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State Formation in East/South/Central Africa

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State Formation in East/South/Central Africa

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Unlike northern Africa and Egypt the towns that grew up from on the Indian Ocean coast seem to have been encouraged by traders from abroad. The original urbanization of these developments was indigenous but the growth during the first half of the second millennium AD was due to involvement in the Indian Ocean trade and their interest to products on the interior of Africa. Influence from trade introduced a variety of other cultures, such as the Islamic faith, and prompted the stone structures of buildings that included mosques, palaces, and tombs. These buildings show that these people were not only becoming culturally diverse but also much more centralized and wealthy. Some of the coastal communities became important and wealthy centers for import and export. This lead to some of the elite acquiring an Islamic faith along with literacy and some even created their own coinage. Eventual the influence of the more powerful leaders is seen by the development of the coastal societies own culture and language of Swahili.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005.

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By the 2nd millennium an urban center with growing social complexity developed on the Dongola reach of the Nile and became the city of Kerma. This growth may have been prompted by contact with Egypt. Indeed Egypt does seem to have played a significant role in Kerma’s growth as the Egyptians sought trade for raw materials in the area. In Kerma there have been many impressive buildings discovered, they consist of rectangular houses of mud-brick or wood with elaborate fortifications. There were also large elite structures, and a monumental mud-brick temple. Kerma appears to have been a centralized political and spiritual state with influences and help from Egyptian trade.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005. or�T����

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The new kingdom lasted from about 1540- 1075 BC. During this time, great pharaohs such as Thomose I, Sety I, and Ramesses II, not only held Egypt together but expanded making it a great imperial power, wealthy in part because of its access to Nubian gold. It is also during this time that a greater emphasis is placed on religion and after life. There was a growth in priesthood with a greater idea about life after death. These ideas led to greater care and expense being poured into mummification and burial for lesser people as well as for rulers and elites. There is also evidence for a society with people ranging from poor too rich without many gaps, based on the variety of house sizes.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005. s_spdy":true}},�T����d

picture:
"Ancient Egypt Mummies and the Afterlife for Kids." Ancient Egypt Mummies and the Afterlife for Kids. Accessed November 22, 2016. http://primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/egypt/mummies.htm.

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The dynastic period in Egypt lasted from 2575-2150 BC, it is comprised of the 4th through the 8th dynasties and is the period in which most of the great pyramids were built. It is also during this period that Egypt becomes a pharaonic state. Most significantly it is during this time that the great pyramids at Giza were built, the largest had sides each measuring 230 m and a height of 146.5 m. These ginormous structures show the immense power, wealth and organization the Pharoahs possessed. The completion of such major projects shows a powerful central state and the gradual reduction in scale of the pyramids suggests a weakening of power later on. The pharoa had to organize thousands of workers as well house, feed, and clothe them.  The ruler held secular and sacred rule, it was believed that he could commune with the gods and after death would become a god himself. The people had immense faith in their ruler.  There is also evidence that Egypt at this time had well-organized system of taxation in the form of agriculture and labor.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005.

Bard, Kathryn A.. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (2). Somerset, US: Wiley-Blackwell, 2015. Accessed November 21, 2016. ProQuest ebrary.

picture:
D., Rupam, and Vikas Shukla. "Quantov." Quantov Media. Accessed November 22, 2016. http://www.quantov.com/history/primitive-machine-in-great-pyramid-of-giza-reveals-new-secrets.

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In many ways, this period is an extension to the predynastic period it lasted from 2950-2575 BC. The term pharaohs is still not used but the Egyptian culture and politics is further developed and becomes more complex. The first “king” of Egypt is established, we think this is Narmer based on the Narmer palette, that united lower and upper Egypt into one kingdom. This began the first Dynasty. Narmer’s son was increasingly interested in religion and the after-life sparking Egypt’s religious culture. He created a great tomb for himself, the mastaba tomb.

The first pyramid was built during the third dynasty by the most remarkable rulers of the time, Djoser. He built a step pyramid at Saqqara. This pyramid sparked the general practice of pyramid building. The building of the step pyramid shows great technical skill, economic power, as well as administrative organization. It really represents the new cohesiveness of the Egyptian people as well as their power. With the help of their kings during the Dynastic period Egypt developed its own unique complex culture with writing, art, science, and social stratification.

Mark, Joshua J. "Early Dynastic Period In Egypt." Ancient History Encyclopedia. January 22, 2016. Accessed November 21, 2016. http://www.ancient.eu/Early_Dynastic_Period_In_Egypt/
picture:
"3500-2575 BCE – Predynastic and Early Dynastic Art." Ancient to Medieval Art. 2012. Accessed November 22, 2016. https://klimtlover.wordpress.com/egypt-under-the-pharoahs/egypt-under-the-pharoahs-predynastic-and-early-dynastic-art/.

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During the 4th millennium agricultural villages began to show up in the Nile Valley. Farming required a greater degree of sedentism and the floods from the Nile created narrow strips of highly productive farming land, which created in rapid population growth and politic change. The society in the predynastic became increasing complex and productive causing elites to rise up to control it. There grew cultural groupings, the main ones were the Naqada I, II, and III. The Naqada groups created a sophisticated material culture. The increase of metallurgy allowed the increase making of jewels, which allowed for increase of material culture and accumulation of wealth. Through abundant resources came the growth of social stratification. For the Naqada the main archeological resource is their graves which show social rank and inequality based on the prestige of the grave.

Inevitably these different groups competed for resources which would have led to some groups accumulating power and wealth and others failing. This likely eventually lead to one leading power and the Pharoanic state. Another important development during the prydynastic period for the development of Dynastic Egypt is that of writing.

