-2015. Colombia. Data tool, Pew Research Center, May 17, 2016. Available online.

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Scarpaci, Joseph. 2005. Plazas and Barrios: Heritage Tourism and Globalization in the Latin American Centro Historico. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.

Semana. 2016. El Impresionante Éxodo de Venezolanos a Colombia. Semana, July 7, 2016. Available online.

Tovar Pinzón, Hermes. 2006. Emigración y Éxodo en la Historia de Colombia. Amérique Latine Histoire et Mémoire. Les Cahiers ALHIM, March 7, 2016. Available online.

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UNICEF. 2013. Colombia: Migration Profiles. Fact sheet, UNICEF, 2013. Available online.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA). 2015. Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by Origin and Destination, 2015 Revision (United Nations database, POP/DB/MIG/Stock/Rev. 2015). Available online.

UNHCR. 2012. La Operación del ACNUR en Colombia. Video, UNHCR, April 11, 2012. Available online.

---. 2016. Colombia: Hoja Informativa. Fact sheet, UNHCR, December 2016. Available online.

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---. 2017. Situación Colombia. Updated March 20, 2017. Available online.

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World Bank and Global Development Partnership on Migration and Development (KNOMAD). 2016. Migration and Remittances: Recent Developments and Outlook. Migration and Development Brief 26, World Bank and KNOMAD, April 2016. Available online.

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As Colombia Emerges from Decades of War, Migration Challenges Mount

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Colombia has more internally displaced persons (IDPs) than any other country in the world, the result of a 52-year civil war. Beyond improving the lives of its 7.3 million IDPs, the country faces a number of crucial migration issues as it works to achieve stability in the wake of an historic peace accord signed in late 2016.

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Silje Immerstein, Research Associate at World Education Services

In this article we will provide an overview of the Colombian education system, highlighting its history development, structure and grading scales. We also take a look at current and future trends in international academic mobility from the country. WES recently presented a webinar on the education system in Colombia as well; you can access the archive here.

The education sector in Colombia has grown exponentially since the 1960s. Between 1966 and 1986 government funding to the sector increased five-fold. As a result, primary school enrollment more than doubled, secondary school enrollment grew six-fold and university enrollment increased fifteen times.

Despite this progress, equal access to education and education quality differed significantly across regions and social classes, particularly beyond the primary level. New initiatives have been launched in the past two decades to address these issues. In 2002, the government launched a comprehensive education improvement program called Revolución Educativa. This reform called for a complete transformation of the education system with an emphasis on improving quality and increasing coverage. Additional efforts include the 2010 mandate by the Colombian Constitutional Court that all public primary schools should be free of charge. In 2012 the mandate was extended to public secondary schools. In 2015, Colombia's education budget increased by 5.75%, reflecting President Juan Manuel Santos' goal to make Colombia Latin America's most educated country by 2025. Recent data show an overall increase in educational access and attainment, especially in low-income populations, indicating that students from all economic backgrounds are benefitting from increased education opportunities.

With its 1,138,910 sq km, Colombia is the fifth largest country in Latin America - almost twice the size of Texas. It shares borders with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and Panama, and has a population of over 46 million. The country's official language is Spanish, and 90% of the population is Roman Catholic. Administratively, it is divided into 32 states ( departamentos) plus the capital district of Bogota.

Student Mobility

According to UNESCO data, there were approximately 23,600 Colombian students studying abroad in 2012. During the school year 2014-2015 there were 7,169 Colombian students studying at U.S. institutions of higher education - an increase of 1.2% from the previous academic year. Other favored study destinations for Colombian students are Spain, France and Canada. The distribution of undergraduate (40.9%) and graduate students (39.2%) is relatively evenly divided, and the top three most popular fields of study for Colombian students are Business Management (20.2%), Engineering (14.4%), and Social Sciences (10.8%).

The mobility of Colombian students to the U.S. more than doubled from 1997/98 to 2001/02 reaching a record high of 8,068. A ten-year decline followed with the exception of the academic year 2008/09 when mobility again increased. Colombian mobility seems to be recovering with student numbers having increased in the past three years. Colombia is now the twenty-fourth leading place of origin for students coming to the U.S., and it is the fourth largest sending market in Latin America after Brazil, Mexico and Venezuela.

