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ELLs are the most tested students in school systems. This section covered the types of tests and assessments, including summative and formative, and descriptions of testing, assessment and evaluation. It also explained norm referenced and criterion referenced tests, as well as reliability, validity and bias within assessments. I learned a lot during this short section as I did not know the differences within assessments.

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Content-Area Instruction Wright Ch 10 (pg 272-278)

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Content-Area Instruction Wright Ch 10 (pg 272-278)

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This section covered a variety of topics within 8 pages. Including assessment modifying, proficiency standards, language and content area objectives and differentiated instruction. These all tie in to how ELLs are instructed in each content area. This was short but super interesting and I will likely refer back to it in the future.

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Writing is 100% necessary for ELLs to be academically successful. ELLs must learn the same things that proficient english writers know, such as the alphabet, spelling, and syntax. Writing level is highly determined by their oral English level. They need to be progressing at both.

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From this chapter, I got 3 main ideas. Reading is important, a balanced approach to reading is very important and I learned about common core for reading for ELLs and English speaking students. Reading is one of the most fought over subjects in public schools, which I found interesting. With a balanced approach, teachers can see which students need help with specific subject areas within reading, for example, reading out loud skills, and reading level for their age.

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Speaking and Listening Wright Ch 7 (pg 156-166, 186-188)

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Speaking and Listening Wright Ch 7 (pg 156-166, 186-188)

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The first part of this section talked about challenges for ELLs, including speaking and vocab. Speaking is much harder that selecting the correct vocab choice. Because of this, many oral tests fail to encompass all of the ELLs skill level during the assessment. It also had great information about corrective feedback with speak errors. If errors are not corrected, ELLs may never speak English in the correct way for the rest of their lives, so it's very important to give correct and positive feedback.

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These sections focused on other translanguaging techniques to use in classrooms. The first section focused on listening and reading activities. The listening activities took my attention first, because I have had experience using some of them while learning Spanish. It makes the most sense to play a recording in the students home language, and then play it in English, so they can pick up more words when they know what it's actually saying. Using recordings for reading homework can be very beneficial too, because students practicing reading to themselves will be very good for their own learning and self confidence in speaking English.

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These chapter opened my eyes to how hard some emergent bilingual students have it in school, but also allowed me to gain knowledge on how to educate emergent bilinguals in an effective way. For starters, chapter 3 covered ways that emergent bilingual students are not recognized for their needs when learning a second language, and are often  expected to learn English after being exposed to it for a short amount of time, even though it takes 7 years on average to have enough English for academic purposes. While there are ESL programs that can be helpful for these students, many times schools use the sink or swim method and throw these students in an English only class, where they will likely struggle. Teachers can be their own policy makers and help change this locally!
Chapter 5 also covered unfairness in schools regarding emergent bilinguals' education. Reading these inequities that occur in our country made me upset, because it is not fair that students are not getting the same quality education as the rest of us, just because they have to fully learn a language to be able to. I know there are practices out there that will allow these students to have a more balanced education.
Chapter 9 covered assessments and different ways that they can be modified for ELLs taking them, I think this modification process is super important, because these students should not be viewed as less smart  just because they haven't mastered a language to take an assessment. As a teacher, I will make sure that assessments are fair for all of the students in my classroom.
Overall, I enjoyed these readings, because I truly was able to learn what my life will be like as a teacher, likely educating bilingual students many times throughout my career. I'm trying to soak up as much info as possible.

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Positives: 100% of ELL's should pass the standardize tests. Which is not expected by all schools. Potential for all responsible goals for each ELL student's.
Neg: Most schools only care about test scores of ALL students. Liability issues in schools with having ELL students in high stake test. No recognition for the development of bilinguals.

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Federal law No child left behind. Shift federal governments power over schools. Obama passed this act since federal governments would punish schools that are falling behind. The senate never agrees 85 to 12 on something but this was an act that needed to be done.

