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LINKS FOR ANIMALS THAT CAN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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LINKS FOR ANIMALS THAT CAN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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https://www.uloop.com/news/view.php/77109/4-Incredible-Photosynthetic-Animals

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We all know that plants are photosynthetic - they can create their own energy by harnessing sunlight through chloroplasts or carotenoids. However, in recent years, a small number of photosynthetic animals have been discovered that process sunlight through symbiosis with algae and even generation of their own electric current.
Sea Slug - Elysia chlorotica
The first of these amazing photosynthetic animals is a sea slug, Elysia chlorotica, which effectively steals genes from the algae that makes up its diet. When E. chlorotica eats the algae, it integrates chloroplasts into its own cells - this process is made possible due to the fact that these slugs have a much less complex food breakdown than most animals. Its intestine lining forms a cell pouch to engulf whole cell parts of whatever it is digesting, allowing the chloroplasts to come through.

Researchers have found that in addition to chloroplasts, E. chlorotica can intake other photosynthetic genes in a horizontal genetic transfer - a process in which genes are transferred between organisms where one is not the offspring of another. HGT is very uncommon in organisms other than bacteria, and causes the slugs to not only retain the algal cells for themselves, but pass them on to their offspring as well. The stolen chloroplasts can be so efficient that these slugs can live up to nine months without eating and still maintain normal nutritional rates.
Spotted Salamander - Ambystoma maculatum
The spotted salamander is similar to the sea-slug in that in order to be partially photosynthetic, it maintains a symbiotic relationship with algae cells. While it has long been known that a relationship existed between the salamander and the algae, it was presumed to be a relationship in which both organisms worked separately. However, when researcher Ryan Kerney was studying a batch of spotted salamander embryos, he found a bright green color coming from inside their cells.

The chloroplasts were found near the mitochondria within the salamander's cells, meaning that the mitochondria were likely directly consuming the oxygen and carbohydrates that are created through photosynthesis. The most amazing part about this relationship is that all vertebrates have strong immune systems that tend to destroy any foreign material found within their cells. Although the reason for this is unknown, this makes the spotted salamander the first vertebrates to be discovered to have the ability to photosynthesize.
Oriental Hornet - Vespa orientalis
The oriental hornet, in contrast to the sea slug and spotted salamander, was discovered by Dr. Jacob Ishay to conduct electricity through the cuticle of its exoskeleton, as well as through silk surrounding the hornet pupae and the colony's comb walls. As opposed to stealing chloroplasts from algae, this photosynthetic insect's yellow band contains xanthoperin, which actively absorbs light and converts it to electricity. Microscopic grooves in the hornet's exoskeleton trap sunlight, and as the photons reach the yellow pigment, they build up voltage.

This voltage is released as current when the hornet is in darkness, and seems to be important for the development of the hornet pupae. The oriental hornet also differs from other wasps in that higher temperatures and current flows correspond to higher activity in the colony - making them most active in the early afternoon as opposed to most wasps that are most active in the first hours after dawn. A solar cell was created by Dr. Marian Plotkin to asses the efficiency of the xanthoperin pigment, and while it was found to be inefficient, the project demonstrated that the pigment really could create electricity from sunlight.
Pea Aphid - Acyrthosiphon pisum
The pea aphid takes advantage of its food source for photosynthetic powers as well as our first two organisms, but it doesn't make use of chloroplasts. While a fungal gene was copied within the aphid's cells, research on the little bugs shows that they make use of production of carotenoids - a type of pigment used for various functions like vision, bone growth, and vitamin production. You might be more familiar with beta carotene, a carotenoid found commonly in carrots, which is often suggested to upkeep vision and bone growth.

After measuring the aphid's adenosine triphosphate (ATP - or energy) levels, it could be seen that different colored aphids had different levels of ATP. Aphid coloring ranges from white to orange to green, white having the lowest amount of carotenoids and green having the highest. Green aphids were found to have significantly more ATP than white aphids, while orange aphids were seen to generate more ATP in light rather than dark. While more research is necessary to be sure that aphids really have photosynthetic abilities, it is clear that carotenoids can absorb light and pass that energy on to the aphids.

Through better understanding and research of these unique animals, we can gain a better understanding not only of how they function, but how they became what they are, and how we may apply our knowledge of them to ourselves and our ever-growing technologies.
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We all know that plants are photosynthetic - they can create their own energy by harnessing sunlight through chloroplasts or carotenoids. However, in recent years, a small number of photosynthetic animals have been discovered that process sunlight through symbiosis with algae and even generation of their own electric current.

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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH encompasses a range of methods concerned with the systematic investigation of social phenomena, using statistical or numerical data. Therefore, quantitative research involves measurement and assumes that the phenomena under study can be measured. It sets out to analyse data for trends and relationships and to verify the measurements made.

