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The Mexican Revolution began during Porfirio Díaz's presidency. Díaz was determined to modernize Mexico and worked on building factories, roads, and other industrial buildings. Workers and peasants suffered due to the rapid industrialization. In order to gain popularity, Díaz bullied and intimidated civilians into supporting his campaign. Civil rights like the freedom of the press were subdued under his regime. What Mexicans were most unhappy about was the legislation passed regarding land ownership. Díaz sold Mexican land to wealthy foreigners in an attempt to strengthen the relationship between the United States and Mexico. Furthermore, Mexicans were not able to own land without a formal legal title. Poorer citizens were essentially powerless, and thus a revolution seemed like the only viable option to gain rights. The initial objective of the Mexican Revolution was to overthrow the Díaz presidency. However, the revolt became more complex and bloody as different people rose to power. There was a line of consecutive dictators, and they were all violently revolted against and overthrown. At the time, the Revolution seemed to aim to establish a functional government. On a broader scale, the revolution focused on granting workers rights and land reforms. The Mexican Revolution did not further the cause of human rights while it was in progress, but it produced a constitution that raised ideas on human rights and effected change in the future: the Mexican Revolution was a slow burn.

Sources:
Cline, H. F. , Palerm, . Angel , Griffin, . Ernst C. , Bernstein, . Marvin David , Meyer, . Michael C. , Willey, . Gordon R. and Parkes, . Henry Bamford. "Mexico." Encyclopedia Britannica, February 11, 2022. https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico.

"Mexican Revolution." PBS. https://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/feature/mexican-revolution/

- Sophia

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Artifact: March 3, 1908 - Creelman Interview

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Artifact: March 3, 1908 - Creelman Interview

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In this interview between James Creelman and President Porfirio Díaz, Díaz announced his plans to retire after the end of his term. Having governed the Mexican Republic for twenty-seven consecutive years, Díaz claimed that he was going to step down from presidency in order to promote his vision of democracy in Mexico. The interview was published in English and intended to reach a foreign audience. Díaz most likely made his claims in order to pacify external criticisms of his rule. However, Díaz did not expect the newspaper to be translated and published in Mexico a few days later. The Mexican Republic was infuriated when Díaz did not resign at the end of his term and instead ran for the next election. Díaz's statement in the Creelman Interview was a key factor in the start of the Mexican Revolution as Díaz's prolonged dictatorship created internal tensions in the Mexican Republic. The Revolution started when revolutionaries and liberals began to challenge Díaz's oppressive and classist regime. Mexicans hoped to gain economic equality and workers' rights from Díaz's dethronement.

Source:
Creelman, James. "President Diaz: Hero of the Americas." March, 1908. Pearson’s Magazine. Vol. XIX. No. 3 https://library.brown.edu/create/modernlatinamerica/chapters/chapter-3-mexico/primary-documents-with-accompanying-discussion-questions/document-4-president-diaz-hero-of-the-americas-by-james-creelman-1908-interview-with-president-porfirio-diaz/

Image:
"Creelman Interview with Porfirio Diaz in Pearson's Magazine" July 8, 2013. Madam Mayo. https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3QytTeN9F9E/UeNlhNOqn2I/AAAAAAAAEPI/a-9bpdVAxLc/s1600/Screen+Shot+2013-07-11+at+9.37.06+AM.png

- Sophia

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Before the election of 1910, Porfirio Díaz sent Francisco Madero to prison, as Díaz feared Madero would win the election. After his escape, Madero published the Plan of Luis Potosí, in which he urged the Mexicans to revolt against tyrannical Díaz and asserted the last election was a fraud, and a new, fair election must be held. He called Mexico a dictatorship, but he explained his hopes that Mexico will become a democracy through his proposed revolution. Although Madero expressed many ideas about democracy and improvements in government, there was a notable lack of promises for land reforms and labor rights, which the Mexican people desired. In the two years he was president, Madero did not make significant government reforms, though he was known as the "apostle of democracy." His title is misleading, as he did not bring true democracy to Mexico; the elections were solely ceremonial, meaning Mexicans did not have real political rights. Madero did not make radical changes, such as land reforms or labor rights. Hence, other revolutionaries and citizens became dissatisfied with his rule.

