# data[].attributes.body
- Yeast was used to change the texture, flavors, or producing more ethanol.
- Horses were domesticated for work.
- Microorganisms were used to make wine
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562892/

# data[].attributes.headline
1797 Edward Jenner used living organisms to make a small pox vaccine.

# data[].attributes.subject
1797 Edward Jenner used living organisms to make a small pox vaccine.

# data[].attributes.body
-noticed that milkmaids who had gotten cowpox were protected from smallpox.
- took material from a cowpox sore on milkmaid Sarah Nelmes’ hand and inoculated it into the arm of James Phipps
- James never developed the virus
- in 1801 Jenner published his treatise “On the Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation.”
-after this vaccination became widely popular

# data[].attributes.headline
1857 Pasteur patented the fermentation process

# data[].attributes.subject
1857 Pasteur patented the fermentation process

# data[].attributes.body
-Pasteur proved that a microscopic plant caused the souring of milk
- Pasteur was able to prove that living cells were responsible for forming alcohol from sugar
- Also proved that contaminating microorganisms found in ordinary air could turn the fermentations sour.
- found that through heating wine, beer, milk, or vinegar certain living organisms could be killed, thereby sterilizing or “pasteurizing” the substance.

# data[].attributes.headline
1864 Louis Pasteur proved the existence of microorganisms such as, Fowl Chlorea. He showed that all living things are produce by other living things.

# data[].attributes.subject
1864 Louis Pasteur proved the existence of microorganisms such as, Fowl Chlorea. He showed that all living things are produce by other living things.

# data[].attributes.body
- Pasteur injected recovered chickens with freshly cultured cholera bacteria.
- When they remained healthy Pasteur believed that exposure to oxygen caused the loss of virulence.
- created the term "attenuation"

# data[].attributes.headline
1865 Gregor Mendel investigated how traits are passed from generation to generation. He called them HERITABLE ELEMENTS. We know them as genes

# data[].attributes.subject
1865 Gregor Mendel investigated how traits are passed from generation to generation. He called them HERITABLE ELEMENTS. We know them as genes

# data[].attributes.body
-Used pea plants to trace their characters and inheritance.
- used nearly 30,000 pea plants to prove that traits are transferred from parents to offspring.

# data[].attributes.headline
1869 Frederick Meischer isolated DNA, which stands for deoxyribonucleic acid   , from the nuclei of HUMAN PUS Cells

# data[].attributes.subject
1869 Frederick Meischer isolated DNA, which stands for deoxyribonucleic acid   , from the nuclei of HUMAN PUS Cells

# data[].attributes.body
- He choose to study white blood cells, which are abundant in pus.
- Also  studied white blood cells in Salmon sperm
- Miescher isolated a material rich in phosphorus from the cells and called it nuclein.

# data[].attributes.headline
1880 The steam  engine was used to drive combine harvesters

# data[].attributes.subject
1880 The steam  engine was used to drive combine harvesters

# data[].attributes.body
-George Stockton Berry decided to integrate the combine with a steam engine
- This provided power to the mechanics and saved his animals which were dying from heat exhaustion.
-Two engines were being used, one to self-propel it and drive the cutting blades, and the other to run the separator.

# data[].attributes.headline
1890 Ammonia, naturally produced only in cells, was synthesized in the lab

# data[].attributes.subject
1890 Ammonia, naturally produced only in cells, was synthesized in the lab

# data[].attributes.body
- Used high  pressure and moderate temperature
- Nitrogen and hydrogen gas came together using iron as a catalyst
- The demand and the desire to fix nitrogen to make explosives, as well as fertilizers led to thee development of ammonia.

# data[].attributes.headline
1893 Robert koch published his postulates to determine causal relationships between CAUSATIVE MICROBE and a disease.

# data[].attributes.subject
1893 Robert koch published his postulates to determine causal relationships between CAUSATIVE MICROBE and a disease.

# data[].attributes.body
-The postulates were formulated by Robert Koch and Friedrich Loeffler in 1884 and refined and published by Koch in 1890.
-Koch applied the postulates to establish the etiology of anthrax and tuberculosis.
-General guidelines to identify pathogens that could be isolated

# data[].attributes.headline
1893  German scientists from Lister Institute isolated the diphtheria antitoxin, which led to the development of a vaccine.

# data[].attributes.subject
1893  German scientists from Lister Institute isolated the diphtheria antitoxin, which led to the development of a vaccine.

