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Informed consent: all participants must know what their participation involves

Confidentiality: rsearchers are responsible for keeping all informtaion confidential

Debriefing: after the research is over, the researchers should let the particpants know the purpose and the methods they used

Deception: may occur as long as it doesn't harm the participants

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-mathematical methods that are used to indicate whether results for a sample are likely to generalize to a population
-used to draw conclusions about data
-purpose: uncover statistical significance, the difference observed between groups

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-range: finding the difference between the highest and lowest scores
-standard deviation: the square root of the average squared deviation from the mean

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-mathematical procedures used to describe data
-central tendency and measures of variability

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external validity: the degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real world issues

internal validity: the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the changing and manipulation of the independent variable

experimenter bias: when the experimenters expectations influence the outcome of the research

placebo effect: occurs when the participants expectations produce an outcome instead of the experimental treatment

double blind experiment: when the researchers and participants dont know whose in the experimental group and whose in the control group

population: the whole group the investigator wants to draw conclusions from

sample: those people chosen from the population

-random sampling ensures that the sample is a reflection of the poulation

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longitudinal design: involves taking measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time
~Experimental research
-used to find out if a casual relationship exists between variables
-random assignment: researchers assignment of participants into groups by chance
-independent and dependent variables
-experimental and control groups

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~Descriptive research: a type of research that determines the basics of a phenomenon, defining what it is, how often it occurs, etc.
-ex: What is the average level of happiness of women in the US?
-includes observations, case studies, surveys and interviews
-cant answer the whys and hows of the way things are
~Correlational research: research that looks at the relationship between variable , whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together
-the degree of the relationship between the variables is expressed as the correlational definition , usually represented by the letter r
-correlation doesn't equal causation
-third variable problem: happens when a variable that hasn't been measured accounts for the relationship between the other two variables: also called confounds

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operational definition: provides an objective description of how a variable (anything that can change) is going to be measured and observed in a study

-ensures that everyone agrees on what a variable means

meta-analysis: a method that lets researchers combine the results of different studies on a similar topic to establish the strength of the effect

-allows researchers to conclude if the result is consistent and see the relationship between variables

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Scientific Method Step:

1. Observing Some Phenomenon

2. Formulating Hypothesis

3. Testing through Empiral Research

4. Drawing Conclusions

5. Evaluating the theory

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-A form of communication

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-consist of the ability to solve problems and to adapt to learn from everyday experiences.
IQ test: a test measures on validity, reliability and standardization.
-psychologist believe that genes play a role in intelligence.

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concepts: help us to generalize, improve our memories, and keep us leaning new things.
Problem solving: an attempt to find a way to attain a goal
Reasoning: mental activity of transforming info to reach conclusions.
Critical Thinking: improve problem solving

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Ch.8 Thinking, Language and Intelligence

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Ch.8 Thinking, Language and Intelligence

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Cognition: way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing.

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Thorndike Law of Effect
(1898) established the power of consequences in determining voluntary behavior.
Puzzle Box:

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Counterconditoning: classical condition procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response.
Aversive condition: a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimuli.
Ex. electric shocks

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Generalization: classical condition is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response.
Discrimination: classical condition is the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others.

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Pavlov Studies

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Ivan Pavlov
A Russian psychologist that demonstrated that neutral aspects of the environment can attain the capacity to evoke responses through pairing with other stimuli and that bodily processes can be influenced by environment cues.

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learning: a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior tat occurs through experience
Behaviorism: a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors.
Associative learning: occurs when we make a connection, or an association, between two events.
Observational Learning: learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior.

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Cannon-Bard Theory: the proposition that emotion and psychological reactions occur simultaneously

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Measuring Arousal

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Emotion: a feeling or affect that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experiences and behavioral expressions.

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Intrinsic v. Extrinsic
Intrinsic: based on internal factors.
Extrinsic: involves external incentives such as rewards and punishment.