The Predynastic period shows a lot of great human developments and culture. Humans are fully sedentary and are starting form cities. This also leads to the formation of government and elites. Social stratification is a huge development in human culture during this period. A lot of transitions are made during this period and the foundation for the Pharoanic state is laid out.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005.

Bard, Kathryn A.. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (2). Somerset, US: Wiley-Blackwell, 2015. Accessed November 21, 2016. ProQuest ebrary. �A� (same as source as picture)

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In the Nile Valley cultivating barley, emmer, wheat, and flax followed shortly after the domestication of cattle. The developments along the Nile seem to have happened rapidly and was influenced by the introduction of plants and animals from southwest Asia. We see evidence of Asian influence from the Afroasiatic language family. The main evidence for these people in the Nile Valley is storage pits for grains that were often lined. For the Nile it is these changes that signal the start towards predynastic and eventually pharaonic Egypt. It leads to more sedentarism, trade, richness, and eventually states.

Further down the Nile is the A-group that are particularly known for their food production, the cultivated wheat, barley, and herded sheep and cattle. The A group was highly influenced by later Predynastic people.

In West Africa cultivation also arose around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. Importantly they began to cultivate important indigenous crops such as pearl millet, west African rice, and sorghum. This cultivation shows the switch agriculture, farming, and total sedentism. Which is an important step towards social complexity.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005. ��G�T����B

picture: "The High-Fiber, Gluten-Free Ancient Grain: Sorghum Flour - Dr. Axe." Dr. Axe. 2016. Accessed November 22, 2016. https://draxe.com/sorghum-flour/.

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Throughout Africa farming began with pastoralism, in almost every area the domestication of cattle is seen before that of plants. The earliest evidence of domesticated cattle is in the Sahara around 7,000 BC. People were stone using, pottery making, and still hunted and harvested wild plants to some extent but appear to also have been keeping cattle. By 1,800 BC in the southwest there is evidence of people keeping cattle and goats. Some peoples were also growing various cereals but based on various rock arts we can see that cattle were of more importance to the Saharan people.

In the Nile Valley, we see the same pattern of keeping cattle preceding cultivation. In the Nile, there was sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs by the 5th millennium. Though bone harpoons were still found at this time indicating that fishing was still a big part of their life style. In Northeast and Eastern Africa, much as in the Sahara, rock paintings show evidence of herding cattle and at Mahal Teglinos there were cattle and goats by 3,000 BC.

The trend towards cattle shows that people were beginning to think about consistent man made food sources. Keeping cattle also started creating more sedentarism, though at this point it still wasn’t permanent, as cattle can be moved and people still foraged for fruits and grains. However, this is an important step towards cultivation and sedentarism.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005. �T����\

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At sites, such as Qadan people were also hunting cattle and gathering plants using tools such as Microliths and grindstones, around 15000-11000 years ago. There were also found graves of Qadan people with evidence that some had died violent deaths. These people lived along the Nile Valley, however, and the confines of the valley created more limited resources causing conflict for resources. This violence shows a different sort of emerging social complexity from the southern and western peoples.

Later on, and further south from Qadan evolves an intensified interest in fishing. At Early Khartoum bone harpoons appear by about 6,000 BC. At Early Khartoum, elaborate pottery with distinctive grooved wavy lines was found, these pots were used for cooking otherwise inedible grains. Along with the pottery was also mud covered structures showing further evidence for semi sedentary life style. The harpoons and pottery are indicative of further utilizing and manipulating the environment for survival which allowed for the creation of semi sedentary life styles. This changes would soon evolve into agriculture and fully sedentary life styles.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005. he increased ex V�

picture: @ATLBlackStar. "20 Things You May Not Know About Africa But Really Should - Page 2 of 10 - Atlanta Black Star." Atlanta Black Star. 2015. Accessed November 22, 2016. http://atlantablackstar.com/2015/01/26/20-things-you-may-not-know-about-africa-but-really-should/2/.

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The hunter and gatherer peoples across Africa are characterized greatly by the stone tools they utilized. The Wilton stone Industry, dating from 6,000 BC onward, and the Oakhurst Complex, dating from 10,000 BC to 6,000 BC, are the industries that best identify later hunter-gatherers in Southern and Central Africa. They created a wide variety and complexity of stone tools. The Oakhurst Complex came before the Wilton Stone industry is widely known by large scrapers, and bone tools. The Wilton Stone Industry is identified greatly by microliths. Microliths are blades with crude handles that in some areas led to bow and arrows. Microliths could be used for hunting as well as cutting grasses for food. The prior Oakhurst Complex had virtually no microlith tools.

In West Africa hunter-gatherers were identified at the important site of Iwo Eleru. In this area hunter-gatherers are identified by a microlithic quartz industry dating 10,000-15,000 BC, dating earlier than the microliths found in southern and central Africa. At Iwo Eleru was also excavated ground-stone axes and pottery in the 4th millennia.  A very important discovery at Iwo Eleru is 18 human skeletons that suggest semi-sedentarism as early as 6,000 BC.

In both Southern and Western Africa, these archeological findings, particularly the microliths, point to intensified hunting and gathering as well as intensified exploitation of their environment. In Southern and Central Africa, the increased exploitation of their surroundings allowed people to gather seasonally at resource rich times of the year where they could exchange goods and reinforce social relationships, which shows continuing social complexity. In West Africa, the evidence shows the start towards sedentarism and eventually agriculture.

Scarre, Christopher. The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2005. ksu�V��T�p

picture: Wilford, John Noble. "Stone Tools Point to Creative Work by Early Humans in Africa." The New York Times. 2012. Accessed November 22, 2016. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/13/science/evidence-of-persistent-modern-human-behavior-in-africa.html.