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- Convergent: they move towards each other
- Divergent: they move away from each other
- Transform: they slide past each other

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- aftershock: a small earthquake (=occasion when the earth shakes) that happens after a bigger one

- earthquake: a sudden shaking movement of the ground

- epicenter: the area of land directly over the centre of an earthquake

- magnitude: the strength of an earthquake, measured with numbers from 1 to 10, where 10 is the most powerful
- Mercalli’s scale: a scale used to measure the damage of an earthquake when its magnitude is more than 7. It’s based on the fault displacement and it’s not objective.

- Richter’s scale: a way of measuring the strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake - it’s a logarithmic scale

- seismograph: an instrument that is used for measuring the strength of earthquakes

- seismology: the scientific study of earthquakes. A scientist who studies earthquakes is called a seismologist.

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- Ash: Fine particles of rock dust blown from an explosion vent.

- Ashfall: Volcanic ash that has fallen through the air from an eruption cloud.

- Vent: A vent is an opening at the Earth's surface of a volcanic conduit.

- Composite Volcano: A steep volcanic cone built by both lava flows and pyroclastic eruptions.

- Compound volcano: A volcano that consists of a complex of two or more vents, or a volcano that has an associated volcanic dome, either in its crater or on its flanks. Examples are Vesuvius.

- Conduit: A passage (pipe) followed by magma in a volcano.

- Crater: A steep-sided, usually circular depression formed by either explosion or collapse at a volcanic vent.

- Dormant volcano: A volcano which is presently inactive but which may erupt again.

- Eruption: The process by which solid, liquid, and gaseous materials are ejected into the earth's atmosphere and onto the earth's surface by volcanic activity.

- Fault: A crack or fracture in the earth's surface.

- Fissures: Elongated fractures or cracks on the slopes of a volcano.

- Geysers: Springs that throw boiling water high in the air. They are caused by volcanic heat warming trapped ground water.

- Hot Spot: A volcanic center, 60 to 120 miles across and persistent for at least a few tens of million of years, that is thought to be the surface expression of a persistent rising plume of hot mantle material.

- Lava: Magma which has reached the surface through a volcanic eruption. Streams of liquid rock that flow from a crater or fissure.

- Lava Flow: An outpouring of lava onto the land surface from a vent or fissure.

- Magma: Molten rock beneath the surface of the earth.

- Magma chamber (Magna reservoir): The subterranean cavity containing the gas-rich liquid magma which feeds a volcano.

- Mantle: The zone of the earth below the crust and above the core.

- Stratovolcano: A volcano composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material.

- Vent: The opening at the earth's surface through which volcanic materials issue forth.

- Volcanic eruption: When hot rocks and lava burst from a volcano.

- Volcano: A vent in the surface of the Earth through which magma and associated gases and ash erupt; also, the form or structure, usually conical, that is produced by the ejected material.

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- Cleavage: sfaldatura
- Halite: salgemma (NaCl - sodium + chlorine)
- Hardness: durezza
- Lattice: reticolo cristallino
- Mica: silicate
- Quartz: quarzo (SiO ₂)
-> it becomes more pink when there is Fe and it’s called ametist (= ametista)
- Valence electrons: elettroni di valenza, ossia gli elettroni contenuti nell’orbita più esterna di un elemento

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- Stem cells: cellule staminali

• cells which have the ability to self-renew maintaining an undifferentiated state and the capacity to differentiate into more specialized types of cells.

- Balstocoel: blastocele

• the cavity full of liquid.

- Blastocyst: blastocisti

• the stage after the ‘Morula’ one, with 32 cells.
- Bone marrow: midollo
• the soft gelatinous tissue found in the cavities of some bones; it can be yellow or red.

- Fertilization: the union of an egg and a sperm
- Haematopoiesis/ haemopoiesis: ematopoiesi/ emopoiesi
• the formation of blood or blood cells in the living body.

- Inner mass cell: massa cellulare interna

• it will become the embryo.
- Leukaemia: leucemia
• an acute or chronic disease, characterized by a massive proliferation of of leukocytes.

- Mammalian embryogenesis: sviluppo embrionale

- Trophoblast: trofoblasto

• the outer layer that will form the placenta.

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- BT: Bacillus thuringiensis, which is a bacterium able to produce proteins that are crystals, called endotoxins
- Dwelling: abitazione
- Germinate: germogliare
- Soil: terreno
- Strain: ceppo
- To release: rilasciare
- To trigger: scatenare

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Since 1996 plants have been modified with short sequences of genes from Bt to express the crystal protein Bt makes. With this method, plants themselves can produce the proteins and protect themselves from insects without any external Bt and/or synthetic pesticide sprays. In 1999, 29 million acres of Bt corn, potato and cotton were grown globally. Bt crops are protected specifically against European corn borer, tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm and the Colorado potato beetle.
Benefits:

Reduced environmental impacts from pesticides – When the plants are producing the toxins in their tissues there is no need to spray synthetic pesticides or apply Bt mixtures topically.