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Self-Determination Theory: asserts that there are three basic organismic needs: competence, relatedness and autonomy.

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Binge Eating disorder (BED):
-recurrent episodes of consuming large amounts of food during which the person feels a lack of control over eating.
-Psychologist believe gene may play a role.

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Bulimia Nervosa:
-individual consistently follows a binge-and-purging eating pattern.
signs: preoccupied with food, fear of becoming overweight, and being depressed.

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Anorexia:
-relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation.
Affects 0.5 and 3.7 percent of young women.

Signs: fear of gaining of weight, distorted body image, weight less than 85%

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Obesity:
60% Americans are overweight
-there are genetic component to obesity
- psychologist used to believe that obesity came from being unhappy
-Set point: the weight maintained when the individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight

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Introspection:
Gestalt
Psychoanalysis
Behaviorism
Multiple Perspectives

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Behavioral Approach: B.F Skinner and John B. Watson

Psychodynamic Approach: SIgmund Freud

Humanistic: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

Cognitive Approach: Jean Piaget

Evolutionary Approach: Charles Darwin

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Structuralism was founded by Wundt and focused on the conscious mind and its structures

Functionalism was founded by William James and his view emphasized the functions and purposes of the mind

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definition: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

psychology looks at all sides of human experience including positive, negative, strengths and weaknesses

1879 is the year Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Germany

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Vestibular sense: gives us information about balance and movement; tells us whether our head and body are tilted, moving, etc.
Kinesthetic sense: provide information about movement, posture and orientation; receptors are embedded in muscle fibers and joints
semicircular canals in the inner ear contain the sensory receptors that detect head motion

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-Electroconvulsive Therapy: shock therapy, a treatment, commonly used for depression, that sets off a seizure in the brain

-Pscyhosurgery: a biological intervention that involves the removal or destruction of brain tissue to improve the individual's adjustment

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1. Place theory: states each frequency produces vibrations at a particular spot on the basilar membrane; explains high-frequency but not low-frequency sounds

2. Frequency theory: states that the perception of a sounds frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires

3. volley principle: modification of the frequency theory stating that a cluster of nerve cells can fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating a volley of impulses

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Touch: the detection of mechanical energy against the skin; travels through the spinal cord, brain stem, and thalamus and to the somatosensory areas of the parietal lobes

temperature: thermoreceptors responds to increase or decrease temperature

pain: sensation that warns us about our bodies

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~the ear is divided up into three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear
~outer ear: consists of the pinna and the external auditory canal
pinna: collects sounds and channels them to inner ear
~middle ear: the part of the ear that channels sounds through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup to the inner ear
~inner ear: includes the oval window, cochlea and basilar membrane
-converts sound waves into neural impulses and sens them on the brain

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-Drug Therapy
*Antianxiety Drugs: commonly known as tranquilizers, reduce anxiety by making the individual calmer and less excitable (benzodiazepines like Xanax, Valium, and Librium.)
*Antidepressant Drugs: regulate mood. Four common classes of antidepressant drugs are tricylics, tetracylics, monoamine oxidase, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
*Antipsychotic Drugs: powerful drugs that diminish agitated behavior, reduce tension, decrease hallucinations, improve social behavior, and produce better sleep patterns. (neuroleptics)

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trichromatic theory: proposed by Thomas Young and extended by von Hemholtz, which states that color perception is created from three types of cone receptors- red, blue and green
opponent process theory: states that cells in the visual syst. respond to red-green and blue-yellow; explain afterimages

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definition: made up of the axons of the ganglion cells which takes the visual information to the brain
blind spot: the place on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye on the way to the brain

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social cognitive theory: behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are all important in understanding personality. (reciprocal determinism)

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The Five Factor Model of Personality

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1. sclera: maintains the shape of the eye and protects it from injury

2. cornea and lens function is to bend the light falling on the surface of the eye to focus it at the back