Only 2% of Colombian tertiary students are enrolled abroad, but U.S. universities can expect a continued growth in Colombian student mobility to the U.S. as the Colombian government has made academic mobility central to its overall education plan. An example of this is the government's commitment to the 100,000 Strong in the Americas project. This initiative by President Obama aims to increase the number of U.S. students studying in the Western Hemisphere, and the number of Western Hemisphere students studying in the United States to 100,000 by 2020. With support from Colombia's National Training Service ( Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje - SENA), the program will provide grants to stimulate institutional partnerships and increase academic mobility between U.S. and Colombia. Colombia is the first Latin American country to commit to this initiative. Colombia is also eager to expand its internationalization efforts through exchange programs. The country can be expected to be a central player in the international education landscape in the future.

Education System

Colombia has an eleven-year system of elementary and secondary education, consisting of five years of elementary education, four years of lower secondary education and two years of upper secondary education. There are three levels of university studies: profesional (professional/undergraduate), maestría/magister (master's degree), and doctor (doctoral/PhD). There are also non-university higher education degrees, técnico (technician) and tecnólogo (technologist), offered at technical institutions as well as university level institutions.

The Ministry of Education ( The Ministerio de Educación Nacional) regulates all levels of education. The 32 states ( departamentos) in Colombia are charged with administering education in accordance with the ministry's regulations and guidelines. The state authority of education is the Secretariat of Education ( Secretarí a de Educación). The Ministry of Education outlines the learning objectives and subject areas for each grade level, but schools are allowed to organize their own specific study plans in accordance with community and regional needs.

The basic education cycle is free and compulsory for all Colombian children between the ages of five and 15. On the university level, fees are decided according to the socioeconomic background of each student. Public universities fees usually amount to around US$970 per semester and private universities typically charge between $970-5,330 per semester.

Language of instruction is Spanish, but bilingualism is starting to take on a new role in Colombia. In 2004, the Ministry of Education launched the National Bilingual Program, adding English as a foreign language to the overall education agenda. Through increased English language skills, Colombia aims to increase academic and labor mobility of its people and it is also believed to be key to improving the country's global competitiveness. English is now part of the state curriculum and bilingualism is a criteria for accreditation of higher education programs.

The National Ministry of Education offers two options for the school calendar: "A" and "B." Most departments use calendar A, which consists of two semesters that runs from February until November. Calendar B is also divided into two semesters but runs from September to June. Both calendars follow a 198-day school year.

Primary Education

Primary education ( Educaci ó n Primaria) in Colombia is five years in length, and runs from grade one through five, with most children starting at age 6.

The primary education curriculum is set by The Ministry of Education, and comprises nine educational areas:

Natural sciences and environmental education

Social sciences, history, geography, political constitution and democracy

Art education

Ethics and human values

Physical education, recreation and sport

Religious education

Humanities, Spanish and foreign languages

Mathematics

Technology and information technology

Students receive the certificate Certificado de Educación Primaria upon completion.

Secondary Education

Secondary education lasts 6 years and is divided into two cycles; lower secondary school ( Educación Secundaria Bá sica) and upper secondary school ( Educación Media).

Lower Secondary Education

Lower secondary school ( Educación Básica Secundaria), is 4 years in length and runs from grade six through nine. Most students start at age 11.

All students receive the same fundamental academic instruction in lower secondary school, and the curriculum is similar to that in primary school, with additional technical subjects and a foreign language.

Completion of this cycle leads to a Certificate of Basic Baccalaureate Studies ( Certificado de Estudios de Bachillerato Básico or Certificado de Conclusión del Ciclo Básico).

Upper Secondary Education

Upper Secondary Education ( Educación Media) lasts two years, runs from grades 10 through 11, and is intended for students between the ages of 15-16.

At this level, students choose between different specialized programs or "tracks." There are two different tracks: Academic ( Bachillerato Académico) and technical ( Bachillerato en Tecnología o Aplicado). The academic track provides students with a general education in arts, sciences and humanities. The technical track is more vocational in nature and aims to prepare students to enter the work force. The technical track is further divided into:

Technical Track (Bachiller en Tecnología o Aplicado)

Industrial track (Bachillerato Industrial)

Business track (Bachillerato Comercial)

Pedagogical Track (Bachillerato Pedagógico)

Agricultural Track (Bachillerato Agropecuario)

Social Promotion Track (Bachillerato de Promoción Social)

Upon completion of secondary school, students are awarded the title of Baccalaureate ( Título de Bachiller), which gives access to higher education. This credential is equivalent to a U.S. high school diploma.