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immigrant students used to be forced to be in english only classes. Bilingual students were not getting taught the way they deserved. Challenge students to do english high school while not understanding the full language. Many parents and teachers complained, this was not fair to students who cannot understand what is happening. Court case was won that non english speaking students need to be helped in different aspects of schools. Teachers now need to be educated on how to help bilingual leaners.

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Johnson believed that all school children should have an equal change learning. Which also means an equal chance at life. He had programs to help students of all ages in school. Congress passed the civil rights act that helps all students, especially disadvantage children. Increase in federal funds in 1965, 4 billion dollars. That goes towards students with disabilities. Federal government now gets to take charge of schools. Integrated schools started in the south both races can attend schools.

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ESSA offers states more flexibility in creating the accountability system that they will use to evaluate school and district performance while offering some guidelines that states must follow.  This means that schools and districts will now be held accountable for the growth of the English language proficiency of ELLs as part of their general accountability system, as opposed to being included as a separate evaluation as had been the case under NCLB. ELL subgroup is a constantly moving target.

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Under the new law, states will develop their own ELL accountability systems that must measure progress in English-language development and the number of students who become English proficient. That doesn't sit well with some ELL advocacy groups, because they're concerned states won't have the resources, staff, or know-how to do that well. They set a five-year "maximum timeline" for students to reach proficiency.

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Focus: curricular opportunities and practices affecting the education of
emergent bilinguals.
-Most emerging bilinguals are poor
- Some are immigrants who are feeling dislocation and separation from both their countries of origin and sometimes families they have left behind
#1Social Justice and Linguistic Human Rights
- half of the foreign-born immigrant students in the United States are undocumented
- All these students have the right to an education that includes
a rich and rigorous curriculum.
-In this regard,
UNESCO (1960) has been most influential.  "For the purposes of this Convention, the term “discrimination” includes any distinction, exclusion, limitation or
preference which, being based on race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, economic condition or birth, has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing equality or
treatment in education …."
-Individual rights, including the right to identify with one’s own language and to use it
both in and out of school, and the right to learn the official language of the state; and
-nCommunity rights, including the right of minoritized groups to establish and
maintain schools and other educational institutions and to control their curricula.
-#2Curriculum That Is Challenging and Creative
-Research on teaching and learning indicates that all students need to be given opportunities
to participate in challenging academic work that promotes deep disciplinary knowledge and
encourages higher-order thinking skills
-Many have called attention to the importance of maintaining high expectations for
emergent bilinguals and of providing them with challenging academic work

#3 Pedagogies That Are Transformative and Collaborative
-“transformative/intercultural pedagogy”
-Focusing on teaching by building on the ethnolinguistic identities of language-minority
students, other scholars have also advocated a culturally relevant pedagogy for minority
students
-Research on teaching and learning has also validated the importance of pedagogy that
builds on collaborative social practices in which students try out ideas and actions and, thus,
socially construct their learning
-"The ecologist will say that knowledge of language for a human is like knowledge of the jungle for an animal. The
animal does not have the jungle; it knows how to use the jungle and how to live in it. Perhaps we can say by
analogy that we do not have or possess language, but that we learn to use it and to live in it. (p. 253)"

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Translanguaging Guide

A Culturally Relevant Learning Environment

A multi-lingual learning environment

language portfolio

community study

multilingual language objectives
Creating learning objectives is apart of the curriculum. but: it’s imperative to also consider what language

they will need to understand and use to be successful with those learning objectives.  Often we’re not even aware of the language demands of the curriculum because we’re so proficient with the language ourselves.
We need to create language levels for learning objectives. These are: Text level, paragraph, sentence and word. After we have language objectives, we move onto language development.
Main point: identify your objectives and development plans, and create lessons surrounding those with different language needs and barriers.

Integrated instruction
disconnected structure can make

it difficult to develop high levels of

proficiency in content knowledge,

language for academic purposes, and literacy abilities.