Some items, such as height and weight, are easy to measure; others, such as what people think or feel, are difficult to measure. Quantitative research encompasses this entire spectrum. Similar criteria are applied to verify, calculate and analyse data for all types of measurement. Quantitative research may be considered as a way of thinking about the world. It is essentially deductive: measurements are made, analysis is applied and conclusions are drawn. It is pointless to dispute whether quantitative or qualitative research is superior. The researcher may even choose to use both quantitative and qualitative methods in his or her research design, in a combined or mixed methods approach ( Andrew and Halcomb 2009 ). The mixed methods approach will be addressed in a later article in this series. A unique feature of quantitative research is its ability to test theories formally by formulating hypotheses and applying statistical analyses ( Figure 1 ).
Variables
A variable is anything that may be measured in quantitative research, for example height, weight, attitude or wellbeing. There are two types of variable: independent and dependent ( Pierce 2013 ). An independent variable may influence the measurement of the dependent one. For example, if you were studying the relationship between the frequency of positional change and the development of pressure ulcers, positional change would be the independent variable and pressure ulcer development would be the dependent variable.
Measurement
Different kinds of measurement can be placed in a hierarchy, using a theory of measurement ( Stevens...

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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH encompasses a range of methods concerned with the systematic investigation of social phenomena, using statistical or numerical data. Therefore, quantitative research involves measurement and assumes that the phenomena under study can be measured. It sets out to analyse data for trends and relationships and to verify the measurements made.

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Yeast is a single-cell organism, called Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which needs food, warmth, and moisture to thrive. It converts its food-sugar and starch-through fermentation, into carbon dioxide and alcohol. It's the carbon dioxide that makes baked goods rise.

Fast Facts

What Is Yeast?

Yeast is an egg-shaped single-cell fungus that is only visible with a microscope. It takes 20,000,000,000 (twenty billion) yeast cells to weigh one gram. To grow, yeast cells digest food and this allows them to obtain energy.

When baking yeast-leavened bread, the yeast ferments the sugars in the flour and releases carbon dioxide. Because the dough is elastic and stretchable, the carbon dioxide cannot escape. The expanding gas causes the dough to inflate or rise. Yeast is also an essential ingredient in brewing beer. The yeast eats the sugar in beer and produces carbon dioxide and alcohol.

There are two types of yeast available: Brewer's yeast, a wet yeast used primarily in beer making and baker's yeast, which is used as a leavening agent. There are then two types of baker's yeast-fresh yeast and active dry yeast.

Fresh yeast, also called wet, cake, and compressed yeast comes in small square cakes that are made of fresh yeast cells. These blocks of fresh yeast, often used by professional bakers, are comprised of 70 percent moisture, and therefore are quite perishable.

There are two types of dry yeast: Active dry yeast and instant yeast. The only difference between the two is the size of the granules; active yeast has larger granules while instant has been ground into a finer texture. Instant is named as such because it can be added directly to other ingredients; it does not need to be dissolved in water before using as active dry yeast does. Active dry yeast is dormant until proofed, which occurs when it is dissolved in a small amount of lukewarm water (about 110 degrees Fahrenheit).

Instant yeast is also available as rapid or quick rising. This type of yeast includes enzymes and additives to help the dough rise faster. When using rapid-rise yeast, it will take half of the time to make bread rise, or if the recipe calls for two sets of rising times, you can skip one of them and proceed to kneading and shaping the loaves.

Yeast is used in baking bread. There are a few dessert recipes that call for yeast such as Christmas bread, sweet rolls, and bee sting cake. It's also essential for beer production.

How to Cook With Yeast

If you are unsure if your yeast is still alive, you can easily test it. Pour about 1/2 cup lukewarm water into a bowl and sprinkle over the yeast along with a pinch of sugar. Stir, and let sit for a few minutes; if it completely dissolves and the liquid bubbles, it means the yeast is active.

Yeast needs warm temperatures to activate, so when placing the dough to rise, make sure it is sitting in a place that is 70 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit. And if your recipe includes a lot of eggs, butter, sugar, and milk, you may need a little more patience; these ingredients slow down the leavening process. If not used right away, fresh yeast can be stored in the refrigerator for up to only three days, so it should be bought in amounts that will be used quickly.

The fresh yeast cake has a stronger smell than dry yeast. It is light beige in color and soft and crumbly in texture. Since it is highly perishable, fresh yeast cakes are stored in the dairy case near the butter, but may not be available in your local supermarket. Depending on the manufacturer, such as Fleischmann's, one cake of fresh yeast equals one envelope of dry yeast. Otherwise, the conversion is 2/3 ounce of fresh yeast equals 2 1/4 teaspoons dry yeast. Fresh yeast is often more expensive than active dry yeast.

What Does Yeast Taste Like?

Fresh yeast has a specific taste. It smells ripe and tastes almost bready and rich. It tastes a bit sour and raw.

Yeast Substitute

You can use baking soda as a substitute for yeast. To do this, you need to add an acid to the mixture. Use equal parts baking soda and lemon juice to equal the amount of yeast used in the recipe.

Yeast Recipes

Yeast is present in a wide variety of baked goods. Try these:

Where to Buy Yeast

The three most common brands of yeast you may find in your local supermarket are Fleischmann's Yeast, Red Star, and SAF Perfect Rise Yeast. Dry yeast is granulated and comes in little 1/4-ounce packets (approximately 2 1/4 teaspoons) or loose in a jar. Fresh yeast can be found in the refrigerated section of the grocery store. The packages may look a bit like foil-wrapped butter.

Once exposed to the air, the yeast should be stored in the refrigerator. You can store yeast in the freezer, which will pause its activity and prolong its shelf life. Just be sure to place it in a well-sealed container before freezing.