Depending on the track followed, the name of the credential will vary:

To qualify for higher education studies, all students, regardless of chosen track, need to pass a state exam ( Examen de Estado), an achievement and competency test that is administered by the Instituto Colombiano para la Evaluación de la Educación (ICFES). The exam is administered twice a year. Similar to the U.S., the results required for admission to higher education vary from institution to institution.

Higher Education

Higher education is available from both private and public institutions. Higher education in Colombia is slightly more privatized than U.S. higher education:

Higher education ( educación superior) in Colombia follows a three-tier degree structure - undergraduate, graduate and doctoral level.

There are three types of undergraduate ( pregrado) degrees:

There are also three types of graduate ( posgrado) degrees:

There are four types of higher education institutions in Colombia:

Most of Colombia's tertiary student population is enrolled in undergraduate programs and there are more students who earn especialista degrees than master's degrees:

Admissions

Students must receive a bachiller credential and pass the national entrance examination ( Examen del Estado) in order to be granted admission to an institution of higher education. Similar to the U.S., there is no national body coordinating the higher education admissions process. Each institution has its own criteria and processes; some have their own tests, interview candidates; many have minimum test requirements, or require students to have studied specific subjects. Often, institutions will use a combination of these assessment methods.

Accreditation

All higher education institutions and programs must be registered with the Ministry of Education. Institutions that are registered and have been given permission to offer study programs and award degrees receive the official recognition status ' Registro Calificado', which means they have been quality controlled to ensure that they meet specified minimum quality requirements. A list of registered institutions can be found here.

Accreditation in Colombia is voluntary and only enhances the recognition status. Accreditation is seen as an opportunity for higher education institutions to pursue the highest level of quality, and serves as an indication of the quality of the institution. A list of accredited institutions can be found here. Currently, 34 out of a total of 384 registered higher education institutions are accredited (less than 10%).

WES considers the status of Registro Calificado to be comparable to regional accreditation, since higher education institutions with this status have undergone inspections and quality assurance procedures and have earned the basic benchmark of academic legitimacy.

Grading Scales

Upper Secondary Education - Grading Scale (before 2009):

Upper Secondary Education - Grading Scale (from 2009):

Higher Education Grading Scale - All higher education institutions use a nationally mandated 5 point grading scale:

WES Document Requirements

Clear and legible photocopies of all graduation certificates or diplomas

g. Título de Técnico Superior/ Tecnólogo, Profesional/ Licenciado, Maestro/ Magister, Doctor.

Submitted by Applicant

Academic transcripts that list all subjects taken and grades earned for each year of study

Certificado de estudios /calificaciones

Sent directly to WES by the institutions attended

Translations of all foreign language academic documents

Sample Documents: Colombia

This file of Sample Documents (pdf) shows the following set of annotated credentials from the Colombian education system:

1. High school diploma

2. High school degree certificate

3. High school transcript

4. Translation

5. Bachelor's diploma

6. Bachelor's degree certificate

7. Transcript request form

8. Translation

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Silje Immerstein, Research Associate at World Education Services In this article we will provide an overview of the Colombian education system, highlighting its history development, structure and grading scales. We also take a look at current and future trends in...Read more

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Colombia is the home of many colorful festivals and traditions taking place throughout the year, with many Colombia holidays largely dictated by the Catholic calendar. Carnivals are a major focus, with most cities and towns having at least one at some point in the year, that feature costumes, parades, music, food, wild parties, and dancing.

Carnaval del Diablo

The town of Rio Sucio hosts the Carnaval del Diablo (Festival of the Devil) on odd numbered years biannually, in a party to ward off sadness. The event is a synthesis of indigenous pagan and Catholic beliefs and features feasts, costumes, dancing, music, and poetry under the spell of sugar cane liquor. Festivities end with the reading of the testament, a burning of the devil and the burying of the gourd.