# data[].attributes.body
-Emil von Behring is the scientist who isolated the diphtheria antitoxin.
-when diphtheria toxin was exposed to minute quantities of formaldehyde and heated, the toxin became non-toxic
-“The possibility of cures for even highly acute diseases can thus no longer be ignored.” lead to medical researches to try and find a cure more hastely.
-

# data[].attributes.headline
1918 Germans isolated and used acetone produced by plants to make bombs. Yeast was grown in large quantities. Microorganism activated sludge was used for the sewage treatment process.

# data[].attributes.subject
1918 Germans isolated and used acetone produced by plants to make bombs. Yeast was grown in large quantities. Microorganism activated sludge was used for the sewage treatment process.

# data[].attributes.body
- acetone was used for smokeless gun powder.
-Germans realized a massive yeast  waste from their beer which lead to them using it for food.
-The aerobic bacteria in the sludge digest the organic material around them in order to reproduce and grow, and change the chemical makeup of the sludge which reclaim waste water.

# data[].attributes.headline
1919 Hungarian Karl Ereky coined the term "Biotechnology" for the first time in print.

# data[].attributes.subject
1919 Hungarian Karl Ereky coined the term "Biotechnology" for the first time in print.

# data[].attributes.body
- States that all types of work are biotechnology that are produced from raw materials using living organisms.
- He coined the term biotechnology to describe that merging of biology and technology
-Biotechnology arose from the field of zymotechnology or zymurgy, which began as a search for a better understanding of industrial fermentation, particularly beer.

# data[].attributes.body
* Did a series of three experiments exploring x rays role as a mutagen.
* He exposed fruit flies to X-Rays then mated them and observed their offspring.
* Mullers experiments proved that the X-Rays mutated genes and that egg and sperm cells are easier to mutate.
* First began his expirement  in 1926 at the University of Texas.

# data[].attributes.body
* Alexander Fleming found a zone around a fungus in which bacteria does not grow.
*He discovered that the mold came from the Penicillum Genus and named it Penicillin.
*He could not stabilize his newly found discovery and looked for others to help.

# data[].attributes.body
* The Rockefeller Foundation took point in researching biology headed by Warren Weaver.
* Weaver had introduced his research as Molecular Biology to describe the foundations work.
* Molecular Biology made a huge contribution to the development of science since the idea of using better tools of physics and chemistry could be used on unknown questions of life sciences.

# data[].attributes.body
* The idea that each gene controls the activity of a single enzyme was proposed by geneticists George Beedle and Edward Tatum.
* Their experiments exposed molds to  X- Rays causing them to mutate.
* They located which mutations are in specific genes that produced amino acids.

# data[].attributes.body
*Linus Pauling did a study where he found out that abnormal proteins could be linked to diseases and that genes could help determine this.
* Used patients who had sickle cell anemia and used their hemoglobin to compare to ones who do not share the same disease.
*This study is looked back on to show the progress of biomedical research.

# data[].attributes.body
* During World War II,  Delbruck discovered how to connect genetics to bacteria and viruses creating bacteriophages.
* He started courses to spread the news of his discovery.
* Were important to the creation of molecular biology.

# data[].attributes.body
* Hershey and Chase did a series of experiments that identified that genes were made of DNA.
* These were known as the Hershey/Chase experiments where they used bacteriophages.
* Those were the only ones that had solid evidence that genetic material are made of DNA.

# data[].attributes.body
*James Watson and Franncis Crick discovered the Double Helix Structure.
*Using cardboard cut outs, shifting out the bases (Adenine, Thynine, Cytosine, and Guanine) could form hydrogen bonds with each other.
* Important in understanding how chemical genes control chemical processes within our bodies.

# data[].attributes.body
*  Sanger put together how amino acids are strung together in the protein insulin.
* Others had thought that the amino acids within a protein were arranged out of random
* He noticed that there was precise order to how DNA should be coded.

# data[].attributes.body
* Kornberg’s interest in enzymes led him to work on the machine that allowed cells to replicate DNA.
* He isolated the enzyme that was responsible for DNA replication now known as DNA polymerase.

# data[].attributes.headline
1962 Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie and Roger Tsien

# data[].attributes.subject
1962 Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie and Roger Tsien

# data[].attributes.body
*  Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie, and Roger Tsien were given the Nobel Prize for their discovery of the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP).
* Osamu Shimomura isolated the protein from a jellyfish.
* The jellyfish emitted blue light, but others emit freen.

