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Definition: An Appeal to Authority is when a higher up, authority figure or celebrity make a claim with no supporting evidence and others believe it simply because of their status.

Connection: This article which is dated over a year ago demonstrates Appeal to Authority because Madonna, who is a well known singer, song writer and actress, claimed the government had a vaccine for the Covid 19 virus but they were keeping it concealed for their own benefit. This made fans go mad. Instagram had to blur the post and caption it "false information" because of all the upset citizens. One of the headlines in the article is "Singer’s claim vaccine is being concealed is latest example of stars spreading falsehoods during pandemic". Meaning Appeal to Authority is very common and can be found everywhere.

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Dancer, singer, songwriter, actor, director - Madonna has had quite the career.

But the queen of pop's latest reinvention came this week in the form of a video posted on Instagram that shared a coronavirus conspiracy theory with her 15 million followers.

Madonna claimed a vaccine existed but was being concealed. "They would rather let fear control the people and let the rich get richer and the poor get poorer," she said.

Instagram blurred the video, captioned it "false information" and linked users to a page debunking the bogus claim. Later, it deleted the post.

So ended another skirmish between celebrity, truth and the pandemic, an ongoing battle that pits fame against science and public health.

Days earlier it was the turn of Lewis Hamilton to skid into trouble by sharing an anti-vaxxer post, which suggested Bill Gates was lying about coronavirus vaccine trials.

The clip, which the Formula One driver shared with 18.3 million Instagram followers, shows Gates offering reassurance over potential vaccine side-effects and debunking false claims that any vaccine will be used to implant microchips in people. The clip is captioned: "I remember when I told my first lie."

After a backlash, Hamilton deleted the post and issued a statement praising Gates and backing a vaccine but expressing concern about "uncertainty" over side-effects from the potential coronavirus vaccine, which does not yet exist.

Some celebrities such as John Cusack, Woody Harrelson and Wiz Khalifa have peddled the myth linking 5G technology to coronavirus. Others, such as the actor Evangeline Lilly, question the need for social physical distancing (she later apologised).

There is even a conspiracy theory that celebrities are being paid to say they have coronavirus. "Such stupidness," said Idris Elba, who contracted the disease earlier this year.

Some of those challenged over spreading misinformation delete posts and plead misunderstanding. Others refuse to back down. Either way, say public health experts, messaging about Covid-19 becomes muddied.

"Celebrities have a platform and when they abuse it it's incredibly irresponsible," said Paul Offit, co-inventor of the rotavirus vaccine and director of the Vaccine Education Center at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. "They influence people. Science doesn't win out, the facts don't win out. Emotion trumps scientific evidence every time."

Samuel McConkey, an infectious disease expert at RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences in Dublin, said many people turned to prominent names on Instagram, Facebook, TikTok and other platforms for information about Covid-19.

"Looking to our singers and actors as sources of information about this disease is daft. It's like I was to do the singing and acting - it wouldn't be entertaining. We have to work within our own domains and spheres of competence. Anyone who is turning to Madonna for scientific information has muddled thinking. Maybe we need primary school courses in epistemology."

Offit and McConkey credited some celebrities, such as actors Salma Hayek and Amanda Peet and boxer Katie Taylor, with using their platforms to echo established medical advice on vaccinations and other effective public health measures.

A study by researchers at the Reuters Institute at Oxford University found most engagement with coronavirus falsehoods came via social media posts by politicians, celebrities and influencers.

"Rather than being completely fabricated, much of the misinformation in our sample involves various forms of reconfiguration where existing and often true information is spun, twisted, recontextualised or reworked," said the report.

Baybars Örsek, director of the International Fact-Checking Network, a unit of the Poynter Institute, said celebrities should be mindful of their "amplification capacities" around falsehoods.

"Covid-19 has caused hundreds of thousands of deaths around the world and spreading misinformation on cures, vaccination and causes of the disease hurts the public's trust," she said.

Orsek also urged internet companies to be vigilant. "Millions of users are being exposed to such falsehoods in any given day."

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Madonna leads celebrity vogue for Covid-19 conspiracy theories

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Dancer, singer, songwriter, actor, director - Madonna has had quite the career. But the queen of pop's latest reinvention came this week in the form of a video posted on Instagram that shared a coronavirus conspiracy theory with her 15 million followers. Madonna claimed a vaccine existed but was being concealed.

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Definition: Confirmation Bias is when someone only looks for things to support their opinion while over looking all the evidence that does not support it.