Carnaval de Negros y Blancos

The Carnaval de Negros y Blancos, or Festival of Blacks and Whites, is one of the major events in Southern Colombia, celebrated in Pasto over a week in early January. It has earned UNESCO designation for being a masterpiece in oral and intangible heritage of humanity. The first day of the celebration involves the Colonies Parade, a rock concert where farmers offer tributes of flowers and songs to the Virgin of Mercy in return for a good harvest. Day two is the Children's Carnival followed by the Arrival of the Castaneda Family on the third, a colorful cartoon with all the stereotypes including a pregnant bride and a drunk priest. Day four and five are Blacks and Whites Day respectively followed by a Grand Parade on the fifth. The final day is devoted to Rural Culture and a Cuys Festival.

Barranquilla Carnival

Carnaval is held in the port town of Barranquilla over the three days leading up to Lent, the Catholic fast. Participants dress up in exotic costumes and take part in a grand parade with a queen, floats, salsa music, rumba dancing, food, drink and partying.

Santa Semanta

Easter holy week takes place at the end of March/beginning of April each year and is the biggest festival of the year in Catholic Colombia. The city of Popaya is widely considered to be the religious center of the country and is home to an Easter procession that is regarded by many as the finest in South America. Groups of up to eight people carry large wooden platforms depicting scenes from the bible through the cobblestone streets in a parade that lasts many hours.

Bogota International Book Fair

The Bogota International Book Fair is a two week event that has been taking place in in April or May since 1988. It is one of the world's major literary festivals and is one of Latin America's most significant cultural gatherings. Each year, a different country gets to be the principal character which turns Colombia into the biggest library on the planet, drawing writers, illustrators, publishers, editors, readers and book lovers from all over. Besides a massive trade fair for the publishing industry, the event features talks, workshops, concerts, exhibitions, food, drink and a children's program. Colombia is, after all, the home of celebrated author Gabriel Garcia Marquez.

Festival of the Flowers

The city of Medellin has been hosting the Festival of the Flowers since 1957. Taking place over ten days in early August, there are concerts, parades, food and drink, an orchid exposition, and a competition amongst saddlemen bearing flowers on horseback. Common decorations include agapanthus, carnations, chrysanthemums, gladioli, lilies, orchids, roses, and sunflowers.

Day of the Candles

The Day of the Candles occurs on December 7 and marks the unofficial start of the Colombian Christmas season. At night, streets and homes are festooned with candles and paper lanterns, creating tunnels of light to honor the Catholic Immaculate Conception the following day. There are competitions for the best light displays and many towns hold concerts and fireworks shows.

Christmas

The population of Colombia is a largely Catholic, so Christmas events, celebrating the birth of Jesus, are second only to Easter. Many of the devout participate in Novena, daily religious gatherings that start on December 16 with many churches offering morning and night masses, culminating with midnight mass on Christmas Eve, December 24. Novenas are often family events with prayers, bible readings, games, carols, and music. The celebrations begin at midnight on Christmas Eve with prayers, gift giving, feasts, fireworks and parties that last until dawn. Christmas Day is a public holiday, a quieter time for family gatherings.
Click here for an Overview of Colombia

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Colombia is the home of many colorful festivals and traditions taking place throughout the year, with many Colombia holidays largely dictated by the Catholic calendar. Carnivals are a major focus, with most cities and towns having at least one at some point in the year, that feature costumes, parades, music, food, wild parties, and dancing.

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Colombia has more public holidays than in the U.S. or countries in Europe. Colombia currently has 18 public holidays and 12 of these are Catholic holidays. Furthermore, Colombia holidays are known as festivos.

Reportedly only two countries in the world have more public holidays than Colombia - Sri Lanka and India - according to WorldAtlas.

Once you have lived in Colombia for a while you get used to there being a lot of holidays each year in Colombia. In addition, several readers of the Medellin Guru website have asked for details about the Colombia holidays. So, we are providing this guide to all the public Colombia holidays.

Also, I previously included Colombia having more holidays than the U.S. as one of 27 Reasons I Chose to Live in Medellín.

Note: this popular article about Colombia holidays has been updated with the 2019 dates for all the Colombia holidays.