Sources:
Francisco Madero, "Plan de San Luis de Potosí," 1910, accessed February 15, 2022, https://library.brown.edu/create/modernlatinamerica/chapters/chapter-3-mexico/primary-documents-with-accompanying-discussion-questions/document-4-plan-de-san-luis-de-potosi-francisco-madero-1910/.

"The Rise of Francisco Madero," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/rise-of-madero.html.

"Francisco Madero," Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, last modified October 26, 2021, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francisco-Madero.

- Elliott

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Emiliano Zapata published the Plan of Ayala after Madero became President. Zapata adamantly believed that Mexico needed land reforms, while Madero did not. In Zapata's Plan of Ayala, he asserted that Madero was an ineffective president who kept the government too similar to it's state under Díaz's rule. Explaining Pascual Orozco would bring the necessary changes to Mexico, Zapata pledged his fealty to Orozco. In Zapata's plan, he detailed that 1/3 of the land would be returned to the poor to bring prosperity. Many Mexicans supported Zapata's plan, believing he would improve their lives. Fearing Zapata, Madero sent armies to defeat Zapata and his followers in vain. Although Zapata had radical ideas supported by many Mexicans, he, nor Orozco, was never president. Therefore, Zapata's Plan of Ayala did not give rights to the entire nation, but he put his Plan of Ayala into practice in his tiny home province, Morelos. He did various land reforms, to help the average poor citizen. Morelos' citizens gained rights under Zapata's rule, but the majority of Mexicans did not receive the same benefits.

Sources:
Emiliano Zapata, "Plan de Ayala," 1911, accessed February 15, 2022, https://library.brown.edu/create/modernlatinamerica/chapters/chapter-3-mexico/primary-documents-with-accompanying-discussion-questions/document-6-plan-de-ayala-emilio-zapata-1911/.

"The Presidency of Madero to His Assassination," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/madero-presidency-to-assassination.html.

"Timeline," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/timeline.html.

- Elliott

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February 9-19, 1913 - The Ten Tragic Days 

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February 9-19, 1913 - The Ten Tragic Days 

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The Ten Tragic Days is the name given to the ten-day coup led by revolutionaries Félix Díaz (the nephew of former president Porfirio Díaz) and Bernardo Reyes. This revolt was one of many under Madero's rule, but it was the most drawn-out and bloody mutiny of the Revolution. Generals Díaz and Reyes rallied those who opposed Madero to launch multiple violent assaults on Mexico City. Their supporters were dissatisfied with Madero's lack of effort to effectuate land reforms and social and worker rights. The goal of the rioting was to create enough chaos to make President Madero step down. However, the rebels ended up killing hundreds of civilians in the process. Ultimately, the revolt ended with the assassinations of President Francisco Madero and vice-president José María Pino Suárez.

Sources:
"Ten Days of Revolt: February 1913."

The Mexican Revolution and the United States in the Collections of the Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/interactive-map.html.

- Sophia

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On Feburary 19th, 1913, Victoriano Huerta was designated interim president of Mexico. Huerta and Díaz previously made an agreement with US Ambassador Wilson that Huerta would be interim president, and Díaz would run for reelection in 1914. However, on Feburary 21st, 1913, both President Madero and Vice President Suárez were assassinated, and the revolutionaries and the citizens recognized that Huerta and Díaz planned the murders, causing discontent. Further upheaval was created when Huerta postponed elections and made candidates ineligible for running for office. For instance, he sent Díaz to Japan as an ambassador to protect his position. When Huerta eventually held an election, he forced the military to vote for him. Other citizens, realizing the election was a fraud, and they did not have political rights, did not even vote. Huerta made Mexico a dictatorship and undid the few democratic advances that Madero made, regressing the cause of human rights and making Mexico seemed like the revolution never happened. All of the revolutionaries, formerly divided, united against Huerta to take him out of office.

Source:
"Victoriano Huerta as President," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/huerta-as-president.html.

- Elliott

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Artifact: 1913 - Huerta political cartoon

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Artifact: 1913 - Huerta political cartoon

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This political cartoon, published in 1913 during Huerta's rule, depicts everyone's hatred towards him. The revolutionaries formerly disagreed on how to proceed in the revolution. Different revolutionaries wanted different rights and had different reform plans. However, the revolutionaries despised Huerta so much, that they all banded together to expel him from office. Huerta was regressing the country to the state it was in before the revolution. Huerta did not give anyone rights; in fact he removed some of the democratic reforms of Madero.