By learning the content in two languages, a deeper connection can be created. We as teachers need to utilize this.
connect home language with language used in the school, for elementary this is integrating social studies in readings, and switching off with sciences to make more connections in not only the bilingual readers but also the mono.
Garcia chap. 7

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Translanguaging
Refers to the language practices of bilingual people.
Bilingual people have one language repertoire and select features for both languages
-Translanguaging is not a practice that people age out of when they become fluent, no billingual person is even with both languages
-Helps students develop language for academic purposes by allowing students to use home language practices to practice the language of school to eventually use the appropriate form of language
-Putting languages next to each other allows students to notice the differences
- Can help sustain minoritized language by giving students the opportunity to practice their home languages and literacies.
-We are all emergent bilinguals in certain situations, or at certain times

13-19
Culturally relevant learning environment
-Choose culturally relevant texts
- Write identity texts, has bilingual students create a bilingual text in English and their language, to share their cultural and linguistic identities and experiences.
- Science- have them compare a local ecosystem to one in their home country
- Include a "getting to know you" exercise for elementary students on the first day of school and talk about culture
20-22 Multilingual learning environment
-ask yourself which part of your classroom you could make multilingual
-Greetings (have bilingual students teach their classmates a greeting in their home language)
-Songs
-Class transitions in another language
- Start a school initiative to have the school environment represent students languages (display signs with other languages, staff using multilingual greetings)
-Decorate schools with pictures of students learning in different languages
23-39 Language Portfolio
- A way for students to record and celebrate their language learning and cultural experiences over time
-Elementary - all students benefit from creating a language portfolio
-secondary - again, all students benefit
Come up with worksheets regarding bilingualism, since most students will begin learning a second language
- This section gives a lot of great sample worksheets for the language biography and language passport activities, as well as instructions
40-43
-Community study - a way for all students, bilingual and english speakers to investigate what languages and scripts are visible in their community. Taking pictures of signs in languages other than English, collect newspapers, listen for people speaking languages other than English
- This section provides a very in depth translanguaging how-to that describes different activities that would provide students the opportunity to explore different languages in their community, as well as implementation for all grade levels.

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The broad topic of this chapter is families and communities and the education of emergent bilinguals.

Having parents support in education can help students progress more quickly.

Parental involvement describes the shared responsibility that parties have for the students education.
Inequities in schools and family/community relations
Parents of emergent bilinguals may not be fluent in English themselves, and society may few them as unorganized or unfit to be involved in their children's education because they cannot speak English.
It has been proven that the schools are deficient for not being prepared for educating students who have families that may not be proficient in English.
Home language practices
"many educators still consider family practices to be a barrier to student acheivement" Home language often comes under attack
-Parents of these students resort to speaking English at home, even though it may not strengthen their students speaking of the language because of their own skill level, and the student may start to loose their home language as well.
-Speaking not complete English at home is often times not beneficial to speaking English at school
-A mainstream approach has been to develop "family literacy" programs to show parents how they can become involved in their child's education
Alternate approaches to parent and community involvement
"The family, school, and community National Working Group" Has three main principles
1. Family engagement is a shared responsibility in which schools and other community organizations are committed to reaching out to engage families in meaningful ways.
2. Family engagement is continuous across a child's life
3. Effective family engagement cuts across and reinforces learning in the multiple settings where children learn.

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The invisibility of culture
"culture is like the air we breathe"
Schools have culture, just like individuals and groups

Individualism and collectivism
""in socially oriented [collectivistic] societies, the
cost of interdependence is experienced as suppression of individual development, while in individualistically
oriented cultures, the cost of independence is experienced as alienation"
Individualism promotes self expression while collectivism includes important hierarchical roles

These two also translate to home life
Collectivism households are very age and gender defined, where younger kids will be less likely to share their opinions and thoughts
Even toys differ, in collectivism, they are for sharing rather than for an individual activity

School differences
Collectivism - peer oriented learning (sharing ideas)
Individualism -  emphasize individual learning

The rest of the reading focused on helpful strategies for conflicts within the classroom such as respect for elders, independence vs helpfulness, cognitive vs social development, and examples for each of them.