Nutrition and Benefits

Yeast-rich foods can provide proteins and B vitamins.﻿﻿ It is essential in keeping the digestive system healthy and in balance since yeast is present in the bacteria in your gut.﻿﻿ The body gets help from yeast in absorbing vitamins and minerals that are found in food.﻿﻿

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What Is Yeast and How Is It Used in Baking?

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Yeast is a single-cell organism, called Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which needs food, warmth, and moisture to thrive. It converts its food-sugar and starch-through fermentation, into carbon dioxide and alcohol. It's the carbon dioxide that makes baked goods rise. Yeast is an egg-shaped single-cell fungus that is only visible with a microscope.

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LINKS FOR ALCOHOLIC AND LACTIC ACID FERMINTATION

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LINKS FOR ALCOHOLIC AND LACTIC ACID FERMINTATION

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https://askanydifference.com/difference-between-alcohol-and-lactic-acid-fermentation/#:~:text=Comparison%20Table%20Between%20Alcohol%20and%20Lactic%20Acid%20Fermentaion,and%20py%20...%20%202%20more%20rows%20

https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-lactic-acid-and-vs-alcoholic-fermentation/#:~:text=Both%20processes%20produce%20energy%2C%20but%20a%20low%20amount,results%20in%20ethanol%20and%20carbon%20dioxide%20from%20glucose.

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The fermentation process is very necessary for our body's functioning. It is a chemical reaction that takes place inside the body. In this process, molecules of glucose are broken down. The process is anaerobic, which means that energy is released, and the reaction takes place without the presence of oxygen. For example, in the making of wine and alcoholic drinks, foaming occurs, which reflects that it is the fermentation process.

Alcohol and Lactic Acid Fermentation both are fermentation processes, but the difference is seen in their end products or the products which result after the fermentation process. The Lactic Acid Fermentation process is seen in the human body in building up muscles and is also involved in curd making process. In contrast, Alcohol Fermentation is involved in yeasts processes and producing alcoholic drinks like beer, wine, etc.

Alcohol vs Lactic Acid Fermentation
The main difference between Alcohol and Lactic Acid Fermentation is that Alcohol fermentation does not take place inside our body normally, and it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide from its pyruvate molecule. While the Lactic Acid fermentation process also takes place inside our body for building up muscles. And it produces lactic acid molecules from the pyruvate molecules.
Alcohol fermentation is a biological reaction. In this reaction, sugars like fructose, glucose, and sucrose are converted into cellular energy, which helps in the functioning of the cell. And the result of this reaction produces ethanol and carbon dioxide. It is an anaerobic reaction because it takes place in the absence of oxygen, and mostly this process is seen in yeasts.

Lactic Acid fermentation is considered a metabolic process in which glucose and other types of sugars like disaccharides etc., are converted into energy or cell energy, and it also produces an acid called Lactic acid. This reaction is also anaerobic and is usually seen in some bacteria, in animal cells, such are muscle cells, also known as myocytes.

Comparison Table Between Alcohol and Lactic Acid Fermentaion

Definition

Alcohol Fermentation signifies a metabolic process with the help of which glucose is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Lactic Acid Fermentation signifies a metabolic process in which glucose is converted into lactate and cellular energy.

Steps involved

The Alcohol Fermentation process takes place in two steps.

The Lactic Acid Fermentation Process is short, and the whole process involves only one step.

Occurrence

This process usually occurs in yeasts and other microorganisms.

The Lactic Acid Fermentation process occurs in lactobacillus species, yeasts, and muscle cells.

Process names

Alcohol fermentation involves two processes one is pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase.

It involves lactate dehydrogenase and pyruvate decarboxylase.

Usage

It is used in making bread, beer, wine, vinegar, and other alcoholic drinks.

It is used in the manufacture of yogurt and cheese, etc.

Produces

Alcohol fermentation produces ethanol and carbon dioxide from its pyruvate molecule.

Lactic Acid fermentation builds lactic acid molecules from the pyruvate.

What is Alcohol Fermentation?

Alcohol is also known as ethanol, is made through a fermentation reaction which is called an Alcohol fermentation reaction. The absence of oxygen is a suitable condition for this reaction to occur. This chemical reaction produces two important substances as its by-products that is ethanol and carbon dioxide (CO2). Fishes also go through this reaction, and it provides them cellular energy.

The by-product of this reaction that is ethanol is very much demanded by the markets. As it is used in making lacquers like wine, beer, and whiskey, etc., and it also has several medical uses. It is also antiinfective in nature which is why it is used in cleaning chemicals and sanitizers etc. Ethanol can also be made without the fermentation process, and that ethanol is called synthetic ethanol.

If oxygen is involved in the alcohol fermentation process, it will not produce the required ethanol; instead, it will produce CO2 and water as its by-products. This reaction also takes place in bread making, in which sugar is consumed by yeasts, and by-products are released.

What is Lactic Acid Fermentation?

The Lactic Acid fermentation process signifies a metabolic process in which sugars and their variants are converted into lactate and cellular energy. This process also does not require oxygen, and if oxygen is present many organisms will not go through this creation; instead, they will do cellular respiration. But there are some organisms like facultative which can do both the reactions in the presence of oxygen.

The commonly known product which is produced through Lactic Acid fermentation is yogurt. It is a very popular dairy industry product that is consumed worldwide. Some of the main Lactic acid-forming bacterial strains are Escherichia, Enterobacter, and Citrobacter. And one of the most important bacteria that does Lactic Acid fermentation is lactobacillus bacteria.