Source:
"Victoriano Huerta as President," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/huerta-as-president.html.

- Elliott

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Victoriano Huerta seized power after the assassinations of President Madero and vice-president Suárez. Huerta was a drunkard and an oppressive dictator. Because of this, many Mexicans opposed his rule and called him "the Usurper." They started another revolt in hopes of overthrowing the new president. Venustiano Carranza led the revolt along with revolutionaries Pancho Villa, Álvaro Obregón, and Emiliano Zapata. Pancho Villa, governor of the Mexican province Chihuahua, rallied thousands of soldiers to aid in the fight against Huerta. On March 26, Carranza released the political manifesto titled Plan of Guadalupe. The document declared Huerta a traitor and officially denounced Huerta's presidency. The Plan had a strict and specific goal: to remove Huerta from office and restore the constitutional government. Eventually, Carranza's newly established "Constitutionalist Army" defeated the federal army. As a result, Huerta was forced to resign and flee the country.

Sources:
"Governor Venustiano Carranza of Coahuila Declares War."

The Mexican Revolution and the United States in the Collections of the Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/war-against-huerta.html.

- Sophia

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Artifact: 1914 - Carranza political cartoon

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Artifact: 1914 - Carranza political cartoon

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This political cartoon was published in 1914, before Carranza became president. Carranza is preventing a bird, presumably other revolutionaries, from going to Mexico with a stick labeled selfish interests. He does not care about the baby birds in the nest, representative of how Carranza did not make changes to benefit Mexican citizens, as he only wanted to improve his life. Other revolutionaries like Zapata and Villa were more concerned with giving citizens rights. To pacify the revolutionaries and citizens, Carranza publishes the Constitution of 1917, but does not uphold the declared rights.

Sources:
"Cartoon: Carranza, 1914," Granger Historical Picture Archive, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.granger.com/results.asp?image=0642590.

"The Presidency of Madero to His Assassination," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/madero-presidency-to-assassination.html.

"The War against Huerta," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/war-against-huerta.html.

- Elliott

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In November 1916, Venustiano Carranza held an assembly of Mexico's middle class reformers in Santiago de Querétaro to draft a constitution. The Mexican Constitution of 1917 was the formal culmination of the Mexican Revolution, and it was the most radical document of its time. The document had 137 articles which granted basic human rights, defined citizenship, organized a government, mandated land reforms, and more. It gave workers an eight-hour work day, the right to strike, and paid maternity leave. It also stated that land taken from peasants by the government must be returned. These were just some of many rights promised in the constitution. However, Carranza did not enforce these rights during his presidency. He preferred political over social reforms and made little progress towards land reforms and workers' rights. The Mexican Constitution was essentially ignored while the revolution was in progress.

Sources:
"Constitution of 1917." The Mexican Revolution and the United States in the Collections of the Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/constitution-of-1917.html

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Venustiano Carranza." Encyclopedia Britannica, December 25, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Venustiano-Carranza.

- Sophia

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Carranza was a critic of Madero, yet Carranza also achieved very little during his presidency. Carranza was once seen as a revolutionary hero, but he became just another dictator while in office. This caused continual tensions between Carranza and his former allies Villa and Zapata. Furthermore, all of the fighting in Mexico cause the economy to collapse, depleted the food supply, and bred an environment for widespread disease. Mexico was in acute instability as Carranza rose to power, and tensions grew because Carranza did not effectuate his newly drafted Constitution. Even though the Mexican Regional Labor Confederation was established, land distribution was restricted and worker strikes were dealt with by the federal army.

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Venustiano Carranza." Encyclopedia Britannica, December 25, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Venustiano-Carranza.

- Sophia

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Artifact: 1919 - Corrido de la Muerte de Emiliano Zapata (Corrido of the Death of Emiliano Zapata)

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Artifact: 1919 - Corrido de la Muerte de Emiliano Zapata (Corrido of the Death of Emiliano Zapata)

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Lyrics: https://lyricstranslate.com/en/amparo-ochoa-corrido-de-la-muerte-de-emiliano-zapata-lyrics.html
Zapata fought for changes for poor citizens, like land reforms and labor rights. He was killed by Carranza's orders, emphasizing that Carranza did not want radical changes to benefit the average citizen. The song explains how beloved Zapata was and how the poor felt valued by him, more so than other revolutionaries, so his death destroyed some of the poor's hope for rights. While other revolutionaries claimed they wanted to give citizens more rights, Zapata fought the most valiantly, which the poor recognized.