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Should linguistic diversity be treated primarily as a threat to be contained? If not eliminated through restrictive legislation?
Skills in "critical languages" remain in short supply in government for foreign relations purposes.
-  Other countries have 2 or more equal national languages, such as canada and india

American exceptions
the US is an asylum for the persecuted lovers of civil and religious liberty from every part of Europe"
-anyone could become american, not those of a certain ethnicity
- Indigenous and conquered people, mostly minorities have been the most attacked by English only policies.
-Language has been a siltent factor in social conflicts among americans than race religion or class.
-Immigrants have struggled less with this, because they are able to establish schools, attend religious services, and hold publish newspapers without federal interference.
- Tight immigrant quotas in the 1920s reduced the number of non-english speakers into the US

Language Ideologies
Political backlash on bilingual education should have been predictable.
US doesn't have a national language
-More or less coherent opinionns about language, sometimes described as folk linguistics, are acquired from friends, relatives, media, community leaders, advocacy organizations, and other nonspecialist sources.
-For example
- Family legends- stories passed through families
- conventional wisdom - earlier the better for learning a second language
- Political principles -
-Ethnic Paranoia - "english may be spreading throughout the world, but spanish is taking over the US

By 1919, in the name of Americanization, a majority of states adopted english only instruction laws, and thriving bilingual education was largely eradicated.

Power plays
Speakers of a dominant tongue are less likely to acquire a second lannguage as members of linguistic minorities
EX: When Canada adopted bilingualism, the minority speakers were 6 times less likely to learn the other language.

Policy and politics
This section covers how policies are created and what they are meant to do, including setting goals for the policy once it is made. Policy education is very politicalized, and there is a lot of advocacy during the policymaking process, as there should be in a representative democracy.

Language policy
Language as problem - Focuses on complications created by linguistic diversity, usually in the context of treating larger social ills (poverty, illiteracy, ethic hostilities)
Language as right - emphasizes principles of social justice, such as ensuring minorities' equal access to schools, courts, voting booths, and other public institutions
Language as resource - values linguistic skills of all kinds as cultural capital recognizing the social benefits of conserving and developing these areas.

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Funds of Knowledge for teaching: Using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms

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Funds of Knowledge for teaching: Using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms

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-Research approach that is based on understanding households and classrooms qualitatively.
-offers a range of methodological alternatives
-Recent developments in establishing these strategic connections that take the form of joint household research between classroom teachers and university based researchers
-Basic findings
how families develop social networks that interconnect them with their social environments, (other households) and how they facilitate development and skills to survive and thrive
-these networks are flexible, adaptive, and active
-Second key is their reciprocity. Expresses and symbolizes human social interdependence
-Students in these households, much of the teaching and learning is motivated by the students interests and questions. In classrooms, knowledge is obtained by the students, not imposed by the teachers.

Funds of knowledge for teaching
How can teachers make use of these funds of knowledge in their teaching?
-visiting houses of students and getting observations of questions that students are asking, tracking what they're saying
-
Seeing beyond stereotypes
- Info that could be helpful if known, but most of the time is not known
-students home and personal lives influence what they ask and participate in in school boundaries

Experimenting with practice
- younger students can often figure things out in groups, even if they are a bit tricky. Such as coming up with a definition of candy, and organizing different types of sweets.

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What should teachers do about Ebonics? Unit 3

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What should teachers do about Ebonics? Unit 3

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Ebonics - "American black English regarded as a language in its own right rather than as a dialect of standard English."
- What can be done? Or should or should not be done?
-"It is the language they heard as their mothers nursed them and changed their diapers and played peek a boo, it is the language that the first encountered love, nurturance and joy"
- Most teachers feel that their AA students will be further hampered if they do not learn standard English.
- So what should teachers do
- Spend time relentlessly correcting their ebonics speaking children?
- Correcting most of the time has the opposite of the intended effect
-Makes talking more difficult for these students
- Because more thought needs to be put into speaking for the same effect

