# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Document source: Oral Reading Record. Benchmark Universe handbook

# data[].attributes.body
The Oral Reading Record is capture sheet designed to collect and record what a student said and did while orally reading continuous texts. It is best to conduct this assessment at the beginning of the year and then follow up with running records every 6-8 weeks.

# data[].attributes.body
Phonology: The sounds of the language.

Early readers will connect the idea that the sounds of letters can be put together to make words.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: Mood Monsters. Twinkl.com.

# data[].attributes.body
Though the word pragmatic or being pragmatic is used to mean  be practical, and with regard to reading comprehension, it represents the skills beyond the literal meaning of words and sentences in print (the simplest meaning).  Pragmatism in reading means to understand the words and sentences in the most logical and meaningful way with regard to the current context with which the words are surrounded.   A reader can to read between the lines and understand what the author's meaning is supposed to be.

The reader can weave in and fill in much more into the story because he or she can understand both the literal meaning of the words and the perspective of the words based on the theme and location of the story.

As teachers were can help develop better pragmatic reading skills by first making sure students understand the goal of having pragmatic reading skills.  It is a fairly nuanced concept and will need some good strategies of explanation.  Talk about implied meanings and social cues that are used everyday.  Many we don't even notice.

Explain and model of to read and think (out loud, i necessary) how thinking of question to ask about the words being read. Discuss why we know certain things, why we make certain inferences and how our background and cultural knowledge helps us better understand the words.
Being sheltered in life and explanations definitely hinders this process.

If there are cultural references it he story, discuss these with your student - provide an opportunity to expand their knowledge to be better able to spot cultural differences in languages.

When discussing stories or text with the class, teaches can ask for opinions on how students and interpreting a character's motivation, emotions and actions.

It's always good to give an opportunity for making predictions - Where do students think the story is heading, and why?  What text gave them that idea?

Many more ideas and understanding of meaning can be developed by introducing any real-life comparisons and writing reflective journals to log how they feel they came up with their interpretations. What influenced their thinking?

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: Miller, G. (2022, Oct. 19)/ Semantic Maps – A Teaching Strategy for Teachers. Aids for Teachers.

# data[].attributes.body
What do the words, phrases and sentences in the language mean to us.  This is called semantics.  We need to know these meanings to better be able to communicate in our language with one another and strengthening our comprehension.  Semantics not only deals with the need to use the correct word in a sentence to make sense, but also using grammar in the correct order to provide proper understanding, clarity and coherence.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: Adewusi, D. (2020 November 29).What Is Syntax? Definition and Examples.  Scientific-editing.com

# data[].attributes.body
Semantics is how words go together correctly together, using a set of rules.  This is an important language skill to develop in both speech and writing.

In elementary school we begin by teaching the parts of speech, sentence types, basic sentence structure, word order, punctuation, grammar rules, and how to combine sentences until eventually students can creatively write and read with strong comprehension.

# data[].attributes.body
Language development refers to the process individuals acquire, refine and rework a person's ability to communicate by using language.  Listening, speaking, reading and writing skills will begin in infancy and continue to grow through childhood to adulthood.
Learning the language rules is important, along with the structure of how words fit together, how we use language to socially interact, how we express ourselves and the cognitive processing involved. Not one thing represents language development. It's not only internal factors such as our genetics and cognitive abilities that help us develop, but external factors have an impact, too: our environment, how much exposure we have to language at various development stages.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: Differentiated Instruction, a guide for world language teachers book cover.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Jimenez. A. Dr. (2017,  July 13) Steps for Teachers & Site Leaders to Apply Differentiated Instruction, Illuminate Education

# data[].attributes.headline
How can you differentiate instruction to meet diverse literacy needs?

# data[].attributes.subject
How can you differentiate instruction to meet diverse literacy needs?

# data[].attributes.body
Once I've collected any data and observations from BOY assessments, I can alter and rework my teaching methods to meet my students' diverse needs.  This is coupled with now knowing what my students' learning styes, their reading abilities and family background.

I can tailor the materials I bring into my classroom to the interests of my students.  By doing this I will make my students feel visible, relevant and wanted in my classroom.

I can be mindful to continually assess my students in order to keep the reading levels data current and then adjust my instruction to continually meet my classroom needs. I can also make sure I am updating the reading materials in my classroom. Removing text that is not popular or needed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source:   WeAreTeachers Staff, 2023, July 26. Fantastic Reading Fluency Activities To Build Literacy in Young Readers. 

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: Early Childhood Literacy Development and Getting Ready to Read. ChildSuccessCenter.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: Blog by Studybox, 2019, November 26. Encouraging Critical Thinking in Children.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: Barrett, L., 2019, February 13. We Are Teachers: 21 Ways To Build Background Knowledge—and Make Reading Skills Soar.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: Staff Blog: How to Boost Language Development for your Toddler.. childrenscampusgreenville.com

# data[].attributes.headline
How does language development impact reading comprehension?

# data[].attributes.subject
How does language development impact reading comprehension?

# data[].attributes.body
As language development grows it has a direct impact on the ability to read and understand print. Improved vocabulary, syntax, grammar, comprehension strategies, fluency, background knowledge, understanding of text structure, critical thinking, and metacognitive skills all contribute to an individual's ability to comprehend and make sense of written text.