Colombia Holidays: The Official Holidays in 2019

Many of the dates for holidays in Colombia fluctuate from year to year. For many Colombia holidays, if they fall on a weekend or in the middle of the week, the holiday date is moved to the following Monday. So, 8 of the 18 holidays in Colombia in 2019 are on a Monday.

This is known as Emiliani's Law in Colombia, which was enacted on December 6, 1983 as Law 51. This law requires that most holidays are moved to the following Monday. However, Colombia holiday dates associated with Easter, Independence Day, the Immaculate Conception and Christmas are never changed.

In addition, only two months in 2019 - February and September - have no national public Colombia holidays.

Here is a list of all 18 of the official national public Colombia holidays and the dates in 2019 for these holidays. However, two of the official holidays in 2019 fall on the same day. So, there are really 17 holiday days in 2019.

Colombia Holidays #1. January 1 - Tuesday: New Year's Day (Año Nuevo)

New Year's Day is January 1 st, the first day of the year. Most noteworthy, New Year's Day is reportedly the most widely observed public holiday in the world.

All countries except for Israel that use the Gregorian calendar celebrate New Year's Day on January 1 st. Countries that use the Julian Calendar tend to observe New Year's Day on January 14 th.

This holiday is traditionally celebrated with fireworks displays at midnight in the 31st in the local time zones. In Colombia, you'll see fireworks displays in many cities in pueblos. And it's very typical that you will hear fireworks early into the morning in many neighborhoods.

Colombia Holidays #2. January 7 - Monday: Epiphany (Día de Los Reyes Magos)

Epiphany is one of the major religious celebrations in Colombia along with Easter and Christmas. This holiday commemorates the presentation of the infant Jesus to the three wise men.

This holiday is normally celebrated on January 6. But since this falls on a weekend in 2019, the date was moved in Colombia to Monday, January 7.

In Colombia, some keep their Christmas trees up until this date to celebrate. The period between Christmas Day and Epiphany is known as the Twelve Days of Christmas.

Colombia Holidays #3. March 25 - Monday: Saint Joseph's Day (Día de San José)

Saint Joseph's Day is a holiday that celebrates the Virgin Mary's husband and the adoptive legal father of Jesus Christ. This was scheduled for March 19 but changed to March 25, the first Monday after the 19th.

Saint Joseph is the patron saint of the Catholic Church, unborn children, fathers, immigrants and workers. Also, this is a popular day for attending mass in the beautiful churches in Medellín and the Aburrá Valley.

Colombia Holidays #4. April 18 - Thursday: Maundy Thursday (Jueves Santo)

Maundy Thursday is a religious Holy day that is observed all over the world. It was established to commemorate the foot washing (Maundy) and the last supper of Jesus Christ with his Apostles. In addition, this holiday occurs the day after Ash Wednesday and the day before Good Friday.

This holiday combined with Good Friday on April 19 are part of the holy week or Semana Santa in Colombia, which commemorates the death and resurrection of Jesus as told by the New Testament.

It should be noted that many in Colombia take this entire Semana Santa week off. While only two of these days are considered national public holidays and two days are on the weekend, it has become traditional for many smaller businesses in Colombia to close for this entire week.

Semana Santa in 2019 in Colombia is considered to be from Sunday, April 14 to Saturday, April 20. We have a separate guide to Semana Santa in Colombia on this website.

Colombia Holidays #5. April 19 - Friday: Good Friday (Viernes Santo)

Good Friday, also known at Holy Friday, Great Friday and Black Friday, is a religious holiday that commemorates the crucifixion - and eventual death - of Jesus Christ. This holiday is observed on the Friday before Easter Sunday.

In the Roman Catholic tradition, this day is typically treated as a fast day - a day in which one only has one full meal and abstains from the consumption of meat.

Colombia Holidays #6. May 1 - Wednesday: Labor Day (Día del Trabajo)

Labor Day originated in the United States where it falls on the first Monday in September.

Throughout the rest of the world, over 80 countries including Colombia celebrate Labor Day, also known as May Day and International Workers' Day, on the first day of May.

Colombia Holidays #7. June 3 - Monday: Ascension Day (Día de la Ascención)

Ascension Day is the celebration of Jesus rising into heaven after he had spent 40 days on earth after the resurrection. According to the New Testament, this took place before the eyes of his disciples. Ascension Day is the 40 th day of Easter.