Issues of group identity may also affect their production of a different dialect.,
-Techniques - Students who do not have access to this politically popular dialect are less likely to succeed economically than their peers who do, how can both be in a classroom?
- Have students memorize plays and do role-play with characters that use standard english
- Have them produce a news sho every day for the rest of the school. Students take on a different persona
-Teachers may develop low standards for ebonics speaking students, by their assessment of competence.
-Constant corrections of readings will likely cause the student to resent the teacher and reading entirely

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Cognitive Benefits
Kids age 10 that are bilingual have more mental flexibility than monolingual students.
-constant use of two languages strengthens control centers in the brain
-Bilingualism is also associated with creativity, it strengthens certain cognitive mechanisms
-home language can actually support English when students are learning
Language for academic purposes
-Students in school must be able to complete tasks without much extralinguistic support
-decontextualized language is needed to participate in classrooms, students also need more abstract language to be able to write essays and complete assignments
-it takes 5-7 years to develop language proficiency
- High school students are supposed to have 50,000 words, and most learn 3,000 per year
Literacy and bi-literacy
-"any and all instances in which communication occurs in two or more languages in and around writing"
-Arguments that biliteracy needs to be developed simultaneously from the start
-"the notion of pluriliteracies recognizes the more dynamic and fluid uses of literacies in and out of schools in a context of new technologies and increased movements of people, services and goods in a globalized world"
Dynamic Bilingualism
-bilingualism can be either subractive or additive
-subtractive takes away the home language and additive adds the second and keeps the first
-dynamic bilingualism refers to the development of different language practices to varying degrees in order to interact with increasingly multilingual communities and bilinguals along all points of the bilingual continuum.
Translanguaging
- to designate a bilingual pedagogy in which one language was used as input and another as output
Bilingualism and achievement
- using the students' home language in instruction benefits language-minority students
- Developmental bilingual students outperformed monolingual students in all subjects
- two-way dual language programs were the only type successful in enabling emergent bilinguals to reach the 50th percentile in both languages in all subjects
- dual language bilingual education (DLBE) students were classified as fluent slower than students in other programs, however DLBE had higher overall reclassification rates and higher English proficiency and academic performance in California
Education emergent bilinguals: building on bilingualism for academic success
- additive conceptions of bilingualism fail to capture the complexity of bilingual acquisition and development
- Easier. to build bilingual programs for large language groups such as spanish

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American English has taken over the english language
-Far northeast in Maine is first up
-different dialects of the language
-different ways of saying words "yes" is "ayuh" in Maine speak
-regional speak pattern of the north east, comes from early british colonies that didn't say the r at the end of words, like Fatha, or Bastad

60 dialects of english in our world
Differs even in the US, in different parts (south, northeast, midwest, philly, pgh, west)

Race and economic class do not fair as well in a-fluent communties

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Oral language
-begin by attending to oral language because in the native language, children develop oral proficiency first.

What are the basic units of language?
-Teachers need to know that spoken language is composed of units of different sizes:sounds (Called phonemes if they function to signal different meanings in the language), Morphemes (Sequences of sounds that form the smallest units of meaning in a language)
-each language has an inventory of phonemes that may differ from that of other languages
-Phonemes can be identified by virtue of whether a change in sound makes a difference in meaning.
-a morpheme is the smallest unit of language that expresses a distinct meaning. Can be an independent or free unit, like jump, dog or happy, or it can be a prefix or suffix attached to another morpheme to modify its meaning such as -ed, or -ing.
-Teachers need to understand that grammatical units such as bound and free morphemes, words, phrases, and clauses operate quite differently across languages
-Locative meanings expressed by prepositions such as in on and between in English are expressed by noun endings
-Teachers need to understand about the larger units of language use, sentence and discourse structure
What's regular and what isn't? How do forms relate to each other?
Teachers should be aware of the principles of word formation in English because such knowledge can aid their students in vocab.
-Spanish speaking students can be taught to use the correlated morphological structures in english and spanish to understand sophisticated English lexical items and to expand their English vocabularies.
-Students to come to English as native speakers of other Indo-European languages may find it helpful to be aware of the international vocab of science and technology
What is academic English?
Observers typically point to the difference between written language and spoken language. Academic English entails a broad range of language proficiencies. We must ask what linguistic proficiencies are required for subject-matter learning. Is academic language proficiency just a matter of vocabulary learning, or is it more?
Why has the acquisition of English by non-English speaking children not been more universally successful?
-non-English speaking students may be having a harder and harder time learning English. Although it used to take them 5-7 years to learn English at a high level, recent studies show it may be taking 7-10 years.
-Whether or not English language learners manage to survive in school, few can learn Enlgish at the levels required for success in higher education or the workplace without well-designed instructional intervention, particularly if the only native English speakers they encounter in daily life are their teachers.
Written language
Is not merely oral language written down. Teachers need to know how written language contrasts with speech.
Why do students have trouble with structuring narrative and expository writing?
Different cultures focus on different aspects of an episode. Understanding a child's story requires knowing what info the child considers most important; such knowledge can help teachers guide students in acquiring the story structure valued at school.