Teachers and parents can support reading comprehension by fostering language development through a variety of activities, such as reading aloud, engaging in discussions, and exposure to diverse text.

But before all he honed skills are set, before any reading is even begun, children will start to look at the pictures while someone reads, learn that pages turn over and from left to right. Recognition of these blocks of letters (words) have spaces between them and have some meaning attached to them. Children will begin to notice that some letters seem bigger than others and that the words are in a line with some other symbols included that are not letters (punctuation marks).

All of these things can be recognized and noticed even before reading instruction begins. These observation will help with the understanding of the rules print must follow.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: Bullock, C (2021, Jan. 3 ) Think Pair Share Learning Strategy. https://lamslearning.medium.com/

# data[].attributes.body
I can create literacy stations that meet the needs of my students by being inclusive and mindful of all of their learning styles.

I want to be able to provide a format that allows students to engage, participate and contribute in discussions based on their learning preferences.
Some effective discussion ideas I've observed in other classrooms are:
Whole group discussions of the topic or text.
Small group discussions.
Think-Pair-Share
Silent-Sticky note/online chat Discussions
Gallery Walks.

# data[].attributes.body
It's essential to use a combination of formal and informal assessment methods to get a comprehensive view of students' literacy levels. These assessments should be ongoing and administered at regular intervals to track progress over time and adjust instruction accordingly. Additionally, it is essential to consider cultural and linguistic factors when assessing students' literacy skills, particularly for multilingual learners. Using a variety of assessment tools and considering individual differences can help educators make informed decisions to support their students' literacy development effectively.

There are various programs that are designed to measure reading, writing and overall language abilities and proficiency.

# data[].attributes.body
Comprehension assessments measure students' understanding of what they read. These assessments may include multiple-choice questions, short answer questions, or open-ended responses.

# data[].attributes.body
Fluency checks involve timed reading of a passage to measure students' reading speed and accuracy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Document source: Somerset ES-Teaching plans

# data[].attributes.body
Types of tests

-- Standardized tests and diagnostic reading assessments
In Maryland (spring and fall) we give  MAP-R: Measures of Academic Progress for Reading.  This is a grade level assessment used to measure growth in reading content standards. One of multiple data points for adjusting instruction to a child’s need.
Also in spring and fall we use MAP-RF: Measures of Academic Progress for Reading Fluency which is also a grade level assessment used to measure oral reading fluency, comprehension, and foundational skills: One of multiple data points for adjusting instruction to a child’s need.
-- Informal Reading Inventories and Writing Assessments
Benchmark Universal offers both informal and forma assessments for reading and writing.

-- English Language Proficiency Tests
ESOL Language tests and  WIDA MODEL (Measure of Developing English Language) are given by Maryland schools.

-- Literacy Assessments
In Maryland we use the Maryland Comprehensive Assessment Program (MCAP) English Language Arts and Literacy.

# data[].attributes.body
Assessments testing listening comprehension can provide insights into students' ability to understand spoken language and follow directions.

The MCAP test students on their reading comprehension and literacy skills through responding to text-based questions and writing prompts. At the early grades, students also demonstrate their literacy skills through a variety of oral response methods, too.
-MCAP

# data[].attributes.body
These assessments evaluate students' abilities to recognize and manipulate individual sounds in the spoken language, such as rhyming, blending, segmenting, and deleting sounds. Phonological awareness is a foundational skill taught for reading and writing.

Top 5 Phonics Screeners

The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS)  (I'm trained to use this)

The Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS .

The Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT)

The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP)

The Test of Phonological Awareness (TOPA)

Source: https://speechify.com/ (2022)

Keep in mind, the forms and programs you use will most likely be determined by your school district and monitored by your school's reading specialist.

# data[].attributes.body
These surveys help identify students' interests and reading preferences, which can be used to select engaging and relevant reading materials.

It's a survey to establish a child's reading interests,

# data[].attributes.body
Running records involve one-on-one real time observations of students as they read a leveled text. The teacher records each student's reading behaviors, errors, and self-corrections.

Running records provide insights into students' reading fluency and decoding skills.

# data[].attributes.headline
How do differences in languages impact literacy development?

# data[].attributes.subject
How do differences in languages impact literacy development?

# data[].attributes.body
The differences

Success:  Children with good expressive language is said to be a determiner of their success with reading comprehension and word recognition.
Deficits
Children with poor language skills are therefore at risk for reading and psychosocial problems.

# data[].attributes.body
Learning theory of language development.

Children learn language based on behaviorist reinforcement principles by associating words with meanings.

