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cell, tissue

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sexually, spores, budding

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- don't have chlorophyll
- cell walls are made of chitin
- use glycogen to store energy
- disperse themselves by releasing spores
- non-motile

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- Wild yeasts get nutrients by absorbing sugar on the surface of fruits or nectar of flowers.
- Some fungi produce thin threads called hyphae that allow them to feed on organic matter.
- These hyphae can form networks called mycelium, which can grow to by sporangia.
- Some fungi reproduce by releasing spores, which go through mitosis to form new fungi.
- Some fungi have symbiotic relationships with other organisms, exchanging nutrients and water.

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hydnum repandum

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suillus grevillei

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cantharellus cibarius

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trichaptum biforme

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pholiota squarrosa

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pleurotus populinus

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amanita muscaria

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lentinula edodes

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flammulina velutipes

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amanita ocreata

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cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism

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pollination and vegetative reproduction

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- generally contain chlorophyll
- cell walls are made of cellulose
- obtain energy through photosynthesis
- develop self defense mechanisms against predators
- lack motility

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- plants undergo photosynthesis for energy, in which they convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose, with oxygen as a byproduct.
- plants can also respire without the presence of light, in which they use the glucose created during photosynthesis.
- Plants go through transpiration, in which they lose water through their leaves in a way similar to evaporation.
- Plants also rid of water by secreting water through their stomata in a process called guttation.
- Some plants reproduce through seed dispersal, in which their seeds are transported away from the parent plant.

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hylocereus undatus

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zamioculcas

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haworthia fasciata

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chlorophytum comosum

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opuntia basilaris

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syngonium podophyllum

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epipremnum aureum

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graptopetalum murasaki

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sansevieria trifasciata

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cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism

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sexually and asexually

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- complex tissue structure
- Respire with lungs, gills, book lungs, book gills, and sometimes skin
- cells contain organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, golgi apparatus, ribosomes, lysosomes, vacuoles, and centrioles
- Made up of many organ systems
- depend on other organisms for food

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- Animals ingest and digest food.
- Respire by taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct.
- During sexual reproduction, sex cells of a male and female of a species combine and fertilize.
- Some animals go through metamorphosis, in which the organism undergoes several larval stages to become an adult.
- Animals such as sea stars can reproduce asexually through fission.

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canis lupus familiaris

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grus japonensis

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ectophylla alba

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felis catus

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furcifer pardalis

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artace cribarius

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ailurus fulgens

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nyctereutes procyonoides viverrinus

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rattus norvegicus

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cell

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cell

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binary fission, multiple fission, budding, sexual reproduction, spores

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binary fission, multiple fission, fragmentation, budding

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- have a nucleus surrounded by a membrane
- have endoplasmic reticulums and golgi complexes
- many have lysosomes
- some are similar to plant cells and have chloroplasts
- some are similar to animal cells and have mitochondria

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- Protists transport themselves with the use of flagella, pseudopods, or cilia.
- Some protists reproduce sexually through conjugation, in which they join and exchange their genetic material.
- Algae are plant-like protists that contain chlorophyll and photosynthesize.
- Euglenoids, a type of protist, use eyespots to aid in finding light for photosynthesis.
- Some protists are similar to fungi and use spores to reproduce.

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- unlike other bacteria, they lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls
- live only in oxygen-free environments
- no membrane bound organelles, including nuclei
- lipids in the cell membrane
- ribosomal RNA floats in the cytoplasm

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- archaebacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission in which their DNA replicates, and the cell splits into two new, identical daughter cells.
- Some archaebacteria are photoautotrophic, which means they use the Calvin Cycle in photosynthesis, like plants, to get energy.
- Other archae are chemoautrophic and use the Krebs Cycle, fermentation, or sulfur transporters to obtain energy.
- Some archae are motile, and use flagella to transport themselves.

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cell

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binary fission

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- cell walls are made of peptidoglycan
- no membrane bound organelles, including nuclei
- can be classified by shape
- reproduce through binary fission
- shape: round, rod, spiral, or comma

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- during binary fission, a cell's DNA is copied, and the cell splits into two new, identical daughter cells.
- Cyanobacteria, a type of eubacteria, have chlorophyll and photosynthesize for energy.
- Another category of eubacteria, called spirochetes, use a flagella to move in a twisting motion.
- Some bacteria use a process called transduction, in which they transfer DNA from one individual to another through a virus.
- Other bacteria use conjugation, in which two cells join and exchange genetic material.

