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https://www.ifst.org/lovefoodlovescience/resources/raising-agents-chemical

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Institute of Food Science and Technology

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Raising agents: chemical

What are chemical raising agents?
A common chemical raising agent used in food is baking powder, which contains two active ingredients, bicarbonate of soda (sodium bicarbonate - something called an alkali) and cream of tartar (potassium hydrogen tartrate - something called an acid).

Other chemical raising agents include self-raising flour and bicarbonate of soda. Self-raising flour has baking powder added to it already. Bicarbonate of soda can be used if the other ingredients contain an acid, such as buttermilk, lemon juice or vinegar. Be careful not to use too much bicarbonate of soda, as foods can end up tasting soapy.
How do they work?
When the molecules of bicarbonate of soda and cream of tartar come into contact in water, the alkali and acid begin to react together producing new molecules. One of which is the gas carbon dioxide.

Gases tend to take up much more space than liquid or solid things such as water or ice, so when the gas is formed by the reaction of the baking powder in the water, little gas bubbles create pockets in the baking mixture, making foods like cakes and muffins light and fluffy.

Heating up a mixture containing baking powder speeds up the chemical reaction, making the carbon dioxide gas form more quickly.

It is best to add baking powder to ingredients last, as it starts to react as soon as it comes into contact with water.
Explore:

Completely submerge a flask in a sink or bowl of water, and turn upside down

Get a test tube ready, which is connected to a flexible hose using an airtight bung

Add the ingredients as set out below, insert the bung, and place the hose beneath the flask to collect the gas as it is produced over 2 mins.

Repeat for each set of ingredients, 1-4 (below)

You should see different volumes of gas collected in the flask.

1. Bicarbonate of soda (1g) and water (5ml) (tap temperature)

2. Baking powder (1g) and water (5ml) (tap temperature)

3. Baking powder (1g) and water (5ml) (heated to 50C temperature)

4. Bicarbonate of soda (1g), vinegar (2.5ml) and water (2.5ml) (tap temperature)

More information

AQA video: Investigating how raising agents work

OCR topic exploration pack: teacher instructions: Raising agents

BNF factsheet: Aerate

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Why do some recipes use chemical raising agents and how do they work?

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https://www.reagent.co.uk/blog/what-are-chemical-raising-agents/

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While most of us are familiar with baking powder, there are many other chemical raising agents used to make bread, cake, and pastries. Also known as leavens, these different forms of raising agents release carbon dioxide during the baking process, causing bubbles and foaming to occur. This is what gives baked goods their light, fluffy texture. Although a simple enough concept, there's a lot more happening beneath the surface than you might think, and it all comes down to the chemical reactions taking place.

Chemical Raising Agents Explained

There are several different raising agents used in baking , but in all cases there is one main principle: to create thousands of small air bubbles in the dough or pastry. This can either be done mechanically, biologically, chemically, and even with the use of steam or lamination. Here's how each method works:

Mechanical: This involves beating egg whites quickly until bubbles are created, which are essentially pockets of carbon dioxide. The egg whites can then be mixed with the dough.

Biological: Yeast is commonly used to produce carbon dioxide in bread dough because it ferments sugars. This happens by the yeast feeding on the dough and releasing carbon dioxide.

Chemical: Chemical raising agents are the quickest and most popular way to aerate a baking mixture. 'Leaveners' produce carbon dioxide by reacting with water and acidic ingredients.

Self-raising flour: This is a variant of using chemical raising agents. because this flour already contains baking powder. This means there's no need to add any more raising agents to the mix.

Steam: Steam is also used to create air pockets inside dough or batter. This is the most common method used when cooking puddings, cantonese dumplings, and cha siu bao (steamed buns with meat fillings).

Lamination: This is the method used to make croissants. In a nutshell, alternating sheets of dough and butter are rolled out. When folded, the butter becomes fully sealed within the pastry. This causes all the moisture to evaporate during baking, providing a lift to the pastry.

While all of these are viable options, using raising agents is the most straightforward method. In the case of baking powder or baking soda, for example, carbon dioxide is released from the bicarbonate with the help of acidic catalysts, like yoghurt and buttermilk. The heat from the oven also helps the carbon dioxide bubbles to expand further, thereby raising the dough.

The other ingredients used in dough, pastry or batter mixtures, such as eggs, milk, and sugar, don't usually chemically react with baking powder or other leavens. Instead, it's the water that facilitates the chemical reaction because it causes the baking powder to form ions. Interestingly, the effect of combining baking soda with water can also be used to ease indigestion or heartburn because of its behaviour as an antacid. Commercially available baking powder is a mixture of sodium bicarbonate and potassium bitartrate (cream of tartar to you and me), as well as an alkaline and an acidic ingredient.