Connection: This propaganda poster demonstrates Confirmation Bias with Cannabis throughout history. What was once known as "The Devils Lettuce" is now legalized throughout Canada, though that does not mean everyone is okay with it. Lots of people, typically elder people, still chose to believe it is a dangerous, addictive, un beneficial drug, and their opinions will not budge even though research can prove other wise.

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Definition: Ancient Wisdom refers to ancient beings, knowledge, practices and beliefs. It is almost unreasonable to believe ancient beings were more advanced or knowledgeable than people today.

Connection: This article on the claim the Egyptians did not build the pyramids shows Ancient Wisdom perfectly. The article touches on how it would be possible for the smaller pyramids to have been built by men, though how is it possible for the larger pyramids, which each brick weighed about 250 tonnes, to be built by men when machinery we have today wouldn't even be capable to. This is a great depiction of Ancient wisdom because it seems as if beings from years and years ago were more knowledgable and advanced then anything we have today.

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SHOCK CLAIM: Ancient Egyptians did NOT build the pyramids

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HISTORIANS has thrown doubt on the Ancient Egyptians ever having built the Great Pyramids of Giza instead claiming the monuments could have been built by a lost civilisation.

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Definition: Suppression by Authority is when governments or large cooperations suppress information for their own benefits.

Connection: This article shows Suppression by Authority by withholding information about the Covid 19 virus. Students at the University of Florida wanted to know how they were being protected through the pandemic, though the University chose to disclose that information through a legal loophole strictly for their benefit of keeping terrorists or other groups from exploiting government weaknesses. This was not the only example in the article, there are many more situations the government withheld valuable information from citizens. Research suggests that access to government information is truly essential for our safety, health and well being, though the government would argue otherwise.

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Students at the University of Florida who want to know how they are being protected from the COVID-19 pandemic can't find out.

The university is hiding its emergency response plan under a legal loophole intended to keep terrorists and enemy combatants - not viruses - from exploiting government weaknesses.

As the spread of coronavirus has accelerated in recent weeks, local, state and federal officials throughout the United States have locked down information from the public. Examples include:

In Texas, the city of Palestine banned a news reporter from a city council meeting on March 23, even though fewer than a maximum of 10 people would be in the room. It also did not allow the public to listen in on the meeting through a toll-free phone number, as required by state law.

The Council of the District of Columbia decided on March 19 that district employees do not have to respond promptly to public records requests any more.

The FBI no longer accepts requests for information online or by email because of the virus. If anyone wants information they must send their request in the mail.

Across the country, journalists are being barred from talking to staff at public hospitals and other locations serving the sick. And with administrators limiting access to the hospital itself, journalists are unable to tell the public what is happening. Precautions can be taken to protect the health of everyone concerned and protect the privacy of patients.

Cloudy Week?

And this is just in the United States. The Philippines threatens journalists with prison time for spreading false news about the virus, and the Committee to Protect Journalists is tracking the arrests of reporters over coronavirus coverage in Venezuela, Niger, India, and elsewhere.

Ironically, most of these information crackdowns started in mid-March, during national Sunshine Week - a time when news organizations and others promote citizens' rights to access government information.

Some agencies are making the case that responding to records requests is not an essential need or function. Research suggests that access to government information is indeed essential for our health and well-being. Studies have shown that making government information open leads to cleaner drinking water, safer restaurant food, less corruption, and more confidence in government.

James Hamilton, the Stanford economist, has found that for every $1 spent by news organizations on public records-based investigative reporting, the public derives $287 in benefits. The free flow of information makes for a better society and a better economy. It's a smart return on investment.

Indeed, businesses use public information more than anyone else - studies have shown that, at some federal agencies, three-quarters of Freedom of Information Act requests are submitted by commercial interests. Maintaining a free flow of information actually greases the nation's economic machine - which could be more important than ever given its state today.

Crisis as opportunity

The recent information closures are reminiscent of actions immediately following the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, when governments closed off massive amounts of information, including records that showed the dilapidated conditions of American bridges and dams.

Rather than limiting public information, however, agencies can use this crisis as an opportunity to take governance to the next level - making government even more accessible to the public it serves.

More than 130 nonprofits, from across a broad spectrum of industries and political persuasions, issued a statement March 20 that urged a measured response that serves the public interest. "We strongly urge government branches and agencies to recommit to, and
not retrench from, their duty to include the public in the policy-making process, including policies relating to COVID-19 as well as the routine ongoing functions of governance," the organizations wrote.