In Colombia, as with many other religious holidays, Ascension Day is celebrated on the Monday after the actual date.

Colombia Holidays #8. June 24 - Monday: Corpus Christi

Corpus Christi signifies the body and blood of Jesus Christ. And it refers to the components of the Eucharist also known as the Holy Communion, Last Supper or Lord's Supper. This holiday celebrates Christ's holiness.

Corpus Christi was established to create a feast focused solely on the Holy Eucharist emphasizing the joy of the Eucharist being the body and blood of Jesus Christ.

In 1264 Pope Urban IV declared Corpus Christi as a holiday. And the first country to declare it as a national holiday was Spain in 1280.

Colombia Holidays #9. July 1 - Monday: Sacred Heart (Sagrado Corazón)

The Sacred Heart holiday commemorate the physical heart of Jesus as a symbol of his divine love for all humanity. The devotion to the Sacred Heart originally developed in the middle ages out of worship to the wounds that Jesus received during crucifixion.

In Colombia, this official public holiday always falls on a Monday, since it's celebrated 10 weeks and a day after Easter Sunday.

Colombia Holidays #10. July 1 - Monday: Saint Peter and Saint Paul Day (Día de San Pedro y San Pablo)

This public holiday commemorates the martyrdom (torture, suffering and death) of two saints, the two apostles, Saint Peter and Saint Paul.

This holiday is likely one of the oldest holidays celebrated in the Christian calendar. In 2010, images of Peter and Paul were found on the wall of catacombs dating back to the 4th Century AD.

In 2019, two Colombian holidays are celebrated on July 1: Sacred Heart and Saint Peter and Saint Paul Day.

Colombia Holidays #11. July 20 - Saturday: Colombia Independence Day

This holiday is always celebrated on July 20 in Colombia. On July 20, 1810, an uprising in Bogota is seen as the start for independence in Colombia.

On this date in 1810, Colombian patriots stirred the population of Bogotá into a major uprising in the streets against Spanish rule. And this uprising is celebrated by the Colombia Independence Day holiday.

Independence Day in Colombia is typically celebrated with parades and marches throughout the country. Fireworks, watching sports and listening to traditional Colombian music are other popular activities.

Colombia Holidays #12. August 7 - Wednesday: Battle of Boyacá Day (Día de Batalla de Boyacá)

This holiday in Colombia is celebrated every year on August 7. This marks the date of the Battle of Boyacá on August 7, 1819, which was a decisive victory in the war for Colombia's independence from Spain.

Even though fighting continued for a few more years, the victory at Boyacá is seen as the definitive battle in Colombia's war for independence. This important victory was the precursor for Colombia's eventual independence from Spain.

Colombia Holidays #13. August 15 - Thursday: Assumption of Mary (Asunción de María)

The Assumption of Mary is holiday that is celebrated in August every year. This day commemorates Mary's death and her assumption into heaven.

The Assumption of Mary was first celebrated under Pope Sergius I in the 8th century and Pope Leo IV confirmed the feast as official.

Some people mistakenly believe Mary ascended into heaven. But this is incorrect. It was Jesus Christ who ascended into heaven. While Mary was assumed or taken into heaven by God.

Colombia Holidays #14. October 14 - Monday: Columbus Day (Día de la Raza)

Columbus Day celebrates the day when Christopher Columbus first arrived in the Americas, which occurred in 1492. This is a day that is celebrated in many parts of Latin America and the Caribbean.

Colombia Holidays #15. November 4 - Monday: All Saints' Day (Día de los Santos)

All Saint's Day, also known at All Hallow's Day, Hallowmas, the Feast of All Saints or Solemnity of All Saints is a holiday that is a commemoration day for all Christian saints, known and unknown.

In Roman Catholicism, All Saints' Day is reportedly considered to be a holy day of obligation. So, Catholics are supposed to go to mass on the date unless there is a good reason not to attend, such as illness.

Colombia Holidays #16. November 11 - Monday: Independence of Cartagena

Independence of Cartagena is celebrated on the Monday November. The holiday commemorates November 11, 1811. This is the date when Cartagena became the first Colombian city to declare independence from the Spanish.