Lactic Acid fermentation is the main cause of muscle cramps in our body. It occurs because of a lack of oxygen which usually happens after an intense amount of work or exercise and thus results in Lactic Acid fermentation in our muscles.

Main Differences Between Alcohol and Lactic Acid Fermentation

1. Alcohol Fermentation signifies a metabolic process with the help of which glucose (C6H12O6) is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. On the other hand, Lactic Acid Fermentation signifies a metabolic process in which glucose is converted into lactate and cell energy.

2. The Lactic Acid Fermentation Process is short, and the whole process involves only one step. Whereas The Alcohol Fermentation process takes place in two steps and takes more time.

3. Alcohol fermentation involves two processes one is pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase. While Lactic Acid fermentation involves lactate dehydrogenase and pyruvate decarboxylase.

4. The Lactic Acid Fermentation process occurs in lactobacillus species, yeasts, and muscle cells. And the Alcohol fermentation process usually occurs in yeasts and other microorganisms.

5. Lactic Acid fermentation builds lactic acid molecules from the pyruvate molecules. Whereas Alcohol fermentation produces ethanol and carbon dioxide from its pyruvate molecule.

Conclusion

Several types of chemical reactions take place in our daily life, even inside our bodies. Many chemical relations take place and are called biochemical reactions. For example, the respiration process is a daily chemical reaction that occurs inside our bodies. These reactions release energy which helps us in our daily body functioning. Most of these chemical reactions occur inside the cell of the body.

Alcohol fermentation reaction does not require oxygen for glucose breakdown. This reaction takes place in two steps and is mostly seen in yeasts and other microscopic bacteria. As a by-product, it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide. Ethanol is used in many industries like in lacquer industry, drug industry, etc. While the Lactic Acid fermentation process mostly takes place in lactobacillus organisms and also in animal cells.

References

1. https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/5086960

2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0734975007000961

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Difference Between Alcohol and Lactic Acid Fermentation (With Table)

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The fermentation process is very necessary for our body's functioning. It is a chemical reaction that takes place inside the body. In this process, molecules of glucose are broken down. The process is anaerobic, which means that energy is released, and the reaction takes place without the presence of oxygen.

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Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles, but they're membrane-bound with two different membranes. And that's quite unusual for an intercellular organelle. Those membranes function in the purpose of mitochondria, which is essentially to produce energy. That energy is produced by having chemicals within the cell go through pathways, in other words, be converted. And the process of that conversion produces energy in the form of ATP, because the phosphate is a high-energy bond and provides energy for other reactions within the cell. So the mitochondria's purpose is to produce that energy. Some different cells have different amounts of mitochondria because they need more energy. So for example, the muscle has a lot of mitochondria, the liver does too, the kidney as well, and to a certain extent, the brain, which lives off of the energy those mitochondria produce. So if you have a defect in the pathways that the mitochondria usually functions with, you're going to have symptoms in the muscle, in the brain, sometimes in the kidneys as well; many different types of symptoms. And we probably don't know all of the different diseases that mitochondrial dysfunction causes.

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Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.

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Aerobic Respiration: How does the cell get ATP? Does the cell also undergo respiration? Can a cell respire in the presence or absence of oxygen? The answer to all such questions is cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the process where a cell breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP.

Cellular respiration can take place in the presence or absence of molecular oxygen. Aerobic respiration is a type of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen, while anaerobic respiration is a type of cellular respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen. In this article, we will learn about the definition of aerobic respiration, its steps, significance, and much more.

Definition of Cellular Respiration

The process of breakdown of primary metabolites (like glucose, protein, fatty acids, etc.) in the cell with the release of energy in the form of ATP is called cellular respiration. Cellular respiration takes place in the living cells of organisms.

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Cellular respiration is of two types, i.e. aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.

1. Aerobic respiration: It is a process when glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide in the presence of oxygen to produce energy in the form of ATP.

2. Anaerobic respiration: It is a process when glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen. It is also called fermentation.

Difference Between Respiration and Breathing

Respiration and breathing are two different types of processes that occur simultaneously inside the body, where the former (respiration) is concerned with the production of energy, involves the breakdown of nutrients and converts it into energy, while the latter (breathing) is relatively associated with the process of inhalation and exhalation of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Energy is an essential factor, which is related to the work done by the body. Within the body of all types of living beings like microorganisms, plants, animals, the energy requirement is met by two types of chemical reactions that take place within the cell. These chemical reactions are of two types, one is called aerobic respiration and the other is called anaerobic respiration, which we discussed above.
Learn Energetics of Aerobic Respiration Here
What is Aerobic Respiration?

Aerobic respiration is a process in which the cells utilize oxygen for the degradation of primary metabolites and release energy. It takes place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of the cell and produces ATP ( Adenosine Triphosphate).