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What teachers need to know about language
-Lots of challenges of preparing teachers to work with immigrant and language minority children
-Been brought to the foreground by changes in policy and practice
-"social promotion" is ended where students would not be able to move onto the next grade without meeting academic standards
- Signs that race and ethnicity won't be considered in admissions to higher education
-must get an acceptable score on standardized tests
-these put a lot pressure on students to become skilled users of english in school to pass gateways to high school graduation
Why do teachers need to know more about language?
-teacher as a communicator
"An understanding of linguistics can help teachers see that the discourse patterns they value are aspects of their own cultures and backgrounds; they are neither universal nor inherently more valid than other possible patterns"
Teachers must be ready to work with children from many different cultural, social and linguistic backgrounds.
-teacher as educator
-teachers are responsible for selecting educational materials and activities at the right level and of the right type for all of the children in their classes
-Teachers play a critical role in supporting language development. Beyond teaching children to read and write in school, they can help children learn and use aspects of language associated with the academic discourse of the various school subjects
-teacher as evaluator
-Judgments can have enormous consequences for children's lives, from daily judgements and responses that affect students' sense of themselves as learners to the more weighty decisions about reading group placement, promotion to the next grade, or referral for special education evaluation.
-teacher as educated human being
need to have access to basic information about language for the same reasons that any educated member of society should know something about language.
-Teachers who have not had the opportunity to study the structure of English or to learn another language understandably do not feel very confident talking about language.
-There is a need for research based knowledge.
-teacher as agent of socialization
-Play unique role as agents of socialization, the process by which individuals learn the everyday practices, the system of values and beliefs, and the means and manners of communication in their cultural communities
-"When the cultures of home and school match, the process is generally contunuous"
-"But when there is a mismatch between the cultures of home and school, the process can be disrupted"
-"For many children, teachers are the first contact with the culture of the social word outside of the home"
What should classroom teachers know about language?
-Oral language, written language
-Not proposing that all teachers need to understand universal grammar, government and binding theory, minimalist phonology or other topics of interest to the professional linguist.
-Identifying issues of language use of daily life, issues that require only a basic understanding of the descriptive work that linguists engage in and the concepts that they use.

