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Mexican War of Independence | 3 Minute History

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Miguel Hidalgo and Costilla launch the Mexican war for Independence. However, the Royalists who made up of Mexican, Spaniards, and Conservatives brought about independence. Mexico then became an independent monarchy with it's president being Guadalupe Victoria.

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Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, launches the Mexican War of Independence with the issuing of his Grito de Dolores, or "Cry of Dolores." The revolutionary tract, so-named because it was publicly read by Hidalgo in the town of Dolores, called for the end of 300 years of Spanish rule in Mexico, redistribution of land and racial equality. Thousands of Indians and mestizos flocked to Hidalgo's banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe, and soon the peasant army was on the march to Mexico City.

In the early 19th century, Napoleon 's occupation of Spain led to the outbreak of revolts all across Spanish America. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla-"the father of Mexican independence"-launched the Mexican rebellion with his "Cry of Dolores," and his populist army came close to capturing the Mexican capital. Defeated at Calderón in January 1811, he fled north but was captured and executed. He was followed by other peasant leaders, however, such as José María Morelos y Pavón, Mariano Matamoros, and Vicente Guerrero, who all led armies of native and racially mixed revolutionaries against the Spanish and the Royalists.

Ironically, it was the Royalists-made up of Mexicans of Spanish descent and other conservatives-who ultimately brought about independence. In 1820, liberals took power in Spain, and the new government promised reforms to appease the Mexican revolutionaries. In response, Mexican conservatives called for independence as a means of maintaining their privileged position in Mexican society.

In early 1821, Agustín de Iturbide, the leader of the Royalist forces, negotiated the Plan of Iguala with Vicente Guerrero. Under the plan, Mexico would be established as an independent constitutional monarchy, the privileged position of the Catholic Church would be maintained, and Mexicans of Spanish descent would be regarded as equal to pure Spaniards. Mexicans of mixed or pure Indian blood would have lesser rights.

Iturbide defeated the Royalist forces still opposed to independence, and the new Spanish viceroy, lacking money, provisions, and troops, was forced to accept Mexican independence. On August 24, 1821, Spanish Viceroy Juan de O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which approves a plan to make Mexico an independent constitutional monarchy. In 1822, as no Bourbon monarch to rule Mexico had been found, Iturbide was proclaimed the emperor of Mexico. However, his empire was short-lived, and in 1823 republican leaders Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria deposed Iturbide and set up a republic, with Guadalupe Victoria as its first president.

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Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, launches the Mexican War of Independence with the issuing of his Grito de Dolores, or "Cry of Dolores." The revolutionary tract, so-named because it was publicly read by Hidalgo in the town of Dolores, called for the end of 300 years of Spanish rule in Mexico, redistribution of land and racial equality.

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Mazzini led aggression against Austria. He began to write in order to try and unify Italy. Mazzini had success in establishing nationalism through his organization Young Italy.

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Mazzini led the armed aggression against the Austrian occupation of Italian states. He failed to achieve any result. Mazzini tried to raise the awareness about revolution and the need of a united Italy among the Italians through their writing. They tried to convince the Italians that they were a nation and the country was not a geographical expression. Mazzini made every possible effort to raise the feelings of nationalism among the Italians through his organization Young Italy. He had the great faith in the energy of the youth of Italian and believed that the youth of Italy would bring about the unification of Italy. The main results achieved in the first stage were two. The problem of lack of awareness of nationalism was ended. A dilemma over the number of ideologies was settled in favor of constitutional monarchy. Mazzini succeeded in giving a vision of a nation to the Italians but failed to convince them for his plan of a Republic of Italy.

Used the tools of realpolitik, united Italy under the crown of Sardinia. "Realpolitik" is the notion that politics must be conducted in terms of the realistic assessment of power and the self-interest of individual nation-states. The second stage can be identified with the achievements of Cavour. He first made Sardinia strong militarily and economically. Then he earned friendship of the main powers of Europe by helping them in Cremia war. He discredited Austria in the Paris Conference and brought the problem of Italian nation before the world with the help of France, he very astutely removed Austria out of Italy. As the main achievement at this stage the Central Italy, excluding the Papal states was united into one country under the headship of the king of Sardinia. Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and Romagna were merged with Italy.

The third stage is identified with the patriotism of Garibaldi and union of Naples and Sicily with the Central Italy under the leadership of Sardinia. With the help of his Red Shirts army Garibaldi won Sicily in 1860. By September 1860, he occupied Naples. In the meantime, Victor Emmanuel under the advice of Cavour occupied the Papal States leaving Papal control over Rome untouched. He also occupied Capua and Gaeta, the part of Naples kingdom. On November 7, 1860, Garibaldi handed over the possession of rest of Naples and whole of Sicily to Victor Emmanuel the King of Sardinia as a true patriot for the realizing the dream of unification of Italy.

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Italian Unification Leaders - Rise of Nationalism in Europe

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Mazzini led the armed aggression against the Austrian occupation of Italian states. He failed to achieve any result. Mazzini tried to raise the awareness about revolution and the need of a united Italy among the Italians through their writing. They tried to convince the Italians that they were a nation and the country was not a geographical expression.

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Only 39 states created the Congress of Vienna.  Due to Prussian and Austrian rivalry the German Confederation collapsed. Soon replaced by the North
German confederation in 1866.

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The first, original, and truly natural boundaries of states are beyond doubt their internal boundaries. Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole.