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Check the website of the White House and find out the following information about John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Richard Nixon and Lindon B. Johnson

- The president's name
- His dates of birth and death
- What this president did for the USA
- The reason why he died (if it is special)

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Learn more about the Presidents of the United States from WhiteHouse.gov.

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On this page, you will find rare pictures of the Vietnam war.
Choose one of them and describe it. Explain why you chose this particular picture and what message it conveys.

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March 29th is Vietnam War Veterans Day. It is also designated for official commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War. On March 29th, 1973, the last U.S. troops left Vietnam, ending American military presence in the region that lasted since its initiation under President Kennedy in 1961 and surge under President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964.

Over 2.7 million Americans served in the Vietnam War, almost 10% of their generation. During the war, 58,000 Americans were killed and 1.3 million Vietnamese (including over half a million civilians). 61% of American men killed were 21 or younger. The war was one of the most divisive periods of American history and continues to affect the American psyche every time its foreign policy approaches military intervention.
After receiving a fresh supply of ammunition and water flown in by helicopter, men of the US 173rd Airborne Brigade continue on a jungle 'Search and Destroy' patrol in Phuc Tuy Province, Vietnam, June 1966. An armored personnel carrier provides security on the landing zone in the background. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
The second wave of combat helicopters of the 1st Air Cavalry Division fly over an RTO and his commander on an isolated landing zone during Operation Pershing, a search and destroy mission on the Bong Son Plain and An Lao Valley of South Vietnam, during the Vietnam War. The two American soldiers are waiting for the second wave to come in. (Photo by Patrick Christain/Getty Images)
Vietnamese refugees returning to Hue. (Photo by Terry Fincher/Getty Images) WHAT IS A "JUST" WAR?
Just war theory" is a doctrine that goes all the way back to Saint Augustine and stipulates that certain criteria exist that may make war morally justifiable. These include 'the right to go to war' ( jus ad bellum) and 'right conduct in war' ( jus in bello). The first one speaks to the morality of entering a war and the second one about conduct within a war.

What would make reasons for going to war morally acceptable? There needs to be a just cause, which doesn't mean recapturing things or punishing bad people, but rather innocent life must be in imminent danger and intervention must be made to protect life. Essentially, it should be a war of self-defense. A "just" war should be waged as a last resort, when all peaceful alternatives have been exhausted, while conducted by a competent authority (government) which has a strong probability of success.
American marines with their pet dog in Vietnam. (Photo by Express Newspapers/Getty Images) An American marine weeping in Vietnam. (Photo by Terry Fincher/Getty Images)

February 1970: Lance Corporal Charles C. Sead of Portsmouth, Ohio, carries an elderly Vietnamese woman too old to keep up with the patrol in the Arizona Territory, 22 miles southwest of Da Nang, Vietnam. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) HOW TO BE NICE IN A "JUST" WAR
In a "just" war, once the war is waged, the combatants are to direct their actions towards enemy combatants and not civilians, without causing excess harm. Prisoners are not to be tortured and all military actions are to be taken from the principle of necessity and proportionality.

Of course, this is a fairly philosophical doctrine and wars do not fit into neat principles. Still, the doctrine is often invoked as a public-facing explanation for why a war is undertaken. You can see traces of it in the justification for the Vietnam War and the American wars that come since. After all, we went to Iraq essentially in self-defense, fearful of Saddam's WMDs.

11th April 1968: US soldiers, one wounded and being carried by a colleague, walking down Hill Timothy, during the conflict in Vietnam. (Photo by Terry Fincher/Express/Getty Images) WAS THE WAR IN VIETNAM A "JUST" WAR?
The official reasons for US involvement in Vietnam were based on the "domino theory" that posited a domino effect of countries in Southeast Asia all falling under communist control if one country was to be taken over. Thus, American support of the South Vietnamese government against the communists of North Vietnam led to increasing entanglement. But does this fear of a communist takeover of a region constitutes a legitimate self-defense argument? It's hard to argue that U.S. was directly attacked or was going to be attacked by anyone in the region.

And was the Vietnam War conducted justly once it began? The U.S. Army was involved in a number of horrifying massacres during the war, most notorious of which being the My Lai Massacre, when on March 16, 1968, U.S. Army soldiers killed between 347 and 504 unarmed civilians. A large number of these were women and children. The moral fog of war covered the American use of herbicide and defoliants like Agent Orange, which was sprayed across Vietnamese jungles in an attempt to deprive the Viet Cong of food and cover. Among many ill effects, exposure to the chemicals led to hundreds of thousands of birth defects in Vietnamese children.

As hard as it is to consider the Vietnam War a "just" war, can any war truly make such a claim?
A US Special Forces soldier pulls a dead North Vietnamese soldier from a hole outside the Special Forces outpost, on June 21, 1969, during the Ben Het battle, in Dak Seang area. (Photo credit should read -/AFP/Getty Images) 16th January 1967: Two US Marine sergeants getting a supply of Ace of Spades cards, known as the 'death cards' which the reconnaissance forces leave as a warning to the Viet Cong, before going on patrol in enemy territory. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) 6th July 1970: Two American marines carrying a young Vietnamese refugee in a basket during the evacuation of a village near Da Nang. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) D.R. Howe treats the wounds of Private First Class D.A. Crum, 'H' Company, 2nd Battalion, Fifth Marine Regiment, During Operation Hue City in Vietnam 06 February, 1968 (Photo credit: NATIONAL ARCHIVES/AFP/Getty Images) An American Marine gives a North Vietnamese prisoner of war a drink of water during the Vietnam War. The prisoners, captured by a reconnaissance patrol, wear labels with details of time and place of capture. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) Two GI's admiring the American actress Raquel Welch during a visit to Vietnam. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images). US actress and peace activist Jane Fonda, holding a camera, visits 25 July 1972 a Hanoi site bombed by US airplanes. Fonda's trip to North Vietnam was part of her protest campaign against the US involvement in the Vietnam war. US bombers, including B-52 strato-fortresses, started to bomb the North Vietnamese capital and its port Haiphong in April 1972. (Photo credit: AFP/Getty Images) Viet Cong soldiers moving forward under covering fire from a heavy machine gun during the Vietnam War, circa 1968. (Photo by Three Lions/Hulton Archive/Getty Images) A Vietnamese civilian with a gun pointed at the side of her head. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) US riflemen from the 173rd Airborne Brigade charge toward Viet Cong positions, holding machine guns in a wooded area of War Zone D during the Vietnam War, March 21, 1967. (Photo by U.S. Army/Getty Images) circa 1967: A little girl in Vietnam looking over the shoulder of the soldier who is carrying her. (Photo by J. Dezort/Keystone/Getty Images) 4th November 1968: US marines on patrol in a jungle during the Vietnam war. (Photo by Terry Fincher/Express/Getty Images) circa 1970: A group of Vietnamese refugees. (Photo by Three Lions/Getty Images) March 1967: Moses Green, a medic in the 173rd Airborne Brigade, pouring water on Staff Sergeant Melvin Gaines who has just emerged after several hours searching a network of Vietcong tunnels. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) Blindfolded prisoners are taken away by South Vietnamese troops during the Vietnam War, 12th April 1972. (Photo by Ian Brodie/Daily Express/Hulton Archive/Getty Images) A US soldier carrying a wounded refugee to safety during the war in Vietnam. (Photo by Terry Fincher/Getty Images) An American soldier pushing his combat gear across a river in Hau Nghia province, Vietnam. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) 22nd March 1966: US marines carrying rifles and wearing anti-fragmentation jackets kneel in prayer before moving on to battle stations at Da Nang in South Vietnam. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) 08 February 1966: F105 Thunderchief of the US Army bombing military and strategic targets in north Vietnam during the Vietnam War. (Photo credit should read STF/AFP/Getty Images) Senator John Mccain Is Pulled Out Of A Hanoi Lake By North Vietnamese Army Soldiers And Civilians on October 26, 1967 In Hanoi, North Vietnam. Mccain's A-4E Skyhawk Was Shot Down By A Surface-To-Air Missile. Mccain Broke Both Arms And His Right Knee Upon Ejection And Lost Consciousness Until He Hit The Water. (Photo By Getty Images) Armed Viet-cong guerillas carry ammunition on elephant back through a South Vietnam high plateau forest 13 November 1969 during the Vietnam war. (Photo credit: AFP/AFP/Getty Images) A human skull keeps watch over US soldiers encamped in the Vietnamese jungle during the Vietnam War. (Photo by Terry Fincher/Getty Images) A soldier of the US Seventh Marines carrying a little puppy in his pocket after rescuing it during an operation south west of Da Nang in Vietnam. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) Picture taken 25 December of soldiers taking rest close to a small Xmas tree, on their position at the Hill 875 near Dakto, few days after the North Vietnamese Army made a massive assault. (Photo credit should read CORR/AFP/Getty Images) An American soldier takes a shower during the Battle of Snuol, Cambodia, 9th May 1970. The battle was part of the joint South Vietnamese and U.S Cambodian Incursion during the Vietnam War. (Photo by Express/Hulton Archive/Getty Images) 10 June 1972: Young Viet Cong women carry the ammunition to the front in Quang Tri province, south Vietnam. (Photo credit should read VAN BANG/AFP/Getty Images) US troops take cover from the Vietcong in a trench on Hill Timothy, during the Vietnam War. (Photo by Terry Fincher/Getty Images) Vietnamese 'boat people' refugees huddle together on a tarp as they are airlifted out of the sea during the Vietnam War, 1960s. (Photo by Express Newspapers/Getty Images)

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Can Any War Be "Just"? Vietnam War in Rare Photos.

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March 29th is Vietnam War Veterans Day. It is also designated for official commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War. On March 29th, 1973, the last U.S. troops left Vietnam, ending American military presence in the region that lasted since its initiation under President Kennedy in 1961 and surge under President Lyndon B.

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Find out why Forrest is looking for Charlie when he is in Vietnam !

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For those who have seen movies about the Vietnam War or any other with references to this conflict, it is likely they have listened to the name "Charlie" during military conversations or even jokes, as is the case of the feature film Forrest Gump (1994) whose main character interpreted by Tom Hanks said: "We passed all day long searching for a guy named 'Charlie" during the Vietnam War sequence, but... what does "Charlie" mean in this particular context and why does he take that name?, who was "Charlie" in the Vietnam War?
The history behind "Charlie"
Since the late twenties, the radial communication had evolved from entertainment to commercial and military activities, the sailors wouldn't have to deal with the telegraphic method thanks to a radio equipment that allowed them to speak fluently without the need of a technical specialist in Morse code; however, the sound interferences along with errors of diction on the part of the emitters caused confusions and ambiguous meanings in the messages transmitted through hertzian waves in situations where there was no room for errors. In order to solve this situation, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) approved a universal alphabet that assigned a word to each letter in the English alphabet, by this way anyone could spell any message regardless of the static or pronunciation problems. The method, although effective in marine transmissions, was subjected to modifications before being used by civil aviation during the thirties and had to sustain many others because of World War II, finally, the code was standardized in the mid-fifties.

The final result was basically the same: words ordered alphabetically started with the letter they represented in the English alphabet beside the numbers from "0" to "9"; although this time its use would be definitive and universal for civilians and the military. Here stands the key words: "Victor" and "Charlie" used to represent the letters "v" and "c" respectively, the initials of "Viet Cong", denomination of the communist guerrilla that supported to North Vietnam, this paramilitary group was the successor of the Viet Minh, the Vietnamese paramilitary group that fought against Japanese and French domination. The enemies faced by the US armed forces were between the National Vietnam Army (NVA) and the Viet Cong, on this last case, the way of referring to them by radio was simplified from "Victor Charlie" (vc) to "Charlie" (c), so it is more common to hear this code in books, movies, television and more.

Featured Image by: oldskull.net

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For those who have seen movies about the Vietnam War or any other with references to this conflict, it is likely they have listened to the name "Charlie" during military conversations or even jokes, as is the case of the feature film Forrest Gump (1994) whose main character interpreted by Tom Hanks said: "We passed all day long searching for a guy named 'Charlie" during the Vietnam War sequence, but...

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If you want to learn more about "Victor Charlie", you definitely should take a look at this website !

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The International Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, commonly known as the NATO phonetic alphabet, NATO spelling alphabet, ICAO phonetic alphabet or ICAO spelling alphabet, is the most widely used radiotelephone spelling alphabet. The ITU phonetic alphabet and figure code is a rarely used variant that differs in the code words for digits.

To create the code, a series of international agencies assigned 26 code words acrophonically to the letters of the English alphabet, so that the names for letters and numbers would be as distinct as possible so as to be easily understood by those who exchanged voice messages by radio or telephone, regardless of language differences or the quality of the connection. The specific code words varied, as some seemingly distinct words were found to be ineffective in real-life conditions. In 1956, NATO modified the then-current set of code words used by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO); this modification then became the international standard when it was accepted by the ICAO that year and by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) a few years later. The words were chosen to be accessible to speakers of French and Spanish in addition to English; the spellings of a couple of code words were changed to facilitate their use.

Spelling alphabets are often inaccurately called "phonetic alphabets", but they do not indicate phonetics and cannot function as phonetic transcription systems like the International Phonetic Alphabet.

The 26 code words are as follows: Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu. Numbers are read off as English digits, but the pronunciations of three, four, five, nine and thousand are modified.

Strict adherence to the prescribed spellings-including the apparently misspelled "Alfa" and "Juliett"-is required in order to avoid the problems of confusion that the code is designed to overcome. A 1955 NATO memo stated that:

It is known that [the spelling alphabet] has been prepared only after the most exhaustive tests on a scientific basis by several nations. One of the firmest conclusions reached was that it was not practical to make an isolated change to clear confusion between one pair of letters. To change one word involves reconsideration of the whole alphabet to ensure that the change proposed to clear one confusion does not itself introduce others.

After the phonetic alphabet was developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO) (see history below) it was adopted by many other international and national organizations, including the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the United States Federal Government as Federal Standard 1037C: Glossary of Telecommunications Terms, and its successors ANSI T1.523-2001 and ATIS Telecom Glossary (ATIS-0100523.2019), (using the English spellings "Alpha" and "Juliet"), the United States Department of Defense (using standard spellings), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU), the American Radio Relay League (ARRL), the Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials-International (APCO); and by many military organizations such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the now-defunct Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).

The same alphabetic code words are used by all agencies, but each agency chooses one of two different sets of numeric code words. NATO uses the regular English numeric words (Zero, One, with some alternative pronunciations), whereas the ITU (beginning on 1 April 1969) and the IMO define compound numeric words (Nadazero, Unaone, Bissotwo...). In practice these are used very rarely, as they frequently result in confusion between speakers of different languages.

A spelling alphabet is used to spell parts of a message containing letters and numbers to avoid confusion, because many letters sound similar, for instance "n" and "m" or "f" and "s"; the potential for confusion increases if static or other interference is present. For instance the message "proceed to map grid DH98" could be transmitted as "proceed to map grid Delta-Hotel-Niner-Ait". Using "Delta" instead of "D" avoids confusion between "DH98" and "BH98" or "TH98". The unusual pronunciation of certain numbers was designed to reduce confusion as well.

In addition to the traditional military usage, civilian industry uses the alphabet to avoid similar problems in the transmission of messages by telephone systems. For example, it is often used in the retail industry where customer or site details are spoken by telephone (to authorize a credit agreement or confirm stock codes), although ad-hoc coding is often used in that instance. It has been used often by information technology workers to communicate serial or reference codes (which are often very long) or other specialised information by voice. Most major airlines use the alphabet to communicate passenger name records (PNRs) internally, and in some cases, with customers. It is often used in a medical context as well, to avoid confusion when transmitting information.

Several letter codes and abbreviations using the spelling alphabet have become well-known, such as Bravo Zulu (letter code BZ) for "well done", Checkpoint Charlie (Checkpoint C) in Berlin, and Zulu Time for Greenwich Mean Time or Coordinated Universal Time. During the Vietnam War, the U.S. government referred to the Viet Cong guerrillas and the group itself as VC, or Victor Charlie; the name "Charlie" became synonymous with this force.

The final choice of code words for the letters of the alphabet and for the digits was made after hundreds of thousands of comprehension tests involving 31 nationalities. The qualifying feature was the likelihood of a code word being understood in the context of others. For example, football has a higher chance of being understood than foxtrot in isolation, but foxtrot is superior in extended communication.

The pronunciation of the code words varies according to the language habits of the speaker. To eliminate wide variations in pronunciation, recordings and posters illustrating the pronunciation desired by the ICAO are available. However, there are still differences in pronunciation between the ICAO and other agencies, and the ICAO has conflicting Latin-alphabet and International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcriptions. Also, although all codes for the letters of the alphabet are English words, they are not in general given English pronunciations.

Pronunciations are somewhat uncertain because the agencies, while ostensibly using the same pronunciations, give different transcriptions, which are often inconsistent from letter to letter. The ICAO gives a different pronunciation for IPA transcription and for respelling. The Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS) gives English spellings, but does not give pronunciations or numbers. The ICAO, NATO, and FAA use modifications of English numerals, with stress on one syllable, while the ITU and IMO compound pseudo-Latinate numerals with a slightly different set of modified English numerals, and with stress on each syllable. Numbers 10-99 are spelled out (that is, 17 is spoken "one seven" and 60 is spoken "six zero"), while for hundreds and thousands the English words hundred and thousand are used.

The pronunciation of the digits 3, 4, 5, and 9 differs from standard English - being pronounced tree, fower, fife, and niner. The digit 3 is specified as tree so that it is not pronounced sri; the long pronunciation of 4 (still found in some English dialects) keeps it somewhat distinct from for; 5 is pronounced with a second "f" because the normal pronunciation with a "v" is easily confused with "fire" (a command to shoot); and 9 has an extra syllable to keep it distinct from German nein 'no'.

Only the ICAO prescribes pronunciation with the IPA, and then only for letters. Several of the pronunciations indicated are slightly modified from their normal English pronunciations, partially due to the substitution of final schwas with the vowel. Both the IPA and respelled pronunciations were developed by the ICAO before 1956 with advice from the governments of both the United States and United Kingdom.

In addition, the ITU and IMO specify a different set of numeral words than does the ICAO. The ITU/IMO words are compounds combining the English numeral with either a Spanish or Latin prefix. However, as of 2002, the IMO's GMDSS procedures permit the use of the ICAO numeral pronunciation.

Prior to World War I and the development and widespread adoption of two-way radio that supported voice, telephone spelling alphabets were developed to improve communication on low-quality and long-distance telephone circuits.

The first non-military internationally recognized spelling alphabet was adopted by the CCIR (predecessor of the ITU) during 1927. The experience gained with that alphabet resulted in several changes being made during 1932 by the ITU. The resulting alphabet was adopted by the International Commission for Air Navigation, the predecessor of the ICAO, and was used for civil aviation until World War II. It continued to be used by the IMO until 1965.

Throughout World War II, many nations used their own versions of a spelling alphabet. The U.S. adopted the Joint Army/Navy radiotelephony alphabet during 1941 to standardize systems among all branches of its armed forces. The U.S. alphabet became known as Able Baker after the words for A and B. The Royal Air Force adopted one similar to the United States one during World War II as well. Other British forces adopted the RAF radio alphabet, which is similar to the phonetic alphabet used by the Royal Navy during World War I. At least two of the terms are sometimes still used by UK civilians to spell words over the phone, namely F for Freddie and S for Sugar.

To enable the U.S., UK, and Australian armed forces to communicate during joint operations, in 1943 the CCB (Combined Communications Board; the combination of US and UK upper military commands) modified the U.S. military's Joint Army/Navy alphabet for use by all three nations, with the result being called the US-UK spelling alphabet. It was defined in one or more of CCBP-1: Combined Amphibious Communications Instructions, CCBP3: Combined Radiotelephone (R/T) Procedure, and CCBP-7: Combined Communication Instructions. The CCB alphabet itself was based on the U.S. Joint Army/Navy spelling alphabet. The CCBP (Combined Communications Board Publications) documents contain material formerly published in U.S. Army Field Manuals in the 24-series. Several of these documents had revisions, and were renamed. For instance, CCBP3-2 was the second edition of CCBP3.

During World War II, the U.S. military conducted significant research into spelling alphabets. Major F. D. Handy, directorate of Communications in the Army Air Force (and a member of the working committee of the Combined Communications Board), enlisted the help of Harvard University's Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory, asking them to determine the most successful word for each letter when using "military interphones in the intense noise encountered in modern warfare.". He included lists from the US, Royal Air Force, Royal Navy, British Army, AT&T, Western Union, RCA Communications, and that of the International Telecommunications Convention. According to a report on the subject:

The results showed that many of the words in the military lists had a low level of intelligibility, but that most of the deficiencies could be remedied by the judicious selection of words from the commercial codes and those tested by the laboratory. In a few instances where none of the 250 words could be regarded as especially satisfactory, it was believed possible to discover suitable replacements. Other words were tested and the most intelligible ones were compared with the more desirable lists. A final NDRC list was assembled and recommended to the CCB.

After World War II, with many aircraft and ground personnel from the allied armed forces, "Able Baker" was officially adopted for use in international aviation. During the 1946 Second Session of the ICAO Communications Division, the organization adopted the so-called "Able Baker" alphabet that was the 1943 US-UK spelling alphabet. But many sounds were unique to English, so an alternative "Ana Brazil" alphabet was used in Latin America. But the International Air Transport Association (IATA), recognizing the need for a single universal alphabet, presented a draft alphabet to the ICAO during 1947 that had sounds common to English, French, Spanish and Portuguese.

From 1948 to 1949, Jean-Paul Vinay, a professor of linguistics at the Université de Montréal worked closely with the ICAO to research and develop a new spelling alphabet. ICAO's directions to him were that "To be considered, a word must:

1. Be a live word in each of the three working languages.

2. Be easily pronounced and recognized by airmen of all languages.

3. Have good radio transmission and readability characteristics.

4. Have a similar spelling in at least English, French, and Spanish, and the initial letter must be the letter the word identifies.

5. Be free from any association with objectionable meanings."

After further study and modification by each approving body, the revised alphabet was adopted on 1 November 1951, to become effective on 1 April 1952 for civil aviation (but it may not have been adopted by any military).

Problems were soon found with this list. Some users believed that they were so severe that they reverted to the old "Able Baker" alphabet. Confusion among words like Delta and Extra, and between Nectar and Victor, or the unintelligibility of other words during poor receiving conditions were the main problems. Later in 1952, ICAO decided to revisit the alphabet and their research. To identify the deficiencies of the new alphabet, testing was conducted among speakers from 31 nations, principally by the governments of the United Kingdom and the United States. In the United States, the research was conducted by the USAF-directed Operational Applications Laboratory (AFCRC, ARDC), to monitor a project with the Research Foundation of Ohio State University. Among the more interesting of the research findings was that "higher noise levels do not create confusion, but do intensify those confusions already inherent between the words in question".

By early 1956 the ICAO was nearly complete with this research, and published the new official phonetic alphabet in order to account for discrepancies that might arise in communications as a result of multiple alphabet naming systems coexisting in different places and organizations. NATO was in the process of adopting the ICAO spelling alphabet, and apparently felt enough urgency that it adopted the proposed new alphabet with changes based on NATO's own research, to become effective on 1 January 1956, but quickly issued a new directive on 1 March 1956 adopting the now official ICAO spelling alphabet, which had changed by one word (November) from NATO's earlier request to ICAO to modify a few words based on U.S. Air Force research.

After all of the above study, only the five words representing the letters C, M, N, U, and X were replaced. The ICAO sent a recording of the new Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet to all member states in November 1955. The final version given in the table above was implemented by the ICAO on 1 March 1956, and the ITU adopted it no later than 1959 when they mandated its usage via their official publication, Radio Regulations. Because the ITU governs all international radio communications, it was also adopted by most radio operators, whether military, civilian, or amateur. It was finally adopted by the IMO in 1965.

During 1947 the ITU adopted the compound Latinate prefix-number words ( Nadazero, Unaone, etc.), later adopted by the IMO during 1965.[citation needed ]

Nadazero - from Spanish or Portuguese nada + NATO/ICAO zero

Unaone - generic Romance una, from Latin ūna + NATO/ICAO one

Bissotwo - from Latin bis + NATO/ICAO two. (1959 ITU proposals bis and too)

Terrathree - from Italian terzo + NATO/ICAO three ("tree") (1959 ITU proposals ter and tree)

Kartefour - from French quatre (Latin quartus) + NATO/ICAO four ("fow-er") (1959 ITU proposals quarto and fow-er)

Pantafive - from French penta- + NATO/ICAO five ("fife") (From 1959 ITU proposals penta and fife)

Soxisix - from French soix + NATO/ICAO six (1959 ITU proposals were saxo and six)

Setteseven - from Italian sette + NATO/ICAO seven (1959 ITU proposals sette and sev-en)

Oktoeight - generic Romance octo-, from Latin octō + NATO/ICAO eight (1959 ITU proposals octo and ait)

Novenine - from Italian nove + NATO/ICAO nine ("niner") (1959 ITU proposals were nona and niner)

In the official version of the alphabet, the non-English spellings Alfa and Juliett are used. Alfa is spelled with an f as it is in most European languages because the English and French spelling alpha would not be pronounced properly by native speakers of some other languages - who may not know that ph should be pronounced as f. Juliett is spelled with a tt for French speakers, because they may otherwise treat a single final t as silent. Some published versions use the English spellings "Alpha" and "Juliet" - presumably because of the use of spell checker software.

Defined by various international conventions on radio, including:

Universal Electrical Communications Union (UECU), Washington, D.C., December 1920

International Radiotelegraph Convention, Washington, 1927 (which created the CCIR)

General Radiocommunication and Additional Regulations (Madrid, 1932)

Instructions for the International Telephone Service, 1932 (ITU-T E.141; withdrawn in 1993)

General Radiocommunication Regulations and Additional Radiocommunication Regulations (Cairo, 1938)

Radio Regulations and Additional Radio Regulations (Atlantic City, 1947), where "it was decided that the International Civil Aviation Organization and other international aeronautical organizations would assume the responsibility for procedures and regulations related to aeronautical communication. However, ITU would continue to maintain general procedures regarding distress signals."

1959 Administrative Radio Conference (Geneva, 1959)

International Telecommunication Union, Radio

Final Acts of WARC-79 (Geneva, 1979). Here the alphabet was formally named "Phonetic Alphabet and Figure Code".

International Code of Signals for Visual, Sound, and Radio Communications, United States Edition, 1969 (Revised 2003)

For the 1938 and 1947 phonetics, each transmission of figures is preceded and followed by the words "as a number" spoken twice.

The ITU adopted the International Maritime Organization's phonetic spelling alphabet in 1959, and in 1969 specified that it be "for application in the maritime mobile service only".

Pronunciation was not defined prior to 1959. For the 1959 - present phonetics, the underlined syllable of each letter word should be emphasized, and each syllable of the code words for the figures (1969 - present) should be equally emphasized.

The Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization for international aircraft communications.

The ITU-R Radiotelephony Alphabet is used by the International Maritime Organization for international marine communications.

"Delta" is sometimes replaced by "Data", "Dixie", or "David" at airports that have a majority of Delta Air Lines flights in order to avoid confusion because "Delta" is also Delta's callsign. At Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, the automated people mover known as The Plane Train uses the NATO phonetic alphabet to identify all stops except the stop for Concourse D, which is announced as "D, as in David"; historically, air traffic control communications referred to Taxiway D at the same airport as "Taxiway Dixie", though this practice was officially discontinued on 18 August 2020.

"Lima" is replaced by the old RAF word "London" in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore because "lima" means "five" in Indonesian, Malay and a number of other Austronesian languages in those countries. Thus, confusion could occur if a string of mixed numerals and letters were being given.

In Muslim countries, where alcohol is banned, the original ITU "Washington" or "White" replaces "Whiskey" for "W".

In Pakistan, "Indigo" or "Italy" replaces "India" because of ongoing conflicts with India.

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The International Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, commonly known as the NATO phonetic alphabet, NATO spelling alphabet, ICAO phonetic alphabet or ICAO spelling alphabet, is the most widely used radiotelephone spelling alphabet. The ITU phonetic alphabet and figure code is a rarely used variant that differs in the code words for digits.

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When soldiers came back from war, lots of them suffered from PTSD.

Define PTSD

Find out when the term was first employed.

Explain who suffers the most from this trouble and why.

Find out some treatments used to cure PTSD.

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PTSD Basics - PTSD: National Center for PTSD

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Find out the basics about PTSD, including how common it is and effective treatments for it.

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In the USA, the self made man is part of the American dream. Find out the answers to the following questions :

=> Who invented it ?

=> When ?

=> What does it mean ?

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Historian James Truslow Adams often receives credit for first popularizing the idea of the American dream. In his 1931 book "The Epic of America," Adams described "that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement" [source: Adams].

But the concept of the American dream, as Adams defined it, actually existed long before him. In 1630, John Winthrop gave his "city upon a hill" sermon to his fellow Puritan colonists as they sailed to Massachusetts in 1630. Although Winthrop never used the word "dream," he eloquently detailed his vision of a society in which everyone would have a chance to prosper, as long as they all worked together and followed Biblical teachings [source: Winthrop]. Gradually, that dream of opportunity evolved in colonists' minds into a God-given right. In the Declaration of Independence in 1776, Thomas Jefferson asserted that everyone in America -- at least, those who weren't enslaved by the colonists -- was entitled to "life, liberty and pursuit of happiness" [source: Jefferson].

As America evolved and grew throughout the 19th century, so did the notion that America was different from other countries: It was a land of unparalleled opportunity, where anything could be achieved if a person dared to dream big enough. Alexis de Tocqueville, a Frenchman who visited the new nation in the 1830s, called this belief "the charm of anticipated success" [source: Cullen]. American transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau, in his 1854 book "Walden," articulated it this way: "If one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours" [source: Thoreau].

The words "American dream" gradually began to appear in newspaper articles and books in the mid- to late-1800s, often in reference to hardy pioneers who headed westward to seek fortune, or to European immigrants who arrived in U.S. ports in search of better jobs and homes. By the early 20th century, it was a euphemism for upward economic mobility -- the prototypical American rags-to-riches dream. In Sherwood Anderson's 1916 novel "Windy McPherson's Son," for example, the author described his protagonist as "an American multi-millionaire, a man in the midst of his money-making, one who had realised the American Dream" [source: Anderson].

How did Americans' vision of prosperity further evolve in the 20th century?

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What exactly is the American dream? And how do you know if you're living it? Read about the American dream at HowStuffWorks.

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The first two Black American students in the University of Alabama

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The first two Black American students in the University of Alabama

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=> What were their names ?

=> What did they become after their studies ? (you will have to find this information by yourself !)

You may watch this video :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RYkXxczF49U

or go visit the following website !

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Facing federalized Alabama National Guard troops, Alabama Governor George Wallace ends his blockade of the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa and allows two African American students to enroll.

George Wallace, one of the most controversial politicians in U.S. history, was elected governor of Alabama in 1962 under an ultra-segregationist platform. In his 1963 inaugural address, he promised his white followers: "Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever!" When African American students attempted to desegregate the University of Alabama in June 1963, Alabama's new governor, flanked by state troopers, literally blocked the door of the enrollment office. The U.S. Supreme Court, however, had declared segregation unconstitutional in 1954's Brown v. Board of Education, and the executive branch undertook aggressive tactics to enforce the ruling.

On June 10, 1963, President John F. Kennedy federalized National Guard troops and deployed them to the University of Alabama to force its desegregation. The next day, Governor Wallace yielded to the federal pressure, and two African American students-Vivian Malone and James A. Hood-successfully enrolled. In September of the same year, Wallace again attempted to block the desegregation of an Alabama public school-this time Tuskegee High School in Huntsville-but President Kennedy once again employed his executive authority and federalized National Guard troops. Wallace had little choice but to yield.

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Facing federalized Alabama National Guard troops, Alabama Governor George Wallace ends his blockade of the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa and allows two African American students to enroll. George Wallace, one of the most controversial politicians in U.S. history, was elected governor of Alabama in 1962 under an ultra-segregationist platform.

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When Black American fought for their rights !

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When Black American fought for their rights !

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Let's talk about the Jim Crow Laws :

=> What are they about ?

=> When were they passed ?

=> What did they change ?

Now, what about about the Civil Rights Act passed in 1957 ?

=> Who signed it ?

=> What did it change ?

Say something about the Civil Rights Act passed in 1964.

=> Who signed it ?

=> What did it change ?

What can you learn about the Voting Rights Act passed in 1965?

=> Who signed it ?

=> What did it change ?

=> Can you make a link between this law and what happened to President Johnson?

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Jim Crow Laws

During Reconstruction, Black people took on leadership roles like never before. They held public office and sought legislative changes for equality and the right to vote.

In 1868, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution gave Black people equal protection under the law. In 1870, the 15th Amendment granted Black American men the right to vote. Still, many white Americans, especially those in the South, were unhappy that people they'd once enslaved were now on a more-or-less equal playing field.

To marginalize Black people, keep them separate from white people and erase the progress they'd made during Reconstruction, " Jim Crow " laws were established in the South beginning in the late 19th century. Black people couldn't use the same public facilities as white people, live in many of the same towns or go to the same schools. Interracial marriage was illegal, and most Black people couldn't vote because they were unable to pass voter literacy tests.

Jim Crow laws weren't adopted in northern states; however, Black people still experienced discrimination at their jobs or when they tried to buy a house or get an education. To make matters worse, laws were passed in some states to limit voting rights for Black Americans.

Moreover, southern segregation gained ground in 1896 when the U.S. Supreme Court declared in Plessy v. Ferguson that facilities for Black and white people could be "separate but equal."

World War II and Civil Rights

Prior to World War II, most Black people worked as low-wage farmers, factory workers, domestics or servants. By the early 1940s, war-related work was booming, but most Black Americans weren't given better-paying jobs. They were also discouraged from joining the military.

After thousands of Black people threatened to march on Washington to demand equal employment rights, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25, 1941. It opened national defense jobs and other government jobs to all Americans regardless of race, creed, color or national origin.

Black men and women served heroically in World War II, despite suffering segregation and discrimination during their deployment. The Tuskegee Airmen broke the racial barrier to become the first Black military aviators in the U.S. Army Air Corps and earned more than 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Yet many Black veterans were met with prejudice and scorn upon returning home. This was a stark contrast to why America had entered the war to begin with-to defend freedom and democracy in the world.

As the Cold War began, President Harry Truman initiated a civil rights agenda, and in 1948 issued Executive Order 9981 to end discrimination in the military. These events helped set the stage for grass-roots initiatives to enact racial equality legislation and incite the civil rights movement.

Rosa Parks

On December 1, 1955, a 42-year-old woman named Rosa Parks found a seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus after work. Segregation laws at the time stated Black passengers must sit in designated seats at the back of the bus, and Parks complied.

When a white man got on the bus and couldn't find a seat in the white section at the front of the bus, the bus driver instructed Parks and three other Black passengers to give up their seats. Parks refused and was arrested.

As word of her arrest ignited outrage and support, Parks unwittingly became the "mother of the modern-day civil rights movement." Black community leaders formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) led by Baptist minister Martin Luther King Jr., a role which would place him front and center in the fight for civil rights.

Parks' courage incited the MIA to stage a boycott of the Montgomery bus system. The Montgomery Bus Boycott lasted 381 days. On November 14, 1956, the Supreme Court ruled segregated seating was unconstitutional.

Little Rock Nine

In 1954, the civil rights movement gained momentum when the United States Supreme Court made segregation illegal in public schools in the case of Brown v. Board of Education. In 1957, Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas asked for volunteers from all-Black high schools to attend the formerly segregated school.

On September 4, 1957, nine Black students, known as the Little Rock Nine, arrived at Central High School to begin classes but were instead met by the Arkansas National Guard (on order of Governor Orval Faubus) and a screaming, threatening mob. The Little Rock Nine tried again a couple of weeks later and made it inside, but had to be removed for their safety when violence ensued.

Finally, President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened and ordered federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine to and from classes at Central High. Still, the students faced continual harassment and prejudice.

Their efforts, however, brought much-needed attention to the issue of desegregation and fueled protests on both sides of the issue.

Civil Rights Act of 1957

Even though all Americans had gained the right to vote, many southern states made it difficult for Black citizens. They often required prospective voters of color to take literacy tests that were confusing, misleading and nearly impossible to pass.

Wanting to show a commitment to the civil rights movement and minimize racial tensions in the South, the Eisenhower administration pressured Congress to consider new civil rights legislation.

On September 9, 1957, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law, the first major civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. It allowed federal prosecution of anyone who tried to prevent someone from voting. It also created a commission to investigate voter fraud.

Sit-In at Woolworth's Lunch Counter

Despite making some gains, Black Americans still experienced blatant prejudice in their daily lives. On February 1, 1960, four college students took a stand against segregation in Greensboro, North Carolina when they refused to leave a Woolworth's lunch counter without being served.

Over the next several days, hundreds of people joined their cause in what became known as the Greensboro sit-ins. After some were arrested and charged with trespassing, protesters launched a boycott of all segregated lunch counters until the owners caved and the original four students were finally served at the Woolworth's lunch counter where they'd first stood their ground.

Their efforts spearheaded peaceful sit-ins and demonstrations in dozens of cities and helped launch the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee to encourage all students to get involved in the civil rights movement. It also caught the eye of young college graduate Stokely Carmichael, who joined the SNCC during the Freedom Summer of 1964 to register Black voters in Mississippi. In 1966, Carmichael became the chair of the SNCC, giving his famous speech in which he originated the phrase "Black power."

Freedom Riders

On May 4, 1961, 13 " Freedom Riders"-seven Black and six white activists-mounted a Greyhound bus in Washington, D.C., embarking on a bus tour of the American south to protest segregated bus terminals. They were testing the 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that declared the segregation of interstate transportation facilities unconstitutional.

Facing violence from both police officers and white protesters, the Freedom Rides drew international attention. On Mother's Day 1961, the bus reached Anniston, Alabama, where a mob mounted the bus and threw a bomb into it. The Freedom Riders escaped the burning bus but were badly beaten. Photos of the bus engulfed in flames were widely circulated, and the group could not find a bus driver to take them further. U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (brother to President John F. Kennedy) negotiated with Alabama Governor John Patterson to find a suitable driver, and the Freedom Riders resumed their journey under police escort on May 20. But the officers left the group once they reached Montgomery, where a white mob brutally attacked the bus. Attorney General Kennedy responded to the riders-and a call from Martin Luther King Jr.-by sending federal marshals to Montgomery.

On May 24, 1961, a group of Freedom Riders reached Jackson, Mississippi. Though met with hundreds of supporters, the group was arrested for trespassing in a "whites-only" facility and sentenced to 30 days in jail. Attorneys for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP) brought the matter to the U.S. Supreme Court, which reversed the convictions. Hundreds of new Freedom Riders were drawn to the cause, and the rides continued.

In the fall of 1961, under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals

March on Washington

Arguably one of the most famous events of the civil rights movement took place on August 28, 1963: the March on Washington. It was organized and attended by civil rights leaders such as A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Martin Luther King Jr.

More than 200,000 people of all races congregated in Washington, D. C. for the peaceful march with the main purpose of forcing civil rights legislation and establishing job equality for everyone. The highlight of the march was King's speech in which he continually stated, "I have a dream..."

King's " I Have a Dream" speech galvanized the national civil rights movement and became a slogan for equality and freedom.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964-legislation initiated by President John F. Kennedy before his assassination -into law on July 2 of that year.

King and other civil rights activists witnessed the signing. The law guaranteed equal employment for all, limited the use of voter literacy tests and allowed federal authorities to ensure public facilities were integrated.

Bloody Sunday

On March 7, 1965, the civil rights movement in Alabama took an especially violent turn as 600 peaceful demonstrators participated in the Selma to Montgomery march to protest the killing of Black civil rights activist Jimmie Lee Jackson by a white police officer and to encourage legislation to enforce the 15th amendment.

As the protesters neared the Edmund Pettus Bridge, they were blocked by Alabama state and local police sent by Alabama Governor George C. Wallace, a vocal opponent of desegregation. Refusing to stand down, protesters moved forward and were viciously beaten and teargassed by police and dozens of protesters were hospitalized.

The entire incident was televised and became known as " Bloody Sunday." Some activists wanted to retaliate with violence, but King pushed for nonviolent protests and eventually gained federal protection for another march.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

When President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law on August 6, 1965, he took the Civil Rights Act of 1964 several steps further. The new law banned all voter literacy tests and provided federal examiners in certain voting jurisdictions.

It also allowed the attorney general to contest state and local poll taxes. As a result, poll taxes were later declared unconstitutional in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections in 1966.

Part of the Act was walked back decades later, in 2013, when a Supreme Court decision ruled that Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act was unconstitutional, holding that the constraints placed on certain states and federal review of states' voting procedures were outdated.

Civil Rights Leaders Assassinated

The civil rights movement had tragic consequences for two of its leaders in the late 1960s. On February 21, 1965, former Nation of Islam leader and Organization of Afro-American Unity founder Malcolm X was assassinated at a rally.

On April 4, 1968, civil rights leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on his hotel room's balcony. Emotionally-charged looting and riots followed, putting even more pressure on the Johnson administration to push through additional civil rights laws.

Fair Housing Act of 1968

The Fair Housing Act became law on April 11, 1968, just days after King's assassination. It prevented housing discrimination based on race, sex, national origin and religion. It was also the last legislation enacted during the civil rights era.

The civil rights movement was an empowering yet precarious time for Black Americans. The efforts of civil rights activists and countless protesters of all races brought about legislation to end segregation, Black voter suppression and discriminatory employment and housing practices.

Sources

A Brief History of Jim Crow. Constitutional Rights Foundation.
Civil Rights Act of 1957. Civil Rights Digital Library.
Document for June 25th: Executive Order 8802: Prohibition of Discrimination in the Defense Industry. National Archives.
Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-In. African American Odyssey.
Little Rock School Desegregation (1957). The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
Rosa Marie Parks Biography. Rosa and Raymond Parks.
Selma, Alabama, (Bloody Sunday, March 7, 1965). BlackPast.org.
The Civil Rights Movement (1919-1960s). National Humanities Center.
The Little Rock Nine. National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior: Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site.
Turning Point: World War II. Virginia Historical Society.

Photo Galleries

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Civil Rights Movement: Timeline, Key Events & Leaders | HISTORY

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The civil rights movement was a struggle for justice and equality for African Americans that took place mainly in the 1950s and 1960s. Among its leaders were Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, the Little Rock Nine, Rosa Parks and many others.

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Some great figures of the Civil Rights Movement.

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Some great figures of the Civil Rights Movement.

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Make your own research about Angela Davis, Martin Luther King and Malcolm X.

=> Who where they ?

=> Why are they famous ?

=> What did they change ?

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Explain several things about the Black Panthers.

=> Who where they ?

=> Who was their leader ?

=> What was their purpose ?

=> Why did people hate them ?

You may also find pieces of information here : https://www.britannica.com/topic/Black-Panther-Party

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Black Panthers - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com

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Find out more about the history of Black Panthers, including videos, interesting articles, pictures, historical features and more. Get all the facts on HISTORY.com

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If you want to know more about protest songs in the USA... 

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If you want to know more about protest songs in the USA... 

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https://biography.elvis.com.au/