Aerobic Respiration Equation

In aerobic respiration, free oxygen is used in the complete breakdown of glucose with the formation of carbon dioxide and water as end-products. The equation of aerobic respiration is given below:

\({{\bf{C}}_{\bf{6}}}{{\bf{H}}_{{\bf{12}}}}{{\bf{O}}_{\bf{6}}} + {\rm{ }}{\bf{6}}{{\bf{O}}_{{\bf{2}}\;}} \to {\bf{6C}}{{\bf{O}}_{\bf{2}}} + {\rm{ }}{\bf{6}}{{\bf{H}}_{\bf{2}}}{\bf{O}}{\rm{ }} + {\rm{ }}{\bf{38}}{\rm{ }}{\bf{ATP}}\)

Glucose + Oxygen 🡪 Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
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Steps Involved in Aerobic Respiration

The aerobic respiration process has three essential steps:

1. Glycolysis or EMP Pathway

2. Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle or TCA Cycle

3. Electron Transport Chain or Terminal Oxidation or Oxidative Phosphorylation

Glycolysis

The highlights of Glycolysis or EMP Pathway are:

1. Origin of the word: The word glycolysis is derived by the combination of two Greek words, Glykos meaning sugar and lysis meaning breakdown or dissolution.

2. Definition: Glycolysis is a process in which glucose is broken down and converted into pyruvic acid in presence of certain enzymes.

3. This pathway is also known as EMP Pathway, as it was discovered by three German scientists, Embden, Meyerhof, and Parnas.

4. Location of Glycolysis: Cytoplasm of the cell

5. Type of pathway: It is an anaerobic oxidative process because it occurs in the absence of free oxygen, and there is a loss of hydrogen.

6. Overall equation: \({\bf{Glucose}} + {\bf{2}}\,{\bf{ADP}} + {\bf{2}}{\rm{ }}{\bf{Pi}} + {\bf{2}}\,{\bf{NA}}{{\bf{D}}^ + } \to {\bf{2}}{\rm{ }}{\bf{Pyruvate}} + {\bf{2}}\,{\bf{ATP}} + {\bf{2}}\,{\bf{NADH}} + {\bf{2}}\,{{\bf{H}}^ + }\)

7. It is a common pathway for both aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.

Krebs Cycle

The highlights of Krebs Cycle are

1. Definition: It is a cyclic aerobic process taking place in the matrix of mitochondria to break down pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide in the presence of certain enzymes.

2. Location of Krebs cycle: It takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.

3. Citric acid is the first product of this cycle. Thus, it is also called a citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle).

4. Since this pathway was discovered by Hans Krebs, it is also called Krebs cycle.

5. Type of pathway: It is a cyclic, aerobic, oxidative, and biochemical pathway. It serves both catabolic and anabolic processes, it acts as an amphibolic pathway.

6. Overall equation: \({\bf{2}}\,{\bf{Pyruvicacid}}{\rm{ }} + \,\,{\bf{8}}\,{\bf{NA}}{{\bf{D}}^ + }\; + {\rm{ }}{\bf{2}}\,{\bf{FAD}} + {\bf{4}}\,{{\bf{H}}_{\bf{2}}}{\bf{O}} + {\bf{2}}\,{\bf{ADP}} + {\bf{2}}\,{\bf{Pi}} \to {\bf{6}}\,{\bf{C}}{{\bf{O}}_{{\bf{2}}\;}} + {\bf{8}}\,{\bf{NADH}}{\rm{ }} + {\bf{8}}\,{{\bf{H}}^ + }\; + {\rm{ }}{\bf{2}}\,{\bf{FAD}}{{\bf{H}}_{\bf{2}}}\; + {\rm{ }}{\bf{2}}\,{\bf{ATP}}\)

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Electron Transport Chain or Terminal Oxidation or Oxidative Phosphorylation

The highlights of electron transport are:

1. Definition: Oxidative phosphorylation is the process of ATP production with the help of energy released during the oxidation of coenzymes. It is the last step in aerobic respiration.

2. Phosphorylation is defined as the process of formation of ATP during a process.

3. Location of Oxidative Phosphorylation: It occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.

4. Type of pathway: It is a linear, aerobic, and oxidative pathway, where oxygen is the terminal acceptor of electrons.

5. The electrontransport chain consists of several electron carriers through which electron moves in sequence and ultimately forms molecular oxygen.

6. Electrons and H⁺ ions are released from \({\rm{NADH + }}{{\rm{H}}^{\rm{ + }}}\) and \({\rm{FAD}}{{\rm{H}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{,}}\) which are in turn formed during glycolysis and Krebs cycle.

7. \({\rm{1 NADH}}\) produces \({\rm{3 ATP}}\) molecules by this pathway.

8. \({\rm{1 FAD}}{{\rm{H}}_{\rm{2}}}\) produces \({\rm{2 ATP}}\) molecules by this pathway.

9. Net gain from this pathway is \({\rm{34 ATP}}\) molecules.

Differences Between Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle

Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm.

Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.

Oxygen is not necessary for glycolysis.

In the Krebs cycle, oxygen is necessary.

It happens in aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

It happens only in aerobic respiration.

It is a linear pathway.

It is a cyclic pathway.

A partial breakdown of glucose takes place converting it to two molecules of pyruvic acid.

A complete breakdown of glucose takes place, where one pyruvic acid gives three carbon dioxide molecules.

It does not evolve carbon dioxide.

It evolves carbon dioxide.

Examples of Aerobic Respiration

The examples of aerobic respiration are:

1. Multicellular organisms like plants and animals produce energy by aerobic respiration.

2. The internal organs of the human body like the brain, heart, liver and red muscle fibres perform aerobic respiration.

Do All Human Cells Carry Out Aerobic Respiration?