How Do Chemical Raising Agents Work?

Chemical raising agents are usually alkalis, and they work by reacting with acidic ingredients, like milk, to produce carbon dioxide. When dry, the alkaline and acidic substances may already be combined in the mixture, but they'll be unable to react because they won't be in ionic form. Only once water or moisture is added can the acid-base reaction occur.

This reaction is slow at first, but it accelerates when the dough is baked inside the oven. During this process, the introduction of heat does more than speed up the chemical reaction - it also causes the pockets of gas to expand, forming larger bubbles. This means that while the dough grows in size, it becomes significantly less dense. Basically, the bigger the air bubbles, the lighter and fluffier the product. A cake, for example, has a lot of bubbles in it, which is what makes it less rigid than, say, bread.

What Chemical Raising Agents Are There?

There are three main types of chemical raising agents used in baking. To achieve the right texture and structure for whatever it is you're baking, it's important to use the right kind of leaven. Here's more about each one:

Baking soda: Also known as bicarbonate of soda or sodium bicarbonate, this is probably the most popular and readily available chemical raising agent. It's commonly used in soda bread and gingerbread. With the chemical formula NaHCO , this alkali is also used in many other applications besides baking.

Baking powder: This is often confused with baking soda, and many believe they're the same product, but there are distinct differences between these two leaveners . While baking soda is a base that reacts with acidic ingredients, baking powder is a of baking soda and a dry acid, usually cream of tartar. This means that baking powder doesn't need an additional acidic ingredient in order to react and produce CO . Because of this, baking powder is also the key ingredient in self-raising flour.

Cream of tartar: This is an acidic substance that is chemically known as potassium hydrogen tartrate, or potassium bitartrate (KC H O ). As we just explained, this is combined with bicarbonate of soda to produce baking powder. In this dry powder form, cream of tartar and baking soda are stable - but they react once they're dissolved in water, or when they're mixed with a moist dough. Cream of tartar is also often added to whipped egg whites or whipped cream in order to stabilise them while increasing their volume.

How Should Chemical Raising Agents Be Stored And Used?

Chemical raising agents are stable as long as they're kept in a dry environment. Since these agents react with water, any amount of moisture is dangerous. Baking soda, for example, has an exothermic reaction with water that produces carbonic acid, so keeping it in a dry cupboard away from moisture is the best way to lengthen its shelf-life.

Temperature is also an important factor. Even when sealed, chemical raising agents should be stored at moderate room temperature. If exposed to heat, like direct sunlight, they can potentially be ruined. Additionally, caking of the powder may occur if a chemical raising agent is stored for a very long time, and the powder becomes very compacted.

So, when using a leavening agent:

Make sure that it has been stored in a cool, dry place - but if it's been in your cupboard for a few years (yes, we've all been there), it might be time to purchase a new one

Only use the amount specified by the recipe; excess amounts can potentially ruin the taste of the bread, cake or pastry you are baking

Make sure that the acid-base reaction has completed as much as possible so that the optimal amount of carbon dioxide gets released

Thoroughly mix the chemical raising agent with the dough or batter so that it's evenly distributed. This also happens when you knead or roll it out

While we're on the subject, when a dough is kneaded it becomes more elastic. This happens because two proteins inside the mixture ( gliadin and glutenin ) combine to form gluten. So kneading and rolling are not only necessary to distribute the chemical raising agent, but also to create structure and strength of the dough.

This means that when dough is baked, its internal structure won't readily collapse, despite the thousands of bubbles produced by raising reagents. Instead, the gluten strengthens the dough with its protein chains, which, coincidentally, are also what make bread and other baked products classed as high-energy food .

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While most of us are familiar with baking powder, there are many other chemical raising agents used to make bread, cake, and pastries. Also known as leavens, these different forms of raising agents release carbon dioxide during the baking process, causing bubbles and foaming to occur.

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https://www.google.com.sg/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwi8nrbWxbn9AhVw-TgGHdCIAPMQFnoECC0QAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ifst.org%2Flovefoodlovescience%2Fresources%2Fraising-agents-chemical&usg=AOvVaw1Z60xu8nRiTQN9R3V69vUL

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What is a raising agent and what do raising agents do

https://www.ifst.org/lovefoodlovescience/resources/raising-agents-chemical

What are the types of raising agents

https://www.ifst.org/lovefoodlovescience/resources/raising-agents-physical

What is nutritious

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/nutritious

what are ingredients that are considered nutrius

https://www.ucsfhealth.org/education/top-ten-foods-for-health

How to make dishes appealingly

https://www.uen.org/lessonplan/view/17716

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/11aKh3Ba9mm00OveOlwQ3Ex6ZIEBtDNw4J9-lpvqRJHQ/edit