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acidilobus saccharovans

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aeropyrum pernix

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haloferax volcanii

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methanobrevibacter smithii

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methanothrix soehngenii

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halococcus

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sulfobobus tokodaii

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sulfobobus shibatae

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methanococcus maripaludis

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nitrosopumulis maritimus

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bacillus anthracis

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escherichia coli

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clostridium tetani

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borrelia burgdorferi

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helicobacter pylori

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tolypothrix

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clostridium perfringens

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yersinia pestis

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streptococcus pneumoniae

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salmonella enterica

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Fundamental Statements for this Learning Object:

1. There are two basic types of cells in nature: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
2. Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells.
3. The smaller a cell, the greater its surface to volume ratio.
4. The smaller the surface to volume ratio, the more structurally complex (compartmentalized) a cell needs to be in order to carry out life functions.
5. There are fundamental differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
6. Bacteria are prokaryotic cells; fungi, protozoa, algae, plants, and animals are composed of eukaryotic cells.
7. Viruses are not cells so they are neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic. They can replicate only inside a living cell.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS SECTION
According to the cell theory, t he cell is the basic unit of life. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. Based on the organization of their cellular structures, all living cells can be divided into two groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic (also spelled procaryotic and eucaryotic). Animals, plants, fungi, protozoans, and algae all possess eukaryotic cell types. Only bacteria have prokaryotic cell types.

Prokaryotic cells are generally much smaller and more simple than eukaryotic (see Fig. 1). Prokaryotic cells are, in fact, able to be structurally more simple because of their small size. The smaller a cell, the greater is its surface-to-volume ratio (the surface area of a cell compared to its volume).

The surface area of a spherical object can be calculated using the following formula:

The volume of a spherical object can be calculated using the formula:

For example, a spherical cell 1 micrometer (µm) in diameter - the average size of a coccus-shaped bacterium - has a surface-to-volume ratio of approximately 6:1, while a spherical cell having a diameter of 20 µm has a surface-to-volume ratio of approximately 0.3:1.

A large surface-to-volume ratio, as seen in smaller prokaryotic cells, means that nutrients can easily and rapidly reach any part of the cells interior. However, in the larger eukaryotic cell, the limited surface area when compared to its volume means nutrients cannot rapidly diffuse to all interior parts of the cell. That is why eukaryotic cells require a variety of specialized internal organelles to carry out metabolism, provide energy, and transport chemicals throughout the cell. Both, however, must carry out the same life processes. Some features distinguishing prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are shown in Table 1. All of these features will be discussed in detail later in Unit 1.

Table 1: Eukaryotic Versus Prokaryotic Cells

a. The nuclear body is bounded by a nuclear membrane having pores connecting it with the endoplasmic reticulum b. It contains one or more paired, linear chromosomes composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) associated with histone proteins ).c. A nucleolus is present. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is transcribed and assembled in the nucleolus.(see Fig. 2 and

Fig. 3).
d. The nuclear body is called a nucleus .

a. The nuclear body is not bounded by a nuclear membrane b. It usually contains one circular chromosome composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) associated with histone-like proteins.c. There is no nucleolus.(see Fig. 4).

d. The nuclear body is called a nucleoid .

3. cytoplasmic membrane - also known as a cell membrane or plasma membrane

a. The cytoplasmic membrane (see Fig. 2 and Fig. 3) is a fluid phospholipid bilayer(see Fig. 5) containing sterols(see Fig. 6) .
b. The membrane is capable of endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis) and exocytosis .

a. The cytoplasmic membrane (see Fig. 4); is a fluid phospholipid bilayer(see Fig. 5) usually lacking sterols . Bacteria generally contain sterol-like molecules called hopanoids(see Fig. 7).
b.The membrane is incapable of endocytosis and exocytosis.