No, all human cells do not carry out aerobic respiration. In RBCs, mitochondria are absent and hence they cannot carry out aerobic respiration. Similarly, white muscle fibres and muscles during strenuous activity do not receive adequate oxygen and thus undergo anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration in Plants

Plants do not have specialized organs for respiration like animals and humans. The respiration process in plants occurs using glucose produced during photosynthesis and oxygen to create energy for the plant's growth. Respiration is quite the opposite of photosynthesis. They use carbon dioxide to produce glucose and oxygen and can be used as the source of energy later.

Respiration in plants occurs in the leaves, stems, and roots of the plant, whereas photosynthesis occurs only in the leaves and stems.
In respiration, plants exchange gases through stomata and lenticels. There are two types of respiration in plants:

1. Cellular respiration: The respiration occurring in the normal cells of the body to generate energy.

2. Photorespiration: The respiration carried out mainly in \({{\rm{C}}_3}\) plant cells when the concentration of oxygen is high, carbon dioxide is low and intensity of sunlight is very high. Photorespiration decreases the photosynthetic activity of such plants.

Significance of Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration plays a significant role in releasing a lot of energy which helps in the survival of life. These are the following importance of aerobic respiration:

1. It releases a large amount of energy in comparison to anaerobic respiration.

2. It carries out a complete breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide.

Difference between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

There are substantial differences between both types of respiration:

1. The breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to produce a large amount of energy is called aerobic respiration ; Whereas the
breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen to produce energy is called anaerobic respiration .

2. The chemical equation for aerobic respiration is glucose + oxygen gives carbon dioxide + water + energy whereas the equation for anaerobic respiration is glucose, giving lactic acid + energy

3. Mitochondria in aerobic respiration cytoplasm occurs while anaerobic respiration only occurs in the cytoplasm.

4. High amounts of energy are produced and 38 ATP is released at a time in aerobic respiration; Less amount of energy is produced and 2 ATPs are released at a time in anaerobic respiration.

5. The end products in aerobic respiration are carbon dioxide and water, while lactic acid (animal cells), carbon dioxide
and ethanol (plant cells) are the end products in anaerobic respiration.

6. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and glucose to produce energy whereas anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen but uses
glucose to produce energy.

7. The steps involved in aerobic respiration are - 1. Glycolysis - also known as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnass (EMP) pathway; 2. Respiratory chain (electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation); 3. Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA), also known as citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle, whereas anaerobic respiration involves only two steps, which is 1. Glycolysis and 2.Fermentation.

8. Aerobic respiration refers to the complete process of combustion , whereas it is incomplete in anaerobic respiration.

9. A production of aerobic respiration energy is a long process , whereas anaerobic respiration relative to a faster process is.

10. Examples of aerobic respiration occur in many plants and animals (eukaryotes) while anaerobic respiration occurs in human muscle
cells (eukaryotes), bacteria, yeast (prokaryotes), etc.

We have summarised the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration in the table below:

Basis for Comparison

Aerobic Respiration

Anaerobic Respiration

contains

1. Glycolysis - also called Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway.
2. Respiratory chain (electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation).
3. The tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA), also known as the citric acid cycle or the Krebs cycle.

1. Glycolysis.
2. Fermentation

Summary

Every living organism on this earth needs the energy to carry out various life processes, whether plant, animal, or human. Respiration is the process that is required to produce energy. Aerobic respiration is a part of respiration in which the cells utilize oxygen to degrade primary metabolites to produce energy.

The process of aerobic respiration in cells takes place in three steps, i.e. glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis does not require oxygen, while the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation requires oxygen.

FAQs

Q.1. How does aerobic respiration differ from anaerobic respiration?
Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of free oxygen and anaerobic respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen.

What is aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration?
Ans: Aerobic respiration: It is a process when glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide in the presence of oxygen to produce energy in the form of ATP.
Anaerobic respiration: It is a process when glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen. It is also called fermentation.

Q.6. Which step of aerobic respiration produces maximum ATP?
Oxidative phosphorylation produces maximum ATP, i.e. 34 ATP molecules are formed in this step.
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Aerobic Respiration: Definition, Process & Significance

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Aerobic Respiration: How does the cell get ATP? Does the cell also undergo respiration? Can a cell respire in the presence or absence of oxygen? The answer to all such questions is cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the process where a cell breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP.

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Aerobic cellular respiration refers to the process by which living organisms convert nutrients into energy for the body to use via the oxidization of nutrients. During aerobic respiration, catabolic reactions convert larger complex organic molecules into ATP, the chemical that drives most physiological processes in the body. In other words, respiration is the key way that a cell gets chemical energy to drive cellular activity. The process of aerobic respiration involves 4 main steps: glycolysis, production of acetyl-CoA, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Each step involves the conversion of one or more chemical substances to utilize the chemical energy stored in their bonds.

"No taxation without respiration." - Tom Feeney

Most commonly, the substances utilized in cellular respiration are simple sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids. Aerobic cellular respiration in eukaryotes requires the presence of oxygen as an oxidizing agent. Other forms of cellular respiration that do not use oxygen are fermentation and anaerobic respiration. The relatively large amount of energy yielded from oxidative reactions allows for complex multi-cellular life, so aerobic respiration occurs in virtually all eukaryotic organisms.