Festivities on this day include many parades in Colombia. And the most notable is in Cartagena where the most colorful parade takes place, which ends at Plaza Trinidad, the location where Cartagena's independence was originally declared.

Also, in Cartagena on this date is the 'Battle of Flowers', which is the beauty contest to pick Miss Colombia who will go on to represent Colombia in the Miss Universe contest.

Colombia Holidays #17. December 8 - Sunday: Immaculate Conception Day (Día de la Inmaculada Concepción)

This holiday celebrates the belief that Jesus was born of an immaculate conception to the Virgin Mary. And that Mary was void of original sin all of her life.

This holiday actually starts on the evening before in Colombia. In addition, the Christmas season in Colombia unofficially tends to start on December 7, which is known as Día de las Velitas (Day of Candles).

In the evening on December 7, people place paper lanterns and candles are placed on porches, balconies, streets, sidewalks, squares and parks in cities and pueblos throughout Colombia. On December 8 it is typical for houses in Colombia to hoist a white flag with the image of the Virgin Mary.

Everywhere in the country, you will be able to see these candles and lanterns. They are placed to honor Virgin Mary and the Immaculate Conception.

Colombia Holidays #18. December 25 - Wednesday: Christmas Day (Día de Navidad)

Christmas Day celebrates the nativity of Jesus, which according to tradition took place on December 25, 1 BC. December 25 is a public holiday in many countries around the world.

Christmas is more of a month-long celebration in Colombia than just a day. Medellín in particular celebrates Christmas in a big way each year with its world-class Christmas lights that in 2018 were from November 30, 2018 to January 7, 2019.

Colombian Holidays: The Other Holidays

Some cities in Colombia have additional public holidays. For example, Barranquilla has two holidays on the Monday and Tuesday of Carnival in Barranquilla. These will be on March 4 and March 5 in 2019.

In addition, there are many observed holidays that aren't official holidays. For example, Día de Amor y Amistad (Valentine's Day of Colombia) falls on September 21 in 2019.

Here's a list of several of the observed holidays in Colombia in 2019 that aren't official public holidays:

March 8 - Friday: Women's Day

April 14 - Sunday: Palm Sunday

April 21 - Sunday: Easter Day

April 26 - Friday: Secretaries' Day

April 27 - Saturday: Children's Day

May 12 - Sunday: Mother's Day

May 15 - Wednesday: Teacher's Day

June 16 - Sunday: Father's Day

September 21 - Saturday: Día de Amor y Amistad (Valentine's Day of Colombia)

November 14 - Thursday: Colombian Women's Day

October 31 - Thursday: Halloween

December 24 - Tuesday: Christmas Eve

Many Places Are Closed on Colombian Holidays

In Colombia, on the public holiday dates, all the banks, government offices, many shops and some restaurants close. Larger grocery stores tend to be open and many shops in the malls and movie theaters will be open on Colombia holidays.

In some countries, during holidays everything seems to be closed. In Colombia, the malls and movie theaters tend to be open and are normally be packed on the holidays. So, if you plan to go to a movie on a holiday in Colombia buy a ticket early or you will have to stand in a long line.

The labor laws in Colombia require that employers provide their employees a day off from work for all official national holidays. But these laws do not state whether or not it is required for employees to be paid for national holidays.

However, in many cases, employment contracts provide employees with payment on days off that occur due to an official national holiday. Also, some employees will have to work on holidays, as not everything closes.

The Bottom Line: Colombia Holidays in 2019

Several of the public holidays in Colombia in 2019 fall on a Monday. Also, one is on a Friday this year. So, there are nine long weekends in Colombia in 2019 due to Colombia holidays. As a result, 17 percent of the weeks in 2019 in Colombia are long weekends due to public Colombian holidays.

With so many Colombia holidays each year, it turns out that many Colombians on some of these holidays don't even know what is being celebrated in my experience.

Having many Colombian holidays is probably one of the reasons why Colombia tends to rank highly in global happiness surveys over the past few years.

Most notably, Colombia frequently ranks in the top three. Furthermore, several times Colombia has been ranked number one. For example, here's a survey from WIN/Gallup in 2015 where Colombia was ranked the happiest country in the world.