# data[].attributes.body
-Plasmids help deliver DNA to bacteria.
-Plasmids can be copied and when it is the DNA is too.
-They have genes for antibiotic resistance.

https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1900-bacterial-dna-the-role-of-plasmids#:~:text=Plasmids%20have%20been%20key%20to,sites%20within%20the%20plasmid%20DNA.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Polyplus provides an integrated service for design and production of tailor-made DNA plasmid through our unique and Innovative assembly technology. Finally get a fully flexible plasmid that will really fit your needs.

# data[].attributes.headline
1966- Nirenberg and Philip Leder determined that a sequence of just three nucleotide bases code for each of the 20 amino acids.

# data[].attributes.subject
1966- Nirenberg and Philip Leder determined that a sequence of just three nucleotide bases code for each of the 20 amino acids.

# data[].attributes.body
-They tested 20 of the test tubes that only had uracil in them.
-One of the uracil chains was used as a messenger.
-They figured out a code and it is expressed in a chart form.
-The units for amino acids include three nucleotides.
https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/geneticcode.html#:~:text=In%201964%20Nirenberg%20and%20Philip,for%20all%2020%20amino%20acids.

# data[].attributes.headline
1970 - Reverse transcriptase was isolated. 

# data[].attributes.subject
1970 - Reverse transcriptase was isolated. 

# data[].attributes.body
-Transcriptase was isolated by David Baltimore.
- DNA was once isolated from retroviruses.
-Retrotansposons use a copy of DNA and it is then put into eukaryotic genomes.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/reverse-transcriptase

# data[].attributes.headline
1971 - Restriction Enzymes were discovered.

# data[].attributes.subject
1971 - Restriction Enzymes were discovered.

# data[].attributes.body
- They can also be called restriction endonucleases.
- The enzymes can cut the DNA anywhere.
- Each sequence has four to eight base pairs in which there are bonds of two on each strand of DNA.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/restriction-enzyme#:~:text=Restriction%20enzymes%2C%20also%20called%20restriction,construction%20of%20cloned%20DNA%20molecules.

# data[].attributes.headline
1972 - Paul Berg cut sections of viral DNA and bacterial DNA with the same restriction enzyme. 

# data[].attributes.subject
1972 - Paul Berg cut sections of viral DNA and bacterial DNA with the same restriction enzyme. 

# data[].attributes.body
- They are called restriction enzymes because they restrict the amount of bacteriophages that infect a bacterium.
- Restriction enzymes help fight against bacteriophages.
- These enzymes cut the DNA into lots of pieces so the phage cannot replicate.

https://www.britannica.com/science/restriction-enzyme

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1973 - Genetic engineering was applied in industry. 

# data[].attributes.subject
1973 - Genetic engineering was applied in industry. 

# data[].attributes.body
-Type 2 enzymes were used to cut DNA.
-The DNA then combines together into vitro.
-The foreign genes are then put into a laboratory.
https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/genetic-engineering/274518

# data[].attributes.headline
1975 - George Kholer and Cesar Milstein produce the first monoclonal antibodies. 

# data[].attributes.subject
1975 - George Kholer and Cesar Milstein produce the first monoclonal antibodies. 

# data[].attributes.body
-There was a three page report that was describing this method and how it works.
-There was an issue that was keeping the field away from the single antibodies.
-This method helped find therapies for these diseases.
https://www.nature.com/articles/ni.3608

# data[].attributes.headline
1976 - The National Institutes of Health guidelines were developed for the study of rDNA. 

# data[].attributes.subject
1976 - The National Institutes of Health guidelines were developed for the study of rDNA. 

# data[].attributes.body
-rDNA is very important in biomedical research.
-They had different levels in which they contained the rDNA physically or biologically.
-This research can be dangerous but they have safety protocols.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1424456/

# data[].attributes.headline
1977 - Bacterial cells produce human growth hormone. This was the first practical application of genetic engineering.  

# data[].attributes.subject
1977 - Bacterial cells produce human growth hormone. This was the first practical application of genetic engineering.  

# data[].attributes.body
-The first hormone that was made using genetic engineering was insulin.
- This insulin was made to help people with diabetes.
https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/science-and-history-gmos-and-other-food-modification-processes#:~:text=1973%3A%20Biochemists%20Herbert%20Boyer%20and,human%20insulin%20to%20treat%20diabetes.