Steps Of Cellular Respiration

(1) Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the first step in the chain of catabolic reactions the comprise the process of cellular respiration. During glycolysis, monosaccharides (simple sugars) such as glucose, sucrose, or fructose are converted into pyruvic acid. Incidentally, the word "glycolysis" literally means "splitting sugar." The whole sequence of glycolysis is comprised out of 10 individual reactions, each of which is catalyzed by a different enzyme. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm, the jelly-like substance that fills the inside of cells. For every 1 molecule of glucose, glycolysis produces 2 molecules of pyruvate, 2 molecules of NADH, and 2 molecules of ATP.

The first 5 steps of glycolysis are called the "preparatory phase" as they are energy-consuming reactions that produce 2 three-carbon sugar phosphates. Afterward comes the "pay-off" phase in which the three-carbon sugar phosphates are broken down, resulting in a net gain of 2 molecules of pyruvate, 2 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of NADH.

(2) Pyruvate Decarboxylation

Once pyruvate is formed from glycolysis, the body still needs to process the pyruvate to access the chemical energy stored in its bonds. In the second step of cellular respiration, pyruvate molecules produced by glucose are transported to the cell's mitochondria and are oxidized to produce acetyl-CoA, an enzyme the provides the acetyl base for the next step in cellular respiration. One molecule of pyruvate is oxidized into acetyl-CoA, so two molecules of acetyl-CoA are produced for every initial molecule of glucose.

"Love is when your cells feel powerful enough even with sleeping Mitochondria." - Monica Swain

(3) Citric Acid Cycle

Once acetyl-CoA has been produced by pyruvate oxidization, the next step in cellular respiration occurs. Infamous to intro biology students, the citric acid cycle, (also called the Krebs cycle), is extremely important as it provides the lion's share of energy used to produce ATP during oxidative phosphorylation. It also creates the molecule NADH which is required for the phosphorylation of ADP into ATP. The Krebs cycle consists of 8 definite enzyme-catalyzed reactions and occurs within the mitochondrial matrix, tiny compartments created by the folded inner membrane of the mitochondria.

During the Krebs cycle, two molecules of acetyl-CoA are each completely oxidized into 3 molecules of NADH and 2 molecules of carbon dioxide and water. Since one molecule of glucose produces two molecules of acetyl-CoA, one molecule of glucose ultimately produces 6 molecules of NADH and 4 molecules of carbon dioxide and water.

(4) Oxidative Phosphorylation

The final step in cellular respiration consists of the oxidization of NADH molecules to release energy used to form the majority of ATP produced by cellular respiration. NADH produced from the Krebs cycle has a high electron transfer potential, meaning that a large amount of energy is stored in its chemical bonds. NADH will donate electrons to oxygen molecules and release this stored energy. That energy is then used to add a phosphate group to ADP to create ATP, the fundamental energy currency of living organisms. These oxidization and reduction reactions are also known as the "electron transport chain" and occur in the cristae of the mitochondria. The reactions are driven by enzymes embedded in the surface of the inner membrane.

The oxidization of NADH is a high energy event and can synthesize a number of ATP molecules. For one molecule of glucose, the maximum theoretical yield of the entire process of cellular respiration is 36 molecules of ATP. In actual cells though, energy is always lost due to heat dissipation and proton leakage, making the average total yield around 29-30 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose. Oxidative phosphorylation marks the terminal point of the cellular respiration and the main sequence that accounts for the high ATP yield of aerobic cellular respiration.

Although necessary for multicellular life, in an ironic twist of fate aerobic cellular respiration is thought to also be responsible for the processes that end multicellular life. Oxidative phosphorylation produces highly reactive species of oxygen like superoxides, peroxides, and hydroxyls. These atoms that have unpaired electrons, called "free radicals," build up over time and can wreak havoc on cellular structures such as chromosomes. This damage leads to the mechanical and functional decline characteristic of the aging process.

"Aging is not lost youth but a new stage of opportunity and strength." - Betty Friedan

It is generally accepted that free radical production is responsible in part for aging, but there is some debate over the exact nature of the degradation caused by oxidative stress. Some scientists hold that free radical buildup damages mitochondrial structures, causing increased production of reactive oxygen species. The result is a positive feedback loop where cellular degradation gets progressively worse, leading to the functional failures symptomatic of aging. Others hold that it is the body's ability to stabilize levels of free radicals that determine lifespan, as free radicals are signaling molecules used for maintaining normal cell functioning.

Aerobic cellular respiration is the most basic metabolic pathway found in eukaryotic organisms. Aerobic respiration is fundamental as it allows for the production of ATP, the molecule that drives every physiological process in every known living organism. The high energy yield of aerobic respiration allows for complex multicellular life and is occurring all the time in every cell of the body.

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Aerobic Cellular Respiration: Definition And Steps | Science Trends

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Aerobic cellular respiration refers to the process by which living organisms convert nutrients into energy for the body to use via the oxidization of nutrients. During aerobic respiration, catabolic reactions convert larger complex organic molecules into ATP, the chemical that drives most physiological processes in the body.

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This picture shows what the mitochondria looks like and the different parts of it

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This picture shows electrical energy is shown by power lines, the windmills show mechanical energy, and the solar panels show light energy because the sun light goes off the panels so that other things can get light energy.

