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Website: http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/nejccc2&div=21&id=&page=
Accessed by me:5th October 2016
Prisoners are likely subjects for medical experimenters. They are so unprotected as to provoke one doctor to observe that criminals are penitentiaries are fine experimental material - and much cheaper than chimpanzees.

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Infected Mosquitoes in Towns
Website:http://www.bestpsychologydegrees.com/30-most-disturbing-human-experiments-in-history/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_States
Accessed by me - 4th October 2016
In 1956 and 1957, the United States Army conducted a number of biological warfare experiments on the cities of Savannah, Georgia and Avon Park, Florida. In one such experiment, millions of infected mosquitos were released into the two cities, in order to see if the insects could spread yellow fever and dengue fever. Not surprisingly, hundreds of researchers contracted illnesses that included fevers, respiratory problems, stillbirths, encephalitis, and typhoid. In order to photograph the results of their experiments, Army researchers pretended to be public health workers. Several people died as a result of the research.

Nazi Human Experimentation
Website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation
Accessed by me: 4th October 2016
Over the course of the Third Reich and the Holocaust, Nazi Germany conducted a series of medical experiments on Jews, POWs, Romani, and other persecuted groups. The experiments were conducted in concentration camps, and in most cases resulted in death, disfigurement, or permanent disability. Especially disturbing experiments included attempts to genetically manipulate twins; bone, muscle, and nerve transplantation; exposure to diseases and chemical gasses; sterilization, and anything else the infamous Nazi doctors could think up. After the war, these crimes were tried as part of the Nuremberg Trial and ultimately led to the development of the Nuremberg Code of medical ethics.

Radioactive Materials in Pregnant Women
Website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_States
Accessed by me: 4th October 2016
Shortly after World War II, with the impending Cold War forefront on the minds of Americans, many medical researchers were preoccupied with the idea of radioactivity and chemical warfare. In an experiment at Vanderbilt University, 829 pregnant women were given “vitamin drinks” they were told would improve the health of their unborn babies. Instead, the drinks contained radioactive iron and the researchers were studying how quickly the radioisotope crossed into the placenta. At least seven of the babies later died from cancers and leukemia, and the women themselves experienced rashes, bruises, anemia, loss of hair and tooth, and cancer.

Mustard Gas Tested on American Military
Website: http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/americas-mustard-gas-experiments-and-world-war-ii/
Accessed by me: 4th October 2016
In 1943, the U.S. Navy exposed its own sailors to mustard gas. Officially, the Navy was testing the effectiveness of new clothing and gas masks against the deadly gas that had proven so terrifying in the first World War. The worst of the experiments occurred at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington. Seventeen and 18-year old boys were approached after eight weeks of boot camp and asked if they wanted to participate in an experiment that would help shorten the war. Only when the boys reached the Research Laboratory were they told the experiment involved mustard gas. The participants, almost all of whom suffered severe external and internal burns, were ignored by the Navy and, in some cases, threatened with the Espionage Act. In 1991, the reports were finally declassified and taken before Congress.

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Subjects or Objects? Prisoners and Human Experimentation

By Barron H. Lerner, M.D., Ph.D.
Website:http://www.november.org/stayinfo/breaking07/Experiments.html http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-07-21/news/1998202099_1_holmesburg-prison-kligman-philadelphia
July 21, 1998|By Howard Goodman | Howard Goodman,KNIGHT RIDDER/TRIBUNE
Accessed by me: 4th October 2016
In 1915, for example, Public Health Service researcher Joseph Goldberger induced pellagra in healthy Mississippi prisoners, who were offered parole in exchange for participation. Those who signed up experienced the very severe symptoms of the disease, including diarrhea, rash, and mental confusion.(3) Goldberger, however, proved his hypothesis that pellagra was a vitamin-deficiency disease that could be cured by ingestion of the B vitamin now known as niacin. Thanks to this work, as well as the discovery of insulin and the first antimicrobial agents, the years between World War I and World War II were heady times for scientific research.
It was an experiment involving another vulnerable population that halted the prison research enterprise. In 1972, an Associated Press reporter broke the story that poor southern black men with syphilis had been deliberately left untreated for 40 years so researchers could study the natural course of the disease. In the environment created by the civil rights movement and protests against the Vietnam War, such research was condemned. The scandal led to the formation of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research and eventually the Belmont Report, which recommended revamping human experimentation using the principles of respect for persons, nonmaleficence, and justice.

Prison Inmates as Test Subjects

In 1951, Dr. Albert M. Kligman, a dermatologist at the University of Pennsylvania and future inventor of Retin-A, began experimenting on inmates at Philadelphia’s Holmesburg Prison. As Kligman later told a newspaper reporter, “All I saw before me were acres of skin. It was like a farmer seeing a field for the first time.” Over the next 20 years, inmates willingly allowed Kligman to use their bodies in experiments involving toothpaste, deodorant, shampoo, skin creams, detergents, liquid diets, eye drops, foot powders, and hair dyes. Though the tests required constant biopsies and painful procedures, none of the inmates experienced long-term harm.

