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“Direct instruction is an instructional model used to explicitly teach targeted knowledge, skills, or both. At the beginning of direct instruction, the teacher models what is to be learned. Then, through clear, timely, and accurate feedback during guided and independent practice sessions, students are gradually able to demonstrate successfully the targeted knowledge and skills,” (p.43).

Developed based on information from behavioral psychology, social learning theory and cognitive learning theory

This model is appropriate when the new information is “readily definable, easily illustrated, and reliable improved with practice.”(p.51)

Benefits of this model: can be used a template for a number of other instructional models, how the material is presented is not a critical attribute to the model, the goals of the model allow lesson objectives to be clearly articulated, and all steps of the model are geared toward helping students be successful. (p.54)

Drawbacks: requires a lot of planning and material making in advance, because instructors want to assess throughout the lesson, changes to the lesson may be needed, which involves more planning.

Assessing Student Understanding: Pre assessments would be given to provide information about how to start planning/implementing the lesson. During the “we do” part of the lesson, teachers will provide corrective feedback. During the “you do” part of the lesson teachers will be able to analyze student responses and determine if more instruction is needed in any given area of the lesson.

Differentiating Instruction: “Flexible grouping allows students to practice new knowledge and skills with a group of peers of similar interest, skill, or background knowledge or with a mixed-achievement group so that peers can share insights and skills.”(p.53) Varying questions can also be used to differentiate instruction. “Questions can be adjusted based on learner readiness, experiences, interests, and preferred approaches to learning.” (p.53)

Technology: Technology can be easily integrated into every step of the direct instruction model. Teachers can model concepts using a variety of websites, smart board applications, etc. Students can preform guided and independent practice activities in individual ipads, laptops, etc. Assessments can also be completed using these items as well.

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“The concept attainment model is based on the research of Jerome Bruner, Jacqueline Goodnow, and George Austin, which was reported in the landmark work A Study of Thinking (1986).”(p.62)

Main ideas: “Because we establish categories or concepts based defining characteristics, there is reduced demand for constant learning.”(p.62)

Concept attainment is appropriate when teaching things that have, “(1) a name and defnition, (2) examples of items that are included in the concept class, and (3) critical attributes that define the concept. We teach concepts to ease the cognitive pressure of leaning too many discrete bits of information or facts.”(p.62).

Benefits: “The concept attainment model mirrors the way that we learn concepts in the real world, allowing students to develop greater concept analysis tools.” “In addition, the concept attainment model requires clear definitions with identified essential attributes that help students construct a personal understanding of a concept.” (p.72)

Drawbacks: Not all objectives will work in a concept attainment model approach.

Assessment: Formative assessments can be used throughout the lesson. “Can students identify the concept label? Can they explain how the concept is related to larger topics? Can the list the critical attributes of the concepts-the collection of characteristics that make the concept unique?” (p.70)

Differentiating instruction: “Participation rules and the rule of competition in the classroom can be designed to meet student needs.”(p.71) “Learning or interest centers can be developed to allow for student choice.” (p.71)

Technology: Since the main concept of this model is categorizing information, I would choose technology that visually displays information in a way that it can be manipulated and categorized. Smartboard and the smart notebook program provide a variety of ways to chart and display information, allowing students to interact with the technology, moving information into eh appropriate category.

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“The concept development model is the result of work described by Hilda Taba in the 1960s (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2009). Much of Taba’s work is out of print, but her ideas have had a major impact on inductive teaching strategies. She developed specific teaching moves that shift students toward inductive thought (see Table 5.1). At the same time, Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (1986) were articulating the attainment of concepts, which is congruent with Taba’s teaching ideas. Bruner et. al. (1986)” (p.82)

Main Ideas: “Concept development goes beyond concept attainment. Simply put, the early research described in A Study of Thinking indicates that we attain concepts by identifying their criterial attributes. In extension, more recent theories demonstrate that ideas can also be represented by a prototype (a typical instance of a class) or an exemplar (a typical prototype) and that these are also useful in learning concepts (Klausmeier, 1990).” (p.83)

This model is appropriate when students already have knowledge about a concept, and the goal is for “students take those identified concepts and share what they know about the concepts and, together with their peers, form ideas and identify relationships between a variety of concepts.” (p.84)

Benefits: “The academic purpose of concept development is to extend and refine students’ knowledge and to develop specific thinking skills—generalizing and explaining generalizations from a set of data.” (p.91)

Drawbacks: Like the concept attainment model, the information being presented must fit into a category that can be clearly defined.

Assessment: “Practice in brainstorming helps students become more creative and willing to share.”(p.89). “The concept development process itself can be used as an evaluation tool. Paper-and-pencil tasks can be designed in which data sets are provided and students must group, label, regroup, relabel, and make generalizations. This work can be assessed for accuracy, originality, and the number of groups generated. In addition, students can be asked to create short essays explaining how and why items were grouped as they were and how these groups support specific generalizations.” (p.90-91)

Differentiation: “Data sets can be lists of words, realia, pictures, or symbols so that student learning access can be addressed in more than one way. Some students will find grouping and regrouping an easier task if they hold the items in their hands and actually place the items in groups. Teachers can also vary the pace of the lesson and provide more time and practice to students as necessary.” (p.91)

Technology: Technology can be used throughout this model. During the brainstorming process, student responses can be displayed visually on a smart board or other display technology. This would allow students to see their peers answers, instead of just hearing home being called out.

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Main ideas/Appropriate uses: “The Socratic seminar model is designed to use the Socratic dialectic—the examination of ideas through a logical progression of questioning to help students reach a deep understanding of a controversial topic after considering a number of perspectives (Fischer, 2008). Socratic seminars are applicable in all content areas and at all grade levels. Every discipline has conflicting viewpoints that can be examined by identifying assumptions and various interpretations and by studying the construction of conclusions.”(p.161)

Benefits/drawbacks: “The main argument in favor of the Socratic seminar model is that it is always based on an open-ended question designed to lead students to active dialogue in which multiple ideas can be proposed.”(p.174). The drawbacks of this model is that they cannot be applied to every topic. This model requires open ended questions, which are not always present in every goal/objective.

Assessment: “Students can be evaluated both formatively and summatively through the Socratic seminar model. Formative assessment opportunities can occur before, during, and after the seminar. Prior to the seminar, students could be asked to write clarification questions and answers that are directly related to the text. These questions will reflect the students’ comprehension level and provide formative information to both the teacher and the students. Student-generated questions may also be evaluated during the seminar (either in a whole class or in an inner/outer circle arrangement). Questions may be evaluated in terms of clarity, complexity, relationship to the text, and seminar objectives. Students may be asked to evaluate the questions that they felt were the most important in the seminar once the dialogue has been completed. Students can then share and discuss this information providing data on what was noticed and learned in the seminar.” (p.173)

Differentiation: “The Socratic seminar, as do most models, offers a host of possibilities for personalizing instruction. The choice of the text is one critical chance to differentiate. By choosing audio and visual text, on occasion, teachers can meet the learning preferences of a variety of students and provide the chance to build new strengths for others. Texts can also be chosen to respond to students’ cultural background and interests. Planning specific questions offers another chance to personalize instruction. Clusters of questions can be planned to meet the specific learning needs of particular students, to extend cultural understandings, and to pique student interests. All of these goals can be reached while also helping students demonstrate the achievement of standards and objectives. Students can participate at varying levels during a seminar, especially through the use of the inner/outer circle approach. Assigned opportunities or student choices could include observing a seminar and providing feedback to participants, charting discussions, preparing seminar questions, and keeping track of personal participation.”(p.173)

Technology: Technology can be used by choosing audio texts, creating visuals of each step that can be displayed as reference throughout the activity.

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Main Ideas: “All lessons, curricula, and courses can be designed to include cooperative learning by tailoring existing materials to include the five key elements of cooperative learning (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1994). These skills are critically important in almost all work settings. Their value to students beyond the years of formal schooling can hardly be overestimated: 1. Positive interdependence to ensure that work is equally distributed among all participating students and no one takes on a disproportionate share of the work 2. Individual accountability, meaning that each student is responsible for his or her own learning 3. Face-to-face interaction in which students explain to one another how to solve problems, share information, and connect information to prior knowledge 4. The explicit teaching of social skills (see Figure 10.1) 5. Group processing during a discussion about whether the activity met cooperative learning goals.” (p.184)

Appropriate: Any developmental level and subject.