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Emergent Bilinguals-
-One of those most misunderstood things in lower schools is how to educate students that are not proficient in english.
-Students are called "ELLs" (English Language Leaners), Formally known by the ESSA (Every Student Succeeds Act) as EL's (English Learners)
- There is a large difference between the scores needed for EL's to pass state standards than the average for most proficient students (4th Grade)
-Students designated as English learners are not graduating as proportionally as English proficients (82%-62.6%)
- Two factors - Students need more than 4 years to pass assignments given in english, blame the english language curriculum for poor performance.
-EL's are emergent bilinguals
-Little agreement about what name describes these students
-LEP (Limited English Proficient), ELL (English language learner, EL (English Learner), CLD (Culturally and Liguistically diverse), ELCB (English language communication barriers), ESL (english as a second language)
- say some of these are degrading
-DLL (Dual language learner) has gained popularity
- DLL used for students under 8, still learning in 2 languages,
-State education authorities use EL and ELL because it allows the students to have funds allotted for their education
What's in a name?
-emergent bilinguals give a different scenario
-Doesn't regard students as being limited
-educational policies have become more patient for these students
-"emergent bilinguals" recognizes that we are always growing
This book
-"Central idea recognizes a growing dissonance between research on the education of minoritized emergent bilinguals, policy enacted to educate them, and the practices we observe in schools"
-Policies have recently become more rigid, forcing english on emergent bilinguals
-Educators are often caught in the middle of research, policy and having to educate emergent bilinguals
-Teaching suffers while finding alternative ways of acting on policies that are misguided for the education of these students
Chapter 2
-Who are the emergent bilinguals?
-Difficulty understanding characteristics results from inconsistency from data
-BUT, the number of these students is increasing and growing much more rapidly than the english speaking student population
- 1995-2005 the enrollment of emergent bilinguals grew 56%, while the entire student population grew by 2.6%
-2.4 million 5-17 year old emergent bilinguals in 2014, states reported almost 5 million ELLs the same year
-emergent bilinguals are called ELLs by the government
How are they designated?
- EL classification is fluid, unlike race and ethnicity
-States have to identify emergent bilinguals and ensure that their schools serve them.
-Schools were reminded in 2015 of their obligation to identify ELLs in a timely, reliable and valid manor.
-Identifying can be tricky
-Some homes use both or more than 2 languages at home, making it hard to decide what to do
How are they Reclassified?
- how and when the get reclassified as English proficient
- One of the most recent advances towards educational equity is the No Child Left Behind Act.
- Grants have many it possible to develop, validate and implement such assessments, proficiency tests used in reclassification have improved dramatically
-States that make up the largest consortium called WIDA use WIDA's standards-based, criterion-referenced English language proficiency test for reclassification.
-Not all tests focus on the same skill domains or weigh each skill domain equally
-Spanish speaking emergent bilinguals are reclassified at half the rate of those who speak other languages
-Reclassification is as problematic as identification
Where do they live and go to school?
- Eight states accounted for more than 2/3 of the emergent bilingual population in the US (TX, FL, NY, IL, CO, WA and NC)
-EBs make up a large proportion of the total pre-k to 12 population
- SC experienced an 800% increase in it's EB population from 97-98
-EBs overwhelmingly attend urban schools
- They are concentrated in fewer than half the school districts in the country
What languages do they speak?
- 1 - Spanish 70-76%
- 2 - Arabic 2.2%
- 3 - Chinese 2.2%

What are their demographic characteristics?
Ethnicity/race and socioeconomic status
-Overwhelmingly hispanic or latino (78.1%)
-Asian (10%)
-White (5.8)
-Black (3.5)
-in 2003 more than 75% of EBs were poor, and 54% of parents had not completed 8 years of schooling
- 60% of EBs in every state live in families whose income falls below 185% of the federal poverty line
-72% of students attend "high LEP schools" in which 40% of students qualify for free or reduced lunch

Gender, age distribution and Access to Pre-k Programs
- more than half male (53%) to female (47%)
-In 2000-01, 44% of EB were in pre-k to 3rd grade, in 2001-02, 70% were in prek to 5th grade.
-Young EBs are not enrolled in quality early childhood and pre-K programs

Nativity
77% of EB students were born in the US, from Pre-K to 5th, this number is higher (85%)
-Students who remain EB after middle school have language disabilities
-The number of students who are EB for more than 6 years are called Long-term english learners
-Majority of EB born in the US are children of first gen immigrants
- Foreign born EB children are most likely to have been in the US for less than 5 years
-From october 2013 to september 2014, 55,000 unaccompanied minors entered the US
-Same stats from October 2015- September 2016
What is their use of language?
-85% of EB are able to communicate orally in English, but have difficulty using English for literacy
-Those who use their home language for academic tasks also varies
Who are the latinx EB
In 2016, the Latinx population numbered 58 Million
In 2007, more than 7 million Latinx Students in elementary and secondary schools