# data[].attributes.headline
1978 - Genentech INC. was the first biotech company on the New York stock exchange. 

# data[].attributes.subject
1978 - Genentech INC. was the first biotech company on the New York stock exchange. 

# data[].attributes.body
- It was the first company to go public
-Genentech fakes the organisms from gene cells.
-This process could eventually lead to finding the cure for cancer.

https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/economics-business-and-labor/businesses-and-occupations/genentech-inc

# data[].attributes.headline
1978- Stanford University scientists performed the first successful transplantation of a mammalian gene. 

# data[].attributes.subject
1978- Stanford University scientists performed the first successful transplantation of a mammalian gene. 

# data[].attributes.body
-Investigators from Stanford combined human cells and brain cells into the brain tissue of rats.
-They are able to also study the development of brains.
https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2022/10/human-rat-brain-neuron.html

# data[].attributes.headline
1978 - The discoverers of restriction enzymes received the Nobel Prize in medicine.

# data[].attributes.subject
1978 - The discoverers of restriction enzymes received the Nobel Prize in medicine.

# data[].attributes.body
-Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans and Hamilton O. Smith all won the award together.
-The prediction about the restriction enzymes was made by Arber.
-Smith was responsible for finding the first type ll restriction enzyme.
-Nathans showed others how to use the enzymes and look at DNA.
https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/pd/feature/enzymes

# data[].attributes.headline
1979 Genentech, Inc. produced human growth hormone and two kinds of interferon.

# data[].attributes.subject
1979 Genentech, Inc. produced human growth hormone and two kinds of interferon.

# data[].attributes.body
-The growth hormone 1 gene provides directions as to how to make the protein for the hormone.
- Growth hormone is produced in the growth
- Restoring somatotropic cells of the  gland, which is located at the base of the brain
-Growth hormone is important for the growth of the human body.
https://www.nytimes.com/1981/01/06/science/human-growth-hormone-made-by-bacteria-tests-in-patients-next-step-in.html

# data[].attributes.body
- PCR is where a small amount of DNA can be copied in large amounts over a short span of time.
- The DNA's two strands are separated and the DNA nucleotide are bonded with each other. With assistance from the enzyme DNA polymerase, new DNA is made and then more can be produced.
- PCR has been a major building block in  medical research and forensic science.

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1993/mullis/facts/

# data[].attributes.headline
1982 Genentech, Inc licensed Eli Lilly to make insulin

# data[].attributes.subject
1982 Genentech, Inc licensed Eli Lilly to make insulin

# data[].attributes.body
- Eli Lilly ran a company that produced insulin
- A deal was made with Genentech so that Lilly could use the bacteria for insulin
- helpful funds were then given to Genentech as the trade
https://www.gene.com/stories/pioneering-partnerships#:~:text=Genentech%20pioneered%20rDNA%20technology%2C%20which,if%20we%20did%20it%20alone.

# data[].attributes.headline
1985 The U.S supreme Court decided that plants could be patented

# data[].attributes.subject
1985 The U.S supreme Court decided that plants could be patented

# data[].attributes.body
- This decision was known as the Ex Parte Hibberd which declared that new varieties of plants could now be patented.
-plant patents promote the development of new and novel plants and other mixed plants.
-The cost to patent a single variety is thousands of dollars.
- When people make a patent on a plant, they get paid anytime someone uses that plant.
https://www.upcounsel.com/plant-patent#:~:text=The%201985%20legal%20decision%20known,also%20be%20applied%20to%20plants

# data[].attributes.headline
1986 The first field trials were conducted of recombinant DNA plants that were resistant to insects, viruses, and bacteria.

# data[].attributes.subject
1986 The first field trials were conducted of recombinant DNA plants that were resistant to insects, viruses, and bacteria.