Increased opportunity for beneficial insects – Bt proteins will not kill beneficial insects.

Reduced pesticide exposure to farm workers and non-target organisms.

Potential risks:

Invasiveness – Genetic modifications, through traditional breeding or by genetic engineering can potentially change the organism to become invasive. Few introduced organisms become invasive, yet it’s a concern for the users.

Resistance to Bt - The biggest potential risk to using Bt-crops is resistance. Farmers have taken many steps to help prevent resistance.

Cross-contamination of genes - Although unproven, genes from GM crops can potentially introduce the new genes to native species.

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It was the first recombinant medicine produced by a bacterium, called Escherichia coli, that was put on the market. It’s a hormone used to treat some forms of diabetes.
Before that, insulin was taken from pig pancreas, but it was not completely identical to humans’ one and could cause allergic reactions.

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• Molecular cloning = a process in which the requested protein successfully turned out is inserted into a microorganism, usually bacteria.

• Vector molecule = molecule which carries rife gene containing the instructions for building the requested protein.
- - -

- Environment: ambiente

- Foreign: estraneo
- Suckling calve: vitello da latte
- To avoid: evitare

- To be lysed: essere lisate; when a cell is detonated

- To secrete: secernere
- To slaughter: macellare

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- GMO = genetically modified organism
- Bacterial conjugation = the direction transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to another bacterial cell.
- Transducion = the genetic alteration of a bacterial cell resulting from the transfer of foreign DNA.
- Transformation = the transfer of genetic material from one microorganism to another by a viral agent.
- Transgene = a gene that is taken from the genome of one organism and introduced into the genome of another organism by artificial techniques.
- Transgenic organism = an organism whose genetic characteristics have been altered by the insertion or a modified gene or a gene form another organism using genetica engineering techniques.
~ ~ ~
In the European Union the law imposes a special label for food produced by GMO crops. In fact, in a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council (2001/18/CE), in article 2, there is the definition.
GMO: “An organism, different from a human being, whose genetic material has been modified in a way that doesn’t occur under natural conditions through crossbreeding  or natural recombination.”

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- Agarose: agarosio; a polysaccharide generally extracted from seaweed and regulated if there’s the need to better separate large fragments of DNA

- Comb: pettine

- Electrophoretic race: corsa/gara elettroforetica

- to Load: caricare

- Mould: stampo

- Recipe: ricetta

- Seaweed: alga marina

- Tank: recipiente, tanica

- Tracking dye: tracciante; usually it’s blue

- Well: pozzetto

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Here’s a little presentation about such a complex and vaste topic.

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- Annealing: appaiamento
- Blunt ends: estremità piatte
- Cohesive/ sticky ends: estremità coesive/ appiccicose
- Corpse: salma, cadavere
- (to) Devise: inventare, elaborare
- Nitrogenous base: base azotata
- Palindromic sequence: sequenza palindromica; a sequence that can be read in both directions, such as ACCA
- Plasmid: plasmide; a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently
- Strain: ceppo
- Strand: filamento
- Template: stampo
- X-ray diffraction: diffrazione a raggi X; a scattering of X-rays by the atoms of a crystal that produces an interference effect so that the diffraction pattern gives information on the structure of the crystal or the identity of a crystalline substance

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Backbone: scheletro

Coiled: avvolto, arrotolato

Deoxyribose: desossirbosio; sugar contained in DNA

Dye: colorante

Filament: filamento

Fingerprint: impronta digitale

Genetic engineer: ingeniere genetico; a person encharged of using the group of applied techniques of genetics and biotechnology used to cut up and join together genetic material and especially DNA from one or more species of organism and to introduce the result into an organism in order to change one or more of its characteristics

Genetic heritage: patrimonio genetico

Genetic makeup: corredo genetico

Groove: solco

Molecular biologist: biologo molecolare

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Acetyl CoA: acetilcoenzima A

Matrix: matrice; parte centrale del mitocondrio

Mitochondrion: mitocondrio

Obtained: got something

Proceessed: converted into something else

Waste: scarto

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All the pictures were taken by me.
https://drive.google.com/file/d/14LPe66X9Ypf4AuFxaGz3pWS2T5eWg2sB/view?usp=drivesdk - video n.1
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1PX2NpaLG7wOmcgMbdipV_82y-5jreVxw/view?usp=drivesdk - video n.2
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1UD1EaFUr6q1QVsBed_M6blfQd4q8pPxg/view?usp=drivesdk - video n.3

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- Aerobic pathway: process/phase that happens in the presence of oxygen.

- Anaerobic pathway: process/phase that happens in the absence of oxygen (ex. Glycolysis).