4. cytoplasmic structures

a. The ribosomes are composed of a 60S and a 40S subunit that come together during protein synthesis to form an 80S ribosome. A svedberg unit (S) is a non-metric unit for sedimentation rate and is actually a measure of time defined as 10⁻¹³ seconds. In biology, the sedimentation rate, or sedimentation coefficient, refers to the rate at which a molecule or particle travels to the bottom of a test tube under the centrifugal force of an ultra-high speed centrifuge. The S value of a molecule or particle is determined by its mass, density, and shape. See the following link:
- Ribosomal subunit sedimentation rates: 60S and 40S
b. Internal membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria , endoplasmic reticulum , Golgi apparatus , vacuoles, and lysosomes are present c. Chloroplasts serve as organelles for photosynthesis.d. A mitotic spindle involved in mitosis is present during cell division.(see Fig. 2 and Fig. 3).

e. A cytoskeleton is present. It contains microtubules, actin micofilaments, and intermediate filaments. These collectively play a role in giving shape to cells, allowing for cell movement, movement of organelles within the cell and endocytosis, and cell division.

b. Internal membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, and lysosomes are absent b. There are no chloroplasts. Photosynthesis usually takes place in infoldings or extensions derived from the cytoplasmic membrane.c. There is no mitosis and no mitotic spindle.
a. The ribosomes are composed of a 50S and a 30S subunit that come together during protein synthesis to form a 70S ribosome. A svedberg unit (S) is a non-metric unit for sedimentation rate and is actually a measure of time defined as 10 See Fig. 8. ⁻¹³ seconds. In biology, the sedimentation rate, or sedimentation coefficient, refers to the rate at which a molecule or particle travels to the bottom of a test tube under the centrifugal force of an ultra-high speed centrifuge. The S value of a molecule or particle is determined by its mass, density, and shape. See the following link:

- Ribosomal subunit sedimentation rates: 50S and 30S
(see Fig. 4)

d. The various structural filaments in the cytoplasm collectively make up the prokaryotic cytoskeleton. Cytoskeletal filaments play essential roles in determining the shape of a bacterium (coccus, bacillus, or spiral) and are also critical in the process of cell division by binary fission and in determining bacterial polarity.
Prokaryotic cells with internal membrane-bound compartments?

5. respiratory enzymes and electron transport chains

- The electron transport system is located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. It contributes to the production of ATP molecules via chemiosmosis.

-Electron micrograph of a mitochondrion from the Biology Department at the University of New Mexico.

- The electron transport system is located in the cytoplasmic membrane. It contributes to the production of ATP molecules via chemiosmosis.

a. Plant cells, algae, and fungi have cell walls, usually composed of cellulose or chitin. Eukaryotic cell walls are never composed of peptidoglycan b. Animal cells and protozoans lack cell walls (see Fig. 3). (see Fig. 2).

a. With few exceptions, members of the domain b. Members of the domain Bacteria have cell walls composed of peptidoglycan Archae have cell walls composed of protein, a complex carbohydrate, or unique molecules resembling but not the same as peptidoglycan.(see Fig. 4).

7. locomotor organelles

- Eukaryotic cells may have flagella or cilia. Flagella and cilia are organelles involved in locomotion and in eukaryotic cells consist of a distinct arrangement of sliding microtubules surrounded by a membrane. The microtubule arrangement is referred to as a 2X9+2 arrangement (see Fig. 9).

prokaryotic cell

- Many prokaryotes have flagella, each composed of a single, rotating fibril and usually not surrounded by a membrane (see Fig. 10). There are no cilia.

8. representative organisms

Since viruses are acellular- they contain no cellular organelles, cannot grow and divide, and carry out no independent metabolism - they are considered neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic. Because viruses are not cells and have no cellular organelles, they can only replicate and assemble inside a living host cell. They turn the host cell into a factory for manufacturing viral parts and viral enzymes and assembling the viral components.

Viruses, which possess both living and nonliving characteristics, will be discussed in Unit 4. Recently, viruses have been declared as living entities based on the large number of protein folds encoded by viral genomes that are shared with the genomes of cells. This indicates that viruses likely arose from multiple ancient cells.

ASSIGNMENT FOR UNIT-1, LECTURE -2

Flipped-class assignment
Read II. The Prokaryotic Cell: Bacteria: B. Prokaryotic Cell Structure, 1. The Cytoplasmic Membrane in your E-text and answer the 3 learning objectives for this section.
We will be doing a classroom group activity on this section so it is critical that you come prepared. I will be assuming that you have done this preparatory assignment.