The National Freedom of Information Coalition, a nonprofit that provides education and research for citizens in acquiring government information, organized the statement. I serve as the coalition's president, have testified before Congress several times regarding the Freedom of Information Act, teach classes on accessing information, and publish research on the state of access in the United States.

Some of the recommendations include:

1. Postpone nonessential government business decisions until after the pandemic has subsided, when the public can once again fully engage.

2. Move necessary decisions online in livestreamed meetings accessible to all, including opportunities for public input and questions. Record the streams and post the recordings so people can view it later.

3. Do not conduct the public's business via private channels, such as social media, texting, and phone calls. (This holds true all the time, but especially now.) All official communications should be preserved and made accessible to the public online.

4. Post documents and data online as a matter of course, so people don't have to request it and government workers don't have to take the time to retrieve and disseminate them.

5. Officials can provide journalists greater access to hospitals and other health installations, applying safety precautions and protecting the privacy of victims.

Efforts to make government more accessible now can result in permanent improvements in the future, to better serve citizens who are home-bound or too busy with work and child-rearing to attend a local government meeting. Sometimes it takes a crisis to pull together and move forward, as citizens and government working together, fully engaged and well informed.

Photo of an empty Texas State House of Representatives by Kyle Glenn.

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Governments are using the coronavirus to hide information from reporters and citizens

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Students at the University of Florida who want to know how they are being protected from the COVID-19 pandemic can't find out. The university is hiding its emergency response plan under a legal loophole intended to keep terrorists and enemy combatants - not viruses - from exploiting government weaknesses.

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Definition: Agenticity is when meaning is assigned to things or beings we are unable to see. (Spirits, Angels, Aliens)

Connection: This article on Angel Numbers shows Agenticity by providing meaning to numbers seen all around. Each triple digit (222,333) have their own meanings that people are able to connect to their own life to provide a sense of safety. Some examples of meaning are wealth coming their way, guardian angels, manifestations ex.

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Ever noticed yourself stumbling upon repeating number sequences like 111, 555, or 777...basically everywhere? Like, let's say you wake up from a nap at 2:22 p.m., then you buy a coffee for $2.22, then you watch a movie that's 2 hours and 22 minutes long. If you've noticed such a pattern, it may not be a coincidence. In numerology, this sequential repetition is referred to as angel numbers. "Angels speak to us in synchronistic ways, which basically means that we will see something over and over again so much so that it goes beyond mere coincidence," says celebrity aura reader, psychic medium, and spirit guide Megan Michaela Firester, who goes by Mystic Michaela. "One of these ways is through numbers."

Angel numbers work in accordance with the tenets of numerology, which upholds the notion that each number is connected to a certain vibrational energy or frequency that encompasses meaning beyond its sheer numeric value. Where angel numbers come in, says Michaela, is with the prevalence of how often the number shows up. They serve as a thumbs up, of sorts, to continue along the path you're currently on. "Seeing a repeating number is like your angel pointing to you and making you feel seen and heard. They are trying to get your attention, and the numbers they send have meanings. Think of it like a little marker saying that you are on the right direction in life, like a highway sign."

"Seeing a repeating number is like your angel pointing to you and making you feel seen and heard." -celebrity spirit guide Mystic Michaela

While repeating sequences of the same digit are most obvious, and thus more likely to catch a person's attention, some people may see a birthdate, a lucky number, or other meaningful digits again and again. But, to help you better understand the angel numbers basics, Michaela breaks down what common repeating digits mean below.

What are angel numbers? A psychic medium explains common sequences, below.

111

One is a powerful number for manifestation, which is part of why many make a wish when they see it repeated in a sequence, like 11:11 on a clock. "When you see 111, think of the universe as taking a screenshot of your frame of mind," Michaela says. "Whatever is going on-all your thoughts, visualizations, goals, and dreams- they are going to be replicated." So when you see this sequence, ensuring your thoughts and energy are focused on what you want can help usher that energy into existence, according to numerology.

222

In this sometimes-rigidly goal-prioritizing world where we live, it can be easy to get tripped up on not being at a certain progress point, which can lead you to compare yourself to others. When you see the number two everywhere, Michaela says it can be interpreted as an angel-number reminder to be present, enjoy the moment, and trust that you are exactly where you are supposed to be.

333

This sequence is a prompt from the angels to bring more balance into your life. "They want you to look at the areas of your life that are not fully rounded out, and self-correct," Michaela says. "Get some meditation going, embark on that workout routine, and finally start that vision board you've been procrastinating on."