Benefits/drawbacks: “In classrooms organized for cooperative learning, students listen, write, tell, paraphrase, read, assist others, and interact—they are actively engaged in promoting their own learning. When students work cooperatively, they process information by discussing subject matter with peers rather than acting as passive recipients of information. Because they are working in small groups, even reticent students tend to enter discussions and ask clarifying questions.” (p.201)

Assessment: “Because instruction and assessments should be aligned and integrated, it makes sense to occasionally use groups to help with evaluation. And because time for providing feedback, grading tests, and developing evaluations is always at a premium, student help with evaluation tasks can be invaluable. Peer review and student grading can take place in cooperative groups and still be reliable and valid. The key is that the groups must be cooperative and adhere to the five basic elements of cooperative learning.”(p.199)

Differentiation: “Because objectives are the key to all differentiation and cooperative learning decisions, once the know, understand, and able to do objectives are in place, the teacher can determine how best to help all students reach the goals. Differentiation can be achieved with the content or with the task. Jigsaws, for example, are a natural content-differentiation activity and can be organized by interest or need.” (p.200)

Technology: For the jigsaw model, instead of handing out posters/markers for students to record their answers, google docs could be used in order for students to share ideas. Really any program that visually displays information can be used.

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Main ideas: “The idea of inquiry learning is based on the premise that there is indeed a “wilderness of mystery” to be explored in all fields and that every school subject represents a discipline of inquiry in which all students can participate, regardless of their past school achievement.” (p.209)

Appropriate: all developmental levels, can be applied to all subjects.

Benefits/drawbacks: “Inquiry models have many benefits; the most obvious is that the focus of learning is on questions rather than answers—on problems rather than solutions—which allows students to be actively engaged in learning.” (p.226)

Assessment: “Learning in the Inquiry Models In some schools, there is enough technological support to allow each student to design a WebQuest as a culminating assessment. This assessment would allow students to follow their own interests in a structured and detailed manner. WebQuests can be designed by groups, individuals, or teachers. Teacher-designed WebQuests can serve as both instruction and assessments. WebQuests would need to be carefully evaluated with a rubric or checklist. The rubric or checklist should consider the visual appeal and ease of navigation of the quest; the efficacy, accuracy, and clarity of the task; and the quality of the resources. Traditional paper-and-pencil tasks can also be incorporated in inquiry methods to help students and teachers see progress toward clearly stated objectives. Essays can be used to hold students individually accountable for their part in a group inquiry project. Multiple-choice and short-answer items can demonstrate foundational knowledge and scaffold students to higher-level thinking.” (p.224)

Differentiation: “Teachers who use inquiry instructional models have a great opportunity for responsive teaching by varying the content, process, and product of the tasks provided to students (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). Questions and research topics can be based on individual interests and skills, allowing for personal discovery.” (p.226)

Technology: Webquests can be used as assessment, research can be completed using search engines on computers.

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Main ideas: “William Gordon (1961) is credited with the development of the process called synectics, which is derived from the Greek word synecticos, meaning “understanding together that which is apparently different.” Synectics uses group interaction to create new insights through an “understanding together” process. As an instructional model, synectics is specifically designed to enhance creativity in problem solving by having students consciously develop analogies that allow for an emotional as well as a rational approach to solutions.” (p.235)

Appropriate: “The synectics process works most effectively when the objective is for students to look at reality in a different way and experiment with possibilities.” (p.236)

benefits/drawbacks: “Synectics helps students find fresh ways of thinking about ideas and problems. Because creativity is a learned behavior and the creative process is similar across all grades and curriculum subjects, synectics is a meaningful addition to your instructional toolbox, and it is an adaptable and rewarding process.” (p.249)

Assessment: “The model itself offers the opportunity for formative assessments. Teachers can monitor individual contributions to the discussion of personal and direct analogies and compressed conflicts during the implementation of the synectics process and during the subsequent discussion. Analogies can be assessed as to their construction and quality.” (p.246)

Differentiation: “Providing support for students to learn specific skills, processes, and information results in increased student learning (Good & Brophy, 2003). When this support is also stretched to meet the needs of a variety of students, teachers differentiate.” (p.248)

Technology: Students can display their ideas/analogies in a creative way using a variety of different computer applications that will display their work visually. For example, students can create visuals using presentation programs such as press, powerpoint, google slides, etc.