3. retina: the eye's "film" which is responsible for recording electromagnetic energy ad converting it to neural impulses

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-individual psychology: people are motivated by purposes and goals and that perfection, not pleasure, is thus the key motivator in human life

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Signal detection theory: focuses on decision making about stimuli in the presence of uncertainty
-ex: looking for a wedding date and you see a person you are interested in
-based on several factors, there could be 4 outcomes

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~absolute threshold: the minimm amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect
-when it falls beneath this threshold, we can detect it
-ex: moving toward and away from the ticking of a clock
~difference threshold: the degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected
-Weber's law: the idea that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage to be perceived as different

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-collective unconscious: Jung's term for the impersonal, deepest layer of the unconscious mind

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Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

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Defense Mechanisms

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sensation: the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and turning them  in to neural energy

perception: organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it has meaning

bottom up processing: sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation

top down processing: to sense whats happening and apply that to the world

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Structures of Personality
*id: consists of unconscious drives and is the individual's reservoir of sexual energy (pleasure principle)
*ego: deals with the demands of reality; tries to bring the individual pleasure within the norms of society (the mediator)
*superego:  the harsh internal judge of our behavior; our conscience

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Ch 13 Intergroup Relations & Close Relationships

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Ch 13 Intergroup Relations & Close Relationships

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prejudice: an unjustified negative attitude toward a group
-based on stereotypes
-can lead to discrimination, which is unjustified negative or hurtful action toward a group
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

mere exposure effect: the more we encounter something, the more probable it is that we will start liking it

social exchange theory: the view of social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, maximizing the benefits and minimizing the costs

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Ch 13 Group Influence and Decision Making

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Ch 13 Group Influence and Decision Making

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~risky shift: tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members
~group polarization effect:the solidification of an individual's position as a result of a group interaction
~groupthink: the impaired group decision that happens when making the right decision is less important than keep group harmony

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~deindividuation: the reduction of a person identity and the erosion of the sense of responsibility when one is a part of a group
~social contagion: imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotions and ideas
ex: cough in a quiet library and notice that other people will start coughing
~social facilitation (Robert Zajonc): happens when a person's performance improves because of the presence of others
~social loafing: each person's tendency to put in less effort in a group because of the reduced accountability for individual effort

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*James-Lange theory: emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment.
*Cannon-Bard theory: the proposition that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously

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definition: behavior that complies with the demands of the individual of authority
-Stanley Milgram experiment: delivering electric shocks, increasing the intensity if the other person makes a mistake

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Stanley Milgram Shock Experiment: Summary, Results, & Ethics

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Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, carried out one of the most famous studies of obedience in psychology. He conducted an experiment focusing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience. Milgram

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Self-Determination Theory
*there are 3 basic organismic needs: competence, relatedness, autonomy.
1. Competence- is met when we feel that we are able to bring about desired outcomes (self-efficacy)
2. Relatedness- the need to engage in warm relations with other people
3. Autonomy- the sense that we are in control of our own life.

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~conformity: a change in behavior to coincide with a group standard
~Asch's experiment: tested the effects of group influence and conformity
~informational social influence: the influence people have on us because we want to be correct
~normative social influence: the influence others have on us because we want them to like us

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The strongest needs are at the base of the hierarchy and the weakest are at the top.

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definition: social behavior who intention is to harm someone
~evolutionary view: humans must have been survivors
~neurological factors: serotonin and testosterone are involved in aggressive behavior
~psychological factors: frustrating circumstances

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-The Evolutionary Approach: emphasized the role of instincts in motivation. The motivations for sex, aggression, achievement, and other behaviors are rooted in our evolutionary past.
-Drive Reduction Theory:
explains that as a drive becomes stronger we are motivated to reduce it. The goal of drive reduction is homeostasis.
-Optimum Arousal Theory
*Yerkes-Dodson law: performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal.

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~altruism: unselfish interest in helping another person
~egoism: the opposite of altriusm; giving another person to ensure reciprocity
-people who are in a good mood are more likely to help others
-bystander effect: the tendency for a person to watch an emergency to help less when there are other people present than when the person is alone
-women are more likely to help in situations that involve care giving, while men are more likely to help in situations that involve danger

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definition: our feelings, opinions, and beliefs about people, objects and ideas
~we are able to predict behavior on the basis of attitudes when

the attitudes are strong

the person knows about their attitude and expresses it often

when the attitudes are relevant to their behavior

~cognitive dissonance: developed by Festinger which is a persons psychological discomfort caused by two inconsistent thoughts
according to this theory, our need for consistency causes us to change our behavior to fit our attitudes or change our attitudes to fit our behavior

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~fundamental attribution error: observers overestimation of the importance of internal factors and the underestimation of external factors in situations they seek out an explanation for one's behavior
~false consensus effect: the overestimation when we think that everyone thinks and acts like we do
~self serving bias: the tendency for us to take credit for our success and deny our responsibility in our failures
~self-objectification: the tendency for a person to see themselves as an object in others' eyes
~stereotype threat: an individuals fear of being judged based on a a negative stereotype about their group
~social comparison: the process by which we evaluate ourselves in relation to others

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defintion: the process by which we come to understand the causes of others behaviors and form an impression of them as individuals
-attribution theory: theory that views people as determined to find the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of their behavior
-varies along these 3 causes

internal/external

stable/unstable

controllable/uncontrollable

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definition: the study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people
-stereotype: a generalization about a group's characteristics
-stereotypes can influence people through the self fulfilling prophecy, which causes a person to act a certain way in order to make expectations come true

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amnesia: the loss of memory
-anterograde amnesia: a memory disorder that affects the retention of new events and information
-retrograde amnesia: memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new information and events

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-encoding failure is forgetting information that never reached long term memory
~Interference theory: people forget because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember
-proactive vs. retroactive interference
~Decay theory: when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace is created and over time it disappears
~motivated forgetting: occurs when we want to forget something
~tip of the tongue phenomenon: occurs when we know something but can really pull it out of our memory

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~Special Cases of Retrieval
-autobiographical memories: peoplpe have more memories from their second and third deacdes of life
-flashbulb memories
-traumatic events
-repressed memories
-eyewitness testimony

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serial position effect: the tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of list than the middle
-primacy effect: the tendency to recall things that the beginning rather than the middle
-recency effect: tendency to remember things at the end of a list rather than the middle
-retrieval cues help to recall infromation
-encoding specificity principle: info. present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue

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long term memory: a permamnent type of memory that stores a lot of information for a long time
~explicit memory: the conscious recollection of information like events and facts
-episodic memory: information about the what, when and how of lifes happenings
-semantic memory: a persons knowledge about the world
~implicit memory: behaviour is affected by previous experiences without a conscious recollection of that experience
-procedural mem: memory for skills
-priming: activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember things efficiently

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working memory: a 3 part system that allows us to hold information as we perform tasks; the brain manipulates and gathers information which helps us understand, make decisions and solve problems
-consists of the phonological loop, visuospatial working memory and the central executive

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short term memory: information is usually retained for as long as 30 seconds unless we use ways to keep it longer
-limited capacity
7  plus or minus 2 concept
-chunking (grouping and "packing" information) and rehearsal (repetition of information) are two ways you can improve short term memory

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sensory memory: time frame of a fraction of a secons to a few seconds
-very rich and detailed, but is lost if it isn't transferred to short term memory
-echoic memory: auditory sensory memory
iconic memory: visual sensory memory

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~Attention
-to start encoding, you have to pay attention
-selective attention: focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others
-divided attention: concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
-sustained attention (vigilance): focusing on a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
~Levels of Processing
-according to this theory, information is processed continuously from shallow (sensory or physical features) to intermediate (labels are attached to stimuli) to deep (meanings and associations with the stimuli are processed)
-elaboration and imagery can also improve memory