444

If you're navigating a challenge, and have been trying to get guidance from your spirit guide or signs from the universe, noticing the number four all around you can serve as evidence that you're being heard. "Your angels are guiding you, surrounding you, and answering your prayers of protection," Michaela says. "It may be a time of struggle, but you are being led into the light by your guardians."

555

When you start spotting 555, that means change is coming. Before you get worried, know that the change is a good thing, even if it might be uncomfortable. "Change can be seen as a negative thing, but with the right mind-set and the right alignment to your goals, it's actually your angel's way of readjusting your life to fit with what you want to happen," Michaela says. "Life will look different when you get what you want."

666

Are 666s showing up seemingly everywhere in your life? If so, the angels may be trying to give you a bit of a reality check. "This is a strong message from your angel guardians to take personal responsibility in your own life, and ask yourself in all areas, 'what do I need to do differently?'" Michaela says.

777

Repeating sevens are basically the universe urging you to relax and let go of your fears for the future. "Give up your control of what's going to happen next," Michaela says. And instead, embrace the present and trust that everything is always working out for you.

888

"The number eight is about infinity, or the endless loop of energy," Michaela says. "Seeing it means that you are effortlessly going with the natural flow and rhythm of what your angels have in store for you." In other words, it's like a pat on the back and a reminder to be grateful for how far you've come.

999

You'll likely see repeating nines when you've been working on something for a while, and it brings good news in tow. "This number means that the cycle of what you have been doing is reaching completion," Michaela says. "You are at the finish line of your end goals, and it's time to start leveling up to visualize some new ones."

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What angel numbers mean, and why seeing them everywhere is great news

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Ever noticed yourself stumbling upon repeating number sequences like 111, 555, or 777...basically everywhere? Like, let's say you wake up from a nap at 2:22 p.m., then you buy a coffee for $2.22, then you watch a movie that's 2 hours and 22 minutes long.

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Definition: Patternicity is when people identify patterns that may mean something to them even when there is nothing really there.

Connection: This picture shows Patternicity because when one person may a few birds flying through the sky, another would point out that they are in the shape of a smiley face. This may happen with many other things, like when your chip is shaped like a heart, or a cloud is shaped like a dog. They really are just birds, chips or clouds, but we assign other meanings to them.

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Definition: Proof by Verbosity is when someone uses purposely hard to understand arguments or language in attempt to confuse the other person into admitting they were wrong or doing something.

Connection: This comic shows Proof of Verbosity because the son seems to be trying to guilt the father into letting him go out with his friends by complaining in front of him, so the father then comes back saying a smart comment, something he knew his son would not understand, just to get him to give it up.

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Definition: Unexplained refers to the unknown. It is something we do not know or understand, therefore it is unexplainable.

Connection: This article connects the Placebo Effect to the Unexplained. The Placebo effect is most commonly seen in clinical trails. It is where some patients receive the true medicine, while others receive the placebo (in some cases a sugar pill). Progress is then tracked in the patients and some who receive the placebo have the same results if not better than those who received the true medication. Scientists find this truly explainable and therefore call it the Placebo Effect.

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In medicine, a placebo is a substance, pill, or other treatment that appears to be a medical intervention, but isn't one. Placebos are particularly important in clinical trials, during which they're often given to participants in the control group.

Because a placebo isn't an active treatment, it shouldn't have a significant effect on the condition. Researchers can compare the results from the placebo to those from the actual drug. This helps them to determine if the new drug is effective.

You may be familiar with the term "placebo" in reference to something called the placebo effect. The placebo effect is when an improvement is observed, despite an individual receiving a placebo as opposed to active medical treatment.

It's estimated that people experience the placebo effect. Keep reading to learn more about the placebo effect, how it may work, and some examples from research.

The placebo effect represents a fascinating connection between mind and body that still isn't completely understood. Below, we'll discuss some psychological explanations for the placebo effect.

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning. It happens when you associate a thing with a specific response. For example, if you get sick after eating a specific food, you may associate that food with having been sick and avoid it in the future.

Because the associations learned through classical conditioning can affect behavior, they may play a role in the placebo effect. Let's look at a couple of examples:

If you take a specific pill for headaches, you may begin to associate that pill with pain relief. If you receive a similar-looking placebo pill for a headache, you may still report decreased pain due to this association.

You may associate the doctor's office with receiving treatment or feeling better. This association can then in turn influence how you feel about the treatment you're receiving.

Expectations

The placebo effect has a large root in a person's expectations. If you have prior expectations for something, they can influence your perception of it. Therefore, if you expect a pill to make you feel better, you may feel better after taking it.