Also, many of the dates for Colombian holidays change each year. So, we plan to update this article each year or post a new article so this website remains up-to-date.

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Editors note: completely updated on December 28, 2018 this article originally published in February 2018 with the dates for the Colombia holidays in 2019.

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Colombia Holidays: A Guide to the Many Festivos in Colombia

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Colombia has more public holidays than in the U.S. or countries in Europe. Colombia currently has 18 public holidays and 12 of these are Catholic holidays. Furthermore, Colombia holidays are known as festivos. Reportedly only two countries in the world have more public holidays than Colombia - Sri Lanka and India - according to WorldAtlas.

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Cortesía Carnaval de Barranquilla

Colombia is a fascinating country that blends together the traditions of its European, African and indigenous roots while constantly creating new customs to keep its culture unique. Here are five Colombian culture tips that explain what makes the country magical.

Colombian culture is a blend of its many and varied roots and there are many aspects to its customs and traditions that are unique to its shores, and which captivate the thousands of visitors who travel to Colombia every year.

Colombia enjoys up to 18 long weekends every year, an incredible number of holiday Mondays offering residents and visitors the chance to travel, party and celebrate whatever Saint or historical event the long weekend commemorates. More often than not, a long weekend or 'holiday Monday' will coincide with a legendary Colombian festival and no trip to Colombia would be complete without sampling one of those. Visitors can pick between the colorful Barranquilla Carnival, the , the Vallenato Legend Festival, the Cali Fair, Pasto's Black and White Carnival, Huila's Bambuco Pageant and Folkloric Festival, Cartagena's Hay literary festival and many more.

One important custom or tradition in Colombian culture, which is particularly popular in rural areas is the 'Pot Gathering'. This much-loved ritual encourages Colombian families to gather beside their local river, and share the traditional Colombian dish: sancocho This typical stew mixes chicken, pork or beef rib with plantain, potato, corn-on-the-con, cassava, tomato and cilantro, served with rice and avocado. The purpose of the 'Pot Gathering' picnic is to reunite family and friends to share their successes, celebrate special occasions or just have an excuse to bring everyone together.

Colombian culture dictates that there is a cure for every ailment and visitors will often be offered a traditional ' if they suffer any woes. These timeless customs include hierbabuena or spearmint teas for aches and pains, and a chamomile concoction when you cannot sleep. Another favorite is the gel from aloe vera, a plant which grows across Colombia, for scrapes, sunburn and even dandruff and boiled calendula for inflammation, wounds and scarring. The best-loved Colombian custom of all is aguapanela (made from concentrated cane syrup) which is every Colombian grandmother's favorite tradition when it comes to curing a cold, sore throat or a bad attack of the blues.

Colombian culture's customs and traditions will always ensure a very festive season. The most typical Colombian Christmas traditions include eating natilla (a custard dish resembling a flan) and buñuelos (fried dough balls) and attending a Novena de Aguinaldos, when families come together to eat, sing carols ( villancicos) and recite a set of prayers. The novena is prayed and hosted in a different home of a family member or friend on each of the nine nights before Christmas, in honor of the Virgin Mary, St Joseph, the Wise Men and Baby Jesus who sought shelter in a different place each night.

Colombians are famous for expressing their emotions through dance and . Visitors to the country will discover a rhythm for every occasion, from family gatherings to the moments when the national soccer team exceeds expectations on the global stage. Those on holiday or vacation in Colombia should definitely , anything from a few steps of Colombia's world beating salsa or cheeky cumbia to a quick vallenato or even joropo, because Colombian culture really does provide a beat for every moment.

Immerse yourself in Colombia's customs and traditions in your next visit.

These five cultural aspects of Colombia are just a taste of what the country has to offer. Get ready to fall in love with the most welcoming country in the world. Discover more here!

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Colombian culture and famous traditions | Marca País Colombia

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Colombia is a fascinating country that blends together the traditions of its European, African and indigenous roots while constantly creating new customs to keep its culture unique. Here are five Colombian culture tips that explain what makes the country magical.

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Information about the Colombian education system

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Information about the Colombian education system

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ColombiaInfo.org - The Colombia Information Site!

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2 children in a school uniform in Colombia. The educational model of Colombia resembles that of