Medical Experiments on Prison Inmates
Website: http://www.bestpsychologydegrees.com/30-most-disturbing-human-experiments-in-history/
https://prisonlaw.wordpress.com/2010/01/28/eugenics-and-testicle-transplants-san-quentins-dark-history/
Accessed by me: 4th October 2016
Perhaps one benefit of being an inmate at California’s San Quentin prison is the easy access to acclaimed Bay Area doctors. But if that’s the case, then a downside is that these doctors also have easy access to inmates. From 1913 to 1951, Dr. Leo Stanley, chief surgeon at San Quentin, used prisoners as test subjects in a variety of bizarre medical experiments. Stanley’s experiments included sterilization and potential treatments for the Spanish Flu. In one particularly disturbing experiment, Stanley performed testicle transplants on living prisoners using testicles from executed prisoners and, in some cases, from goats and boars.

Human Experimentation in the Soviet Union
Website: http://www.bestpsychologydegrees.com/30-most-disturbing-human-experiments-in-history/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_laboratory_of_the_Soviet_secret_service
Accessed by me: 4th October 2016Remove

Beginning in 1921 and continuing for most of the 21st century, the Soviet Union employed poison laboratories known as Laboratory 1, Laboratory 12, and Kamera as covert research facilities of the secret police agencies. Prisoners from the Gulags were exposed to a number of deadly poisons, the purpose of which was to find a tasteless, odorless chemical that could not be detected post mortem. Tested poisons included mustard gas, ricin, digitoxin, and curare, among others. Men and women of varying ages and physical conditions were brought to the laboratories and given the poisons as “medication,” or part of a meal or drink.

Human Experimentation in North Korea
Website:http://www.bestpsychologydegrees.com/30-most-disturbing-human-experiments-in-history/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_experimentation_in_North_Korea

Accessed by me: 4th October 2016
Several North Korean defectors have described witnessing disturbing cases of human experimentation. In one alleged experiment, 50 healthy women prisoners were given poisoned cabbage leaves — all 50 women were dead within 20 minutes. Other described experiments include the practice of surgery on prisoners without anesthesia, purposeful starvation, beating prisoners over the head before using the zombie-like victims for target practice, and chambers in which whole families are murdered with suffocation gas. It is said that each month, a black van known as “the crow” collects 40-50 people from a camp and takes them to an known location for experiments
The year was 1946, and under the guise of public health hundreds of Guatemalan prison inmates were deliberately infected with syphilis. Male prisoners were sometimes infected via direct injection—including right to the penis. Still other prisoners got sick after visits from prostitutes who were often also purposely infected. None of the research subjects were asked for their consent.

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Book: The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skloot
Publisher: Crown Publishing Group
Originally published: February 2, 2010
Read by me: April - May 2016
Summary of book: Henrietta Lacks an African American woman in 1950's  America diagnosed with cervical cancer. Samples retrieved from her cervix were taken from her without her consent or acknowledgement and her grown by Dr George Gey. Her cells were like no other cells in culture because they replicated continuously. Gey used her cells to test medications, to study cancers and distributed this to the world through medical businesses, these businesses exported these cells at fast pace and huge profit was made.  He called them HeLa . These cells were vital for developing the polio vaccine, cloning, gene mapping, in vitro fertilization and were shot up into space, withstood atomic bombs and were used in many other experiments that have contributed  to the development of modern medicine.She was never given credit for her contribution to medicine and her family never profited from its mass production profit.
Website: http://rebeccaskloot.com/the-immortal-life/
© Copyright 2010 - 2016 Rebecca Skloot
Site by Being Wicked

Key themes: Controversy of unethical and ethical experimentation
Immortality
Racism

Linked ideas that can be researched: Medical ethics through time, in varying cultures,
in modern medicine?
How much does race, religion and culture effect
the medical treatment of a patient?
Website:http://www.bestpsychologydegrees.com/30-most-disturbing-human-experiments-in-history/
Last updated 2016
Accessed by me : 4th October 2016

In 1955, Henrietta Lacks, a poor, uneducated African-American woman from Baltimore, was the unwitting source of cells which where then cultured for the purpose of medical research. Though researchers had tried to grow cells before, Henrietta’s were the first successfully kept alive and cloned. Henrietta’s cells, known as HeLa cells, have been instrumental in the development of the polio vaccine, cancer research, AIDS research, gene mapping, and countless other scientific endeavors. Henrietta died penniless and was buried without a tombstone in a family cemetery. For decades, her husband and five children were left in the dark about their wife and mother’s amazing contribution to modern medicine.

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The issue of consent and acknowledgement in Medicine