An example of this is seen when a toddler utters a word, "bot bot, " (my own son's word for bottle) and the parent hands a bottle to the child, this will become a reinforced learning situation. he parent may even correct "bot bot" for bottle.  Or if the child does not utter anything but gestures towards a bottle, the parent may hand it over while saying, "bottle."

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group.

# data[].attributes.body
Theory of Language Acquisition

Chomsky believes that language is biologically and innately inherited.
Chomsky disagreed with Skinner's theory and proposed that we are innately wired to understand out language and that all language have a significant amount of similarities in rules and grammar that are universally followed.

Please note that while Chomsky has had a significant impact on language development research, his theories are being looked at and in some cases revised.

Chomsky N. (1986). Knowledge of language: Its nature, origin and use. New York: Praeger.

# data[].attributes.body
Understanding sentence structure and grammar enables readers to interpret the relationships between words, phrases, and clauses within a sentence. As language skills progress and improve, readers can more accurately comprehend the intended meaning of sentences, paragraphs, and entire texts.

# data[].attributes.body
Language development positively influences reading fluency, which is the ability to read smoothly and effortlessly. When language skills improve, readers can recognize words quickly and accurately, leading to increased reading speed and better overall comprehension.

# data[].attributes.headline
What is Background knowledge / Prior Knowledge?

# data[].attributes.subject
What is Background knowledge / Prior Knowledge?

# data[].attributes.body
Effective readers are the result of prior knowledge on a subject. It is important for children to be exposed to as many different types of reading materials - including from around the globe. This helps in building background knowledge.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: freegodady.com stock photo.

# data[].attributes.body
Strong language development helps young readers being able to accumulate knowledge and experiences, which, in turn, impacts reading comprehension. As individuals expand their knowledge base, they have more contextual information to draw upon when reading, making it easier to grasp the author's intended message.

# data[].attributes.body
Language development allows individuals to understand the structure and organization of different types of texts, such as narratives, expository texts, or argumentative essays. This comprehension of text structures aids readers in navigating material and being better able to extract relevant parts of the story or information.

# data[].attributes.body
As language skills develop, readers can engage in more advanced critical thinking, evaluating the content, identifying biases, and forming their interpretations of the text. This level of critical thinking enhances overall reading comprehension and promotes deeper analysis of the material.

Teachers can hone these skills by engaging in class discussions about the text read.

# data[].attributes.body
A rich and varied vocabulary is essential for understanding the meaning of words encountered in written text. As language skills develop, individuals become more adept at recognizing and comprehending complex words and expressions, making it easier to understand the overall message of a passage or text.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image source: The Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM) 1990s theory introduced by Emily Calhoun.

# data[].attributes.body
The use of visual aids, such as images, illustrations, diagrams, and photographs is a versatile and effective approach to helping cement language skills for vocabulary, comprehension, storytelling, cultural understanding, sequencing and organization for connecting imagery with print concepts.

The Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM) 1990s theory introduced by Emily Calhoun.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Document source: Dolch Sight  Word Assessment

# data[].attributes.body
Sight Word Assessments record students' ability to recognize high-frequency sight words and automatic word recognition skills. The number of words tested increases by grade level.
The words are grouped to make them easier to administer with the student.  Teachers are normally charged with this testing.

# data[].attributes.body
Imagery Language

# data[].attributes.body
Language development enables readers to develop metacognitive skills, which involve self-awareness and self-regulation during the reading process. Skilled readers can monitor their comprehension, identify areas of confusion, and adjust their reading strategies accordingly to improve understanding.

# data[].attributes.body
Teacher Reading
In the lower grades, it is important for the teacher to read stories out loud.  The heard words are fun for the students and feels like a break from work.  By having the teacher read loud models proper pronunciation, tone, inflection and cadence of reading.
The act of listening a story read aloud helps student expand their listening vocabulary by using the same words for themselves as well as helping students be better prepared to recognize the words when met at a future time.
By reading varied text out aloud will also promote which a fuller understanding of the world around them.

Buddy Reading
Students can read aloud with a partner. Partners can offer feedback and help in a comfortable setting. This help may be received more receptively compared to an adult offering the same help. Working together readers an engage in lots of decoding to solve the words.

# data[].attributes.body
Spelling or Word Knowledge inventories assess students' spelling abilities by having them write words of increasing complexity (via a spelling test), then the words are checked against the form. These assessments help identify spelling patterns and spelling development needs.

# data[].attributes.body
Analyzing students' writing samples allows teachers to assess their writing skills, including spelling, grammar, sentence structure, and organization.

# data[].attributes.body
Vocabulary self assessments assess students' knowledge and understanding of specific words through their definition/meaning and correct usage.  These types of self-assessments build self awareness within students.

# data[].attributes.body
Theory of Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky's research ascertained that it is not innate and innate abilities that contribute to language development but a child's cultural and social upbringing that contributes to language development. It is the surrounding adults that are important because they provide the activities needed to engage the child.  lack of meaningful and challenging activities would mean an inadequate development in in language skills.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.

# data[].attributes.body
culture-specific tools, private speech, and the Zone of Proximal Development