You can generate expectations for improvement from many types of cues. Some examples include:

Verbal. A doctor or nurse may tell you that a pill will be effective at treating your condition.

Actions. You may feel better when you've actively done something to address your condition, such as take a pill or receive an injection.

Social. Your doctor's tone of voice, body language, and eye contact can be reassuring, making you feel more positive about the treatment.

Below, we'll explore three examples of the placebo effect from real studies.

Migraine

A assessed how the labeling of drugs affected episodic migraine in 66 people. This is how the study was set up:

1. Participants were asked to take a pill for six different migraine episodes. During these episodes, they were given either a placebo or a migraine medication called Maxalt.

2. The labeling of the pills was varied throughout the study. They could be labeled as placebo, Maxalt, or either type (neutral).

3. Participants were asked to rate pain intensity 30 minutes into the migraine episode, take their assigned pill, and then rate pain intensity 2.5 hours later.

Researchers found that the expectations set by the pill labeling (placebo, Maxalt, or neutral) had an effect on the pain intensity reported. Here are the results:

As expected, Maxalt provided more relief than placebo. However, placebo pills were observed to provide more relief than a no treatment control.

Labeling mattered! For both Maxalt and placebo, the rating of relief was ordered based off of labeling. In both groups, pills labeled as Maxalt were highest, neutral was in the middle, and placebo was lowest.

This effect was so strong that Maxalt labeled as a placebo was rated to provide about the same amount of relief as a placebo that was labeled as Maxalt.

Cancer-related fatigue

Fatigue may still be a lingering symptom in some cancer survivors. A looked at the effects of a placebo compared to treatment as usual in 74 cancer survivors with fatigue. The study was set up as follows:

1. For 3 weeks, participants either received a pill openly labeled as a placebo or received their treatment as usual.

2. After the 3 weeks, people taking the placebo pills stopped taking them. Meanwhile, those receiving usual treatment had an option to take the placebo pills for 3 weeks.

After the study concluded, the researchers observed that the placebo, despite being labeled as such, had an effect on both groups of participants. The results were:

After 3 weeks, the placebo group reported improved symptoms compared to those receiving treatment as usual. They also continued to report improved symptoms over 3 weeks after discontinuation.

People receiving treatment as usual that decided to take the placebo pill for 3 weeks also reported an improvement in their fatigue symptoms after 3 weeks.

Depression

A investigated the placebo effect in 35 people with depression. Participants weren't currently taking any other medications for depression at the time. The study was set up like this:

1. Each participant received placebo pills. However, some were labeled as a fast-acting antidepressant (the active placebo) while others were labeled as a placebo (the inactive placebo). Each group took the pills for a week.

2. At the end of the week, a PET scan measured brain activity. During the scan, the active placebo group got a placebo injection, being told that it may improve their mood. The inactive placebo group received no injection.

3. The two groups switched pill types for another week. A second PET scan performed at the end of the week.

4. All participants then received treatment with antidepressant medications for 10 weeks.

Researchers found that some individuals experienced the placebo effect and that this effect impacted their brain activity and response to antidepressants. The results were that:

A decrease in depression symptoms was reported when people were taking the active placebo.

Taking the active placebo (including the placebo injection) was associated with PET scans that showed increases in brain activity in areas associated with emotion and stress regulation.

People who experienced increased brain activity in this area often had an improved response to the antidepressants used at the end of the study.

While the placebo effect has been observed in many scenarios, there's still a lot about it that we don't understand. Studies are ongoing and we learn more every year.

One of the big questions is the connection between mind and body. How are psychological factors like expectations affecting what's going on inside us?

We know that the placebo effect can lead to the release of various small molecules like neurotransmitters and hormones. These can then interact with other parts of the body to cause changes. However, we still need to work out more details about the specifics of these complex interactions.

Additionally, the placebo effect seems to have a significant impact on some symptoms, such as pain or depression, and not others. This brings up more questions.

A placebo is a pill, injection, or thing that appears to be a medical treatment, but isn't. An example of a placebo would be a sugar pill that's used in a control group during a clinical trial.

The placebo effect is when an improvement of symptoms is observed, despite using a nonactive treatment. It's believed to occur due to psychological factors like expectations or classical conditioning.

Research has found that the placebo effect can ease things like pain, fatigue, or depression. However, we still don't know the exact mechanisms in the body that are contributing to this effect. Scientists are currently working to answer this question and more.

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Placebo Effect: What It Is, Examples, and More

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The placebo effect is a term you've probably heard when it comes to clinical trials. We'll discuss what it means and if it's real.