Sources:
Amparo Ochoa, "Corrido de la Muerte de Emiliano Zapata," Lyrics Translate, accessed February 15, 2022, https://lyricstranslate.com/en/amparo-ochoa-corrido-de-la-muerte-de-emiliano-zapata-lyrics.html.

"Timeline," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/timeline.html.

"The Presidency of Madero to His Assassination," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/madero-presidency-to-assassination.html.

- Elliott

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Corrido de la Muerte de Emiliano Zapata - Amparo Ochoa (Revolución Mexicana)

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There was considerable corruption during the 1920 election, following Carranza's presidency. The election originally seemed to be Álvaro Obregón versus Ignacio Bonillas, Carranza's chosen successor. Obregón previously worked in government with Carranza, but departed in 1919 to start his campaign. Feeling betrayed, Carranza spent significant money funding Bonillas' campaign and even tried to arrest Obregón, though he failed. Seeing his craze, the revolutionaries worked together to remove him from office. In the end, Bonillas did not run for office, though Alfredo Robles Domínguez did. Obregón won with 95% of the votes, signalling the elections were not true elections. The government officials control the results and manipulate the elections, including having only have one main candidate, which is not the true democracy the revolution promised. The other rulers during the Mexican revolution were often simply the ruler who overthrew the previous one. The elections, if held, were undemocratic and solely ceremonial, signaling that Mexican citizens did not have the right to elect their ruler.

Sources:
Paul Gillingham, Mexican Elections, pdf.

"Mexican Revolution," Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, last modified September 28, 2021, https://www.britannica.com/event/Mexican-Revolution.

"Álvaro Obregón's Vision for Mexico," Library of Congress, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/obregons-vision-for-mexico.html.

- Elliott

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The Mexican Revolution did not bring significant advances in rights to the entire country, though Morelos had various reforms owed to Zapata. The revolutionaries spent most of their time making plans to give people rights, fighting amongst themselves, and trying to protect themselves coups d'état and assassinations. However, the goals for rights in the Mexican Revolution were not forgotten, and they influenced Mexico in the future. In 1934, President Lázaro Cárdenas brought substantial land reforms to Mexico, through the Agrarian Code of 1934, which improved the poor's quality of living. However, following presidents were not obligated to continue the reforms; they could even reverse them. Although he brought radical reforms, Cárdenas was a member of a corrupt political party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who ruled Mexico from 1929-1988, making Mexico a one party system. PRI presidents chose their successor, so the elections were useless. The undemocratic PRI was vastly different from the radical revolutionaries, like Zapata and Villa, since the PRI did not want progressive rights for all citizens. The PRI was similar to Huerta, since they both significantly monopolized power and were unofficial dictators. Moreover, the PRI somewhat aligned with Madero and Carranza, since they all did not want radical reforms, yet they differed since Madero and Carranza wanted true democracy. When the PRI lost power, elections began to matter in Mexico. While the PRI were in power, approximately 87% of voters voted for the winning candidate. However, after the PRI lost power, Mexico became a multiple party system and in the next two elections approximately 49% of voters voted for the winning candidate. Mexico became a true democracy, upholding the goals of the Revolution, since citizens have political rights. The ideas of the Mexican Revolution also returned in 1994, in the form of protestors, calling themselves Zapatistas. Inspired by the ideas of liberty and land rights from the Mexican Revolution, they protested economic reforms that would detriment the natives. Although Mexico had many difficulties with upholding their revolutionary goals at the time and in the future, eventually Mexicans gained the rights they were promised.

Sources:
Catherine Nolan-ferrell, "Agrarian Reform and Revolutionary Justice in Soconusco, Chiapas: Campesinos and the Mexican State, 1934-1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 42, no. 3 (2010), http://www.jstor.org/stable/40984895.

"Institutional Revolutionary Party," Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, last modified September 20, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Institutional-Revolutionary-Party.

"Zapatista National Liberation Army," Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, last modified June 23, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zapatista-National-Liberation-Army.

- Elliott