- Barley: orzo

- Coenzyme: coenzima
- Combustion: reaction in which the products are H₂O and CO₂

- Deplete: esaurire

- Dough: impasto

- Hops: luppolo

- Moist: umido, soffice

- NAD⁺: it acts as an electron receptor; the oxidized agent, called also coenzyme

—> when reduced, it becomes NADH
- Pyruvate: piruvato; it comes from pyruvic acid and during glycolysis, glucose is divided into 2 molecules of it.

- Sore muscles: crampi; when there is pain in muscles.

- Yeasts: lieviti

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[fermentazione]
Process in which some sugars (as glucose) are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide by the action of various yeasts, molds, or bacteria on carbohydrate materials (as dough or sugar solutions), some of which do not themselves undergo fermentation but can be hydrolyzed into fermentable substances (as in the production of alcohol and alcoholic beverages).
There are different types of fermentation:
- Lactic
- Alcoholic

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Each enzyme is able to promote only one type of chemical reaction. The compounds on which the enzyme acts are called substrates. Enzymes operate in tightly organized metabolic systems called pathways. A seemingly simple biological phenomenon—the contraction of a muscle, for example, or the transmission of a nerve impulse—actually involves a large number of chemical steps in which one or more chemical compounds (substrates) are converted to substances called products; the product of one step in a metabolic pathway serves as the substrate for the succeeding step in the pathway.

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- Affinity: affinità
- Antibody: anticorpo
- Antigen: batterio, which can be either a glycoprotein on the surface of a bacterium or a virus or a toxin
- Epitope: epitopo, the specific site on the surface of an antigen molecule that bonds to the antibody
- Foreign molecules: molecole estranee
- Macrophage recruitment: reclutamento dei macrofagi, a process that has the final aim of destroying the foreign substance

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~ Enzymatic (enzimatica), like amylase & lactase
~ Hormonal (ormonale), like insulin & prolactin
~ Storage (di riserva), like ovalbumin & casein
~ Structural (strutturale), like collagen & keratin
~ Contractile (di contrazione e rilassamento), like actin & myosin
~ Defensive (difensiva), like antibodies
~ Receptor (ricettrice), like channel-linked & enzyme-linked receptors
~ Transport (di trasporto), like haemoglobin & serum albumin

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- AA, abbreviated form of Aminoacid

- Ball of yarn: gomitolo

- Disulphurine bridge: ponte di disulfuro

- Haem group: gruppo eme

- Isoelectric point: when the value of pH at which AA exists in its neutral forms, usually between 4.8-7

- Polymers: polimeri

- Random coil: struttura/ disposizione casuale

- Strands: filamenti

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Fatty acids: acidi grassi
Saturated: saturi
Unsaturated: insaturi
- - -
- Antioxidants: antiossidanti
- Artery wall: parete dell’arteria
- Bile acids: acidi biliari
- Blood clots: coaguli di sangue
- Carotenoids: carotenoidi
- CHD: coronary heart disease
- Palmitic acid: acido palmitico
- Plaques: porridge-like sludge of substances, placche

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~ C, Carbon = carbonio
~ CO2 = anidride carbonica
~ N, Nitrogen = azoto
~ H, Hidrgen = idrogeno
~ O, Oxigen = ossigeno
~ S, Sulfur = solfuro
~ Cl, Chlorine = cloro

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The words expressly required are underlined.

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• barley = orzo
• starch = amido
• oats = avena
• whole-wheat = integrale
• wheat/grain/corn = grano
• rye = segale

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- free radicals = molecole ad alta reazione che contengono almeno un elettrone spaiato
- lycopene = carotene di colore rosso acceso, trovato in maggior parte nei pomodori, frutta e altra verdura
- photodamage = danno causato dalla luce solare
- pigments = pigmenti (colored molecule, which gives colors to the fruit)
- precursors = precursori; sostanze trasformate in altri composti tramite un processo sintetico
- preen glands = ghiandola uropigio
- waterproof = resistente all’acqua
- waxes = cere
- vitamin = una sostanza necessaria per una normale crescita e per la salute, che comunemente non può essere sintetizzata dal nostro corpo

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Same chemical properties (= same formula) but different physical properties (no same structure).

Intermolecular forces —> polar & non polar

NB. H ₂ O (+,+,-): dipole, permanent. If 2 H₂O molecules, hydrogen bonding.
NB.* Hydrocarbons: non polar, temporary dipoles.
London Forces involved, weaker, surface forces

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Different compounds with the same molecular formula.
~ We can recognize if 2 compounds are isomers when they have the same number of Carbon atoms.

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- Molecular, C₂H₆
- Structural, which can be also condensed when it shows only a bond (-> CH₃–CH₃)
- Long molecules, skeletal formula

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- single, ALKANES
- double, ALKENES

- triple, ALKYNES

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- Linear, CH₂–CH₂–CH₂
- Branched,      C
I
C–C–C–C
- Ring Structure,