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Energy is the ability to do work. There are 6 different types of energy, chemical, mechanical, sound, thermal, light, and electrical. Chemical energy is stored energy that keeps atoms bonded together, for example: Digesting food. Mechanical energy is used when a person or object is moving, for example: a clock or a person walking. Sound energy is carried by sound waves and the sound waves can travel through matter such as solid, liquid and gas, for example: music from a radio. Thermal energy is tiny atom particles that vibrate and the higher the temperature the faster the atoms move, for example: a tea kettle. Light energy or radiant energy is used to be carried by light and used light the human eye can see, for example: X-ray. Lastly electrical energy is carried by charged particles that creates stored electrical energy, for example: A phone.

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The mitochondria is a cell that is made of organelles. Cellular Respiration happens in the mitochondria, it is also the power house of all cells. The mitochondria is in both animal and plant cells. Also, different cells in different parts of the body need different amounts of mitochondria in them because some need more energy than others to be bale to work. It is a double membrane organelle where the inner layer is being folded forward to make more layers.

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Q=Data: Show your experiment data by taking picture of your chart, graph, and qualitative observations.

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Aerobic cellular respiration is normal cellular respiration because it is using oxygen and normal cellular respiration uses oxygen.

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Photosynthesis is a process that all plants do to create their own food. Usually most animals can't do photosynthesis except for very few.
Animals that can photosynthesis are: Sea slugs, Spotted Salamander, Oriental Hornet, and Pea Aphid

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BACKGROUND RESEARCH: SIMILARITES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALCOHOLIC AND LACTIC ACID FERMINTATION

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BACKGROUND RESEARCH: SIMILARITES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALCOHOLIC AND LACTIC ACID FERMINTATION

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Some differences between alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation is that unlike lactic acid fermentation, alcoholic fermentation doesn't take place inside our bodies normally and produces ethanol and carbon dioxide. Lactic acid fermentation also takes place inside the body but, unlike alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation helps the body build muscles. The similarities between Lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation is that they both can produce a low amount of energy and ATP energy.

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Yeast is a single cell fungus that is shaped like an egg. You can only see these cells with a microscope. Twenty billion yeast cells make up one gram of yeast. Yeast grows when cells digest food and they make energy. When you use yeast to make bread, the yeast ferments the sugar into the flour and it produces carbon dioxide. Because the dough is very moldable the carbon dioxide stays inside an does not escape.

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Q= Write a conclusion to your Anaerobic Cellular Respiration Lab in a CER format

A=
C: The temperature impacted the rate of Anaerobic Cellular Respiration by helping or not helping the yeast to eat glucose (cellular respiration) to create carbon dioxide

E: This shows our experiment and data we collected when doing the lab. As you can see procedure 2 had better results than procedure 1.

R: The temperature impacted the rate of anaerobic cellular respiration because for the hot water the yeast reacted to it more than the room temperature water. When we put the ballon over both flasks, the one with hot water started bubbling and filling the ballon with carbon dioxide. The one with the room temperature water did the opposite. It barley bubbled and barley filled the ballon with carbon dioxide. The hot water helped the reaction speed up more than the room temperature water.

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Aerobic Cellular respiration uses the fermentation process which converts nutrients into energy for the body to use. Aerobic cellular respiration involves 4 main steps. The steps are glycolysis, production of acetyl-CoA, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

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Aerobic cellular respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen. Aerobic cellular respiration is the process of when cells use oxygen for the degradation of primary metabolites and release oxygen. This happens in the mitochondria and the cytoplasm, and it produces ATP energy. Another thing is that when this process happens free oxygen is used and completely breaks down glucose and makes carbon dioxde and water.

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Q= What is qualitative and quantitative data?

A=Quantitative data is when your data is when your research shows numbers and statistics. It is also when the thing you are researching can be measured so like weight and height. Also it is essentially deductive so measurements are made, analysis is applied, and conclusions are drawn. Qualitative data is the opposite of quantitative research because while that is used for numbers and statistics this is used for humanities and social sciences. Also, qualitative research is is usually flexible and focuses on saving that rich material when interpreting data.

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Q=Was this an open or closed experiment? Explain.

A=This was a closed experiment because when the yeast, sugar, and water started doing cellular respiration we put the balloon so that we could capture the carbon dioxide and see which balloon produced more. When we put the balloon it turned into a closed experiment because the carbon dioxide could not escape since the balloon was there to stop it from escaping.

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Anaerobic cellular respiration is when cellular respiration happens but there is no oxygen and since there is no oxygen and when there is no oxygen we use the process of fermentation.

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Q= Restate the experiments Scientific Question and your hypothesis.

A= The scientific question is, How does temperature impacted the rate of anaerobic cellular respiration? Our hypothesis is, If the temperature is warm, then there will be more carbon dioxide because yeast rises more in hot temperature.

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Q= After preforming these experiments and researching, what additional questions or experiments would you like to investigate?

A= One of the questions is, why does the water temperature affect the production of carbon dioxide? An additional experiment we would do is using really cold water instead of room temperature or hot water to see if the results different or the same.

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Q=In the experiment, share the independent variable and controls.

A=The independent variable is the water temperature and the controls are yeast, sugar, water, and running the experiments at the same time.