# data[].attributes.body
- The first trials were conducted to see if the protein would keep the plants safe from the environment
- The plants were modified by a protein gene
- The protein gene used to modify the plants made it toxic to anything that ingested it

# data[].attributes.headline
1990 Chymosin became the first genetically engineered substance in food (cheese) 

# data[].attributes.subject
1990 Chymosin became the first genetically engineered substance in food (cheese) 

# data[].attributes.body
- Chymosin comes from DNA from calves
- Chymosin is put through PCR to produce more protein
- Chymosin is mostly used to make milk into cheese
https://www.chemistryworld.com/podcasts/chymosin/3007682.article

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1994 FLAVR SAVR (Calgene, Inc) tomatoes were sold to the public

# data[].attributes.subject
1994 FLAVR SAVR (Calgene, Inc) tomatoes were sold to the public

# data[].attributes.body
- These tomatoes were produced to not get squishy so early on.
- The company decreased the production of the enzyme that made them rot so that they would stay better longer.
- The gene used to modify the tomato was the antisense gene. That gene causes tomatoes to soften
https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/genetically-modified-foods-other-novel-foods/approved-products/suppressed-polygalacturonase-activity-flavr-savr-tomato.html

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1996 ''Dolly" the sheep became the first cloned animal 

# data[].attributes.subject
1996 ''Dolly" the sheep became the first cloned animal 

# data[].attributes.body
- Dolly was created through somatic cells
- Dolly was born July 5, 1996
Scientists transferred DNA from Dolly's mom and let the number of DNA increase enough to move it to an egg to further develop.
https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/natural-sciences/dolly-the-sheep/#:~:text=As%20the%20first%20cloned%20mammal,world%20and%20to%20the%20public.&text=Dolly%20is%20currently%20on%20display,the%20Science%20and%20Technology%20galleries.

# data[].attributes.headline
2004 The first genetically engineered pet 

# data[].attributes.subject
2004 The first genetically engineered pet 

# data[].attributes.body
- The first genetically modified animal was a Glofish
- The fish was a zebra fish with a fluorescent gene added that would make the fish glow in the dark
- Genetically modified mice are the most commonly used in various research
- The animals are being modified to try and find a cure or a treatment for many diseases
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_animal#:~:text=The%20first%20genetically%20modified%20animal,the%20dark%20under

# data[].attributes.headline
2005 The first successful cloning of a dog occurred in..

# data[].attributes.subject
2005 The first successful cloning of a dog occurred in..

# data[].attributes.body
- Adult cells of an Afghan hound were used to create Snuppy
- Birth defects can occur in some cloned puppies
-  The creation of 4 clones using adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells from Snuppy as donor cells.
- 3.7 million dollars was used to start the cloning of the first dog
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5681657/#:~:text=We%20overcame%20these%20features%20that,inventions%20of%20the%20year9.

# data[].attributes.headline
2008 first 3-D bioprinting to create a bio tube similar to a human

# data[].attributes.subject
2008 first 3-D bioprinting to create a bio tube similar to a human

# data[].attributes.body
- Bioprinting methods are used to figure out the problems when making new products.
-products are built using different steps through a series of cross-sectional slices.
- Bioprinting is very similar to things in medical science
- Bioprinting is used for things like organ transplantation and accurate tissue models.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1818087619311869

# data[].attributes.headline
2012 Jennifer Doudna demonstrates the potential of CRISPR technology

# data[].attributes.subject
2012 Jennifer Doudna demonstrates the potential of CRISPR technology

# data[].attributes.body
-CRISPR is a gene-editing tool
- The plan is to someday re-construct flawed genes in people, which could result in treatments or cures for diseases
- This tool helped organisms recognize and shut off the genetic material of viruses that have infected the cell already
https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/jennifer-doudna-and-emmanuelle-charpentiers-experiment-about-crisprcas-9-systems-role-adaptive.

# data[].attributes.body
* Scientists reported the successful use of CRISPR/Cas 9 in mice to cure diseases.
* Such work is used to help solve the shortage of human organs.

# data[].attributes.body
- Covid-19 is a pandemic that started in 2019 and spread throughout the world.
- 6 feet of distance including a mask was required when outside of your home. In addition to places restaurants, schools, and stores.
-Once you were diagnosed with COVID you were required to quartine for about 2 weeks.
- Eventually, there was a vaccine created that helped reduce the numbers of COVID.

# data[].attributes.body
* Due to the rapid increase in Covid cases, there was a need for a solution such as a vaccine.
* The FDA approved an emergency use authorization Pfizer vaccine for 16 and older.
* It was tested on a random monitored group of individuals and based their data on that.

# data[].attributes.body
- The monkey pox outbreak started May of 2022.
- monkey pox was spread most between people who were sexually active because of the close proximity.
- Monkey pox was more common in large cities.
- Shortly after the first death of monkey pox in September the vaccine was released.