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-memory: the retention of information over time
-occurs in 3 different stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval

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-the nucleus of each human cells consistes ot 46 chromosomes, which come in 23 pairs
-the chromosomes contain DNA, which carries genetic information
-dominant-recessive genes principle: if one pair of a gene is dominant and the other is recessive, the dominant one will override the recessive one
-genotype: an individuals genetic makeup
-phenotype: observable characteristics of the person

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The brain may repair itself by
--collateral sprouting
--substitution of function
--neurogenesis

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- the right hemisphere of the brain is involved in processing nonverbal information like spatial perception, visual recognition, etc.
-the left hemisphere is involved more in processing verbal information
-the corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres

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Broca' Area: plays a role in the PRODUCTION of speech
Wernicke's Area: plays a role in the COMPREHENSION of speech

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somatosensory cortex: processes information about body sensations
motor cortex: processes information bout voluntary movement

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limbic system: important in memory and emotion: amygdala and hippocampus are the two main structures
-amygdala: involved in fear and discrimination of objects necessary for organisms survival
hippocampus: involved in memory
thalamus: serves as a relay station and seems to play a role in sleep and wakefulness
basal ganglia: works with the cerebellum and cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements
hypothalamus: monitors eating, drinking, sex, emotion, stress and reward;regulator of the body's internal state

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Ch. 3-Structures and Functions of the brain: 

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Ch. 3-Structures and Functions of the brain: 

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hindbrain: consists of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons
-medulla: controls vital functions, like breathing, and regulates our reflexes
-pons: connects cerebellum and brain stem; involved in sleep and arousal
-cerebellum: involved in motor coordination
midbrain: relays information between the brain stem and the eyes and ears
*Parkinson disease damages the substantia nigra
-reticular formation: involved in stereotype patterns like walking, sleeping, etc.

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The 4 Steps in Hypnosis
1. Minimizes distractions and makes the person to be comfortable
2. Tells the person to concentrate on something specific
3. Informs the person what to expect in the hypnotic state, such as relaxation or a pleasant floating sensation
4. Suggests certain events or feelings he or she knows will occur or observes occurring, "You're eyes are getting tired".

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Electroencephalograph (EEG): records the brain activity

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NCLEX RN Practice Question # 644

NCLEX Examination.

Practice Question # 644.

An EEG is mainly used when there is a need to diagnose and manage epilepsy.

It can also be used to investigate other conditions such as encephalitis, dementia, head injuries, brain tumors, hemorrhage.

An EEG can identify areas of the brain that are not working properly.

EEGs are also used to determine the level of brain function in people who are in a coma.

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NCLEX Examination. Practice Question # 644. An EEG is mainly used when there is a need to diagnose and manage epilepsy. It can also be used to investigate other conditions such as encephalitis, dementia, head injuries, brain tumors, hemorrhage. An EEG can identify areas of the brain that are not working properly.

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social cognitive behavior view of hypnosis: theory that hypnosis is a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way he or she believes that a hypnotized person should behave.

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divided consciousness view of hypnosis: Hilgard's view that hypnosis involves a splitting of consciousness into two separate components, one which follows the hypnotist's commands and the other of which acts as a "hidden observer"

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brain lesioning: an abnormal disruption in the tissue resulting from injury or disease
-neuroscientists produce lesions on the brains of animals to determine the effects on the animals behavior

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hypnosis: an altered state of consciousness or a psychological state of altered attention and expectation in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions.

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hallucinogens: also called psychedelics, psychoactive drugs that modify a person's perceptual experience and produce visual images that are not real
ex. LSD and marijuana

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stimulants: psychoactive drugs that increase the central nervous system's activity. The most widely used stimulants are caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine.

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The Evolutionary Approach Theory:
the role of instincts in motivation.
ex. babies sucking on his thumb