© Gary E. Kaiser Doc Kaiser's Microbiology Home Page
Copyright
All Rights Reserved
Updated: August, 2017
Please send comments and inquiries to Dr. Gary Kaiser

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Fundamental Statements for this Learning Object: 1. There are two basic types of cells in nature: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. 2. Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells. 3. The smaller a cell, the greater its surface to volume ratio. 4.

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What are Protists?

Because they are such a diverse kingdom, it's easier to define protists by describing what they are not rather than describing what they have in common. The biggest shared feature of protists is that they don't belong in any of the other eukaryotic kingdoms. Protists are not plants, animals, or fungi. For example, kelp or seaweed appear to have leaves and roots like plants, but do not have the same specialized tissues.

All organisms need to obtain organic carbon and energy to stay alive. Protists have a variety of ways getting both carbon and energy. Some protists are autotrophic and are able to make organic carbon-containing nutrients like glucose. Other protists are heterotrophic, and can't make their own carbon containing nutrients. Heterotrophic protists have to obtain carbon-containing nutrients by ingesting them -- by 'eating' other organisms or decaying organic matter in the environment.

How Do Heterotrophic Protists 'Eat'?

Heterotrophic protists have many ways to obtain nutrients from the environment. Some have specialized structures designed for obtaining food while others are passive and have to wait on the nutrients to come into contact with their plasma membrane.

Many protists are predatory and have specialized structures designed to capture and aid in bringing nutrients inside their cells. Some have structures that are kind of like mouths, and others fold themselves around and slowly dissolve their prey in order to obtain the carbon necessary to live. Moreover, some protists have 'weapons' that allow them to trap, paralyze, or kill their prey.

Filter Feeding

Protists such as paramecium use cilia to filter feed. Some filter feeders such as the paramecium have trichocyst, which are specialized cilia that the organism projects in order to paralyze or kill prey. Filter feeders use their cilia to create a current that brings prey close their oral groove that connects to the cytopharynx, which is a structure directs the ingested food into the cytostome. The cytostome is similar to a mouth in that it functions as an opening to allow food to enter the cell. Once inside the cytostome, the food will enter a food vacuole that contains enzymes that break down food into smaller components the protists can then use as nutrients. Once the food is digested, the waste is expelled from the cell through the cytopyge, which serves as the anus.

Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is a process where a cell extends its plasma membrane around a large particle to be internalized. Extensions of the plasma membrane are called pseudopodia. Some amoebas use phagocytosis to ingest prey. To accomplish this, they extend and wrap pseudopodia around the organism to be eaten. Think of the process as a fatal hug. Once inside the amoeba, the prey is digested in a food vacuole.

The foraminifera are amoebas that have shells. The presence of a shell makes phagocytosis a bit more complicated, so these amoebas extend thin pseudopodia called filopodia, which capture prey. Once the prey is trapped, the amoeba is able to steal nutrients.

Peduncle

Some species of dinoflagellate protists form a peduncle ,which is a tube-shaped structure used to suck nutrients out of prey. Some dinoflagellates even steal mitochondria and chloroplasts from their prey. When dinoflagellates steal chloroplast, they temporarily gain the ability to do photosynthesis in addition to carbon containing nutrients.

Pallium

A pallium is similar to a peduncle except that instead of being tubular, it is shaped like a veil or net. It is as if the protists wrap their prey in a blanket from which there is no escape. The pallium encompasses the prey and removes the cytoplasm.

How Can They Eat if They Don't Have Mouths?

A few species of protists do not have specialized structures to catch or ingest nutrients. These protists must absorb nutrients from the environment through their plasma membranes. Many of these organisms are saprophytic and feed on dead organisms. Since most carbon-containing nutrients are too large to fit through the plasma membrane, specialized proteins embedded in the membrane bring the nutrients into the cell.

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characteristics & reproduction | study.com

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Heterotrophic Protists: Feeding Mechanism, Characteristics & Reproduction | Study.com

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Because they are such a diverse kingdom, it's easier to define protists by describing what they are not rather than describing what they have in common. The biggest shared feature of protists is that they don't belong in any of the other eukaryotic kingdoms. Protists are not plants, animals, or fungi.