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/11ga0LSM6E6U2-sdXeEeZrjCStYloFx8U03WM-caHI-w/edit

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/15TEcGv-OA3SCCBd85IPhOUbeCCDUzkKczeklr03PbEE/edit

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/10jBrJuF_yVY6lktVQmMor93VhLhjYdgMVXmYpQNKwYo/edit

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/109b6R-Oe6Lf_ew1KyQ6xNgZWree12RcTX_OGCf8OeDQ/edit

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/11LRwi_Rug76AgpQdeLCS8gA3ni6fQijexJ4t3v5D104/edit

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1-K5-mzUGR__cFM6x9THYRAC8uLbd_bEEMIKdGJn7xIk/edit

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1-332FKU4JVlAVzjaeyXb21TXDUqPCyD49xp5hCuyy3U/edit

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/11FS9R52hvRKc2UQLh6EfZf9tmktEDh8-8KiaPeuj8Qs/edit

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1-iSJAcia96yJYrXkzGXp8ps7yBnC1ryWcImvCfMve9g/edit

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1-dytVCKTtKjiVaOCvq5Kml-T0Lpv4Yv5VR4qcdn89Uw/edit

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/18Gcxm_Zgzq5K7f2wv9gmqv9VoYf2DLGvW_NjCX9nGmQ/edit

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https://www.ucsfhealth.org/education/top-ten-foods-for-health
https://www.cancer.org/healthy/eat-healthy-get-active/eat-healthy/shopping-list-basic-ingredients-for-a-healthy-kitchen.html
https://www.healthhub.sg/live-healthy/1332/plan-your-meals-with-my-healthy-plate
https://www.healthhub.sg/programmes/191/nutrition-hub/eat-more

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1. Water

Drink 8 to 12 cups of water daily.

2. Dark Green Vegetables

Eat dark green vegetables at least three to four times a week. Good options include broccoli, peppers, brussel sprouts and leafy greens like kale and spinach.

3. Whole Grains

Eat whole grains sat least two or three times daily. Look for whole wheat flour, rye, oatmeal, barley, amaranth, quinoa or a multigrain. A good source of fiber has 3 to 4 grams of fiber per serving. A great source has 5 or more grams of fiber per serving.

4. Beans and Lentils

Try to eat a bean-based meal at least once a week. Try to add legumes, including beans and lentils, to soups, stews, casseroles, salads and dips or eat them plain.

5. Fish

Try to eat two to three serving of fish a week. A serving consists of 3 to 4 ounces of cooked fish. Good choices are salmon, trout, herring, bluefish, sardines and tuna.

6. Berries

Include two to four servings of fruit in your diet each day. Try to eat berries such as raspberries, blueberries, blackberries and strawberries.

7. Winter Squash

Eat butternut and acorn squash as well as other richly pigmented dark orange and green colored vegetables like sweet potato, cantaloupe and mango.

8. Soy

25 grams of soy protein a day is recommended as part of a low-fat diet to help lower cholesterol levels. Try tofu, soy milk, edamame soybeans, tempeh and texturized vegetable protein (TVP).

9. Flaxseed, Nuts and Seeds

Add 1 to 2 tablespoons of ground flaxseed or other seeds to food each day or include a moderate amount of nuts - 1/4 cup - in your daily diet.

10. Organic Yogurt

Men and women between 19 and 50 years of age need 1000 milligrams of calcium a day and 1200 milligrams if 50 or older. Eat calcium-rich foods such as nonfat or low-fat dairy products three to four times a day. Include organic choices.

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See the top 10 foods recommended for a healthy diet, from fish to whole grains, and how often you need to eat them.

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https://www.craftybaking.com/howto/mixing-method-creaming

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The first step in recipes mixed with the Creaming Method, are typicallySHORTENED (BUTTER) CAKES and some COOKIES. You will recognize it when the recipe indicates: "Cream butter and sugar together until light and fluffy"; or "Beat butter and sugar together until light in color"; or any combination of those descriptions.

Creaming is one of the most importantmixing methods used in the entire recipe. It incorporates the maximum amount of air bubbles created by dry crystalline sugar, typically granulated white table or super-fine, or brown sugar, beaten with plastic solid fat (stick butter or margarine, shortening or lard), so a recipe will rise in the oven and be light in texture when baked. The cake rises from these air bubbles expanding from the heat of the oven, steam generated from the liquid ingredients and from carbon dioxide generated from the chemical leaveners or baking powder and/or baking soda.

Most recipes call for beating the butter WITH the sugar as the initial mixing step. However, creaming should be done by first softening the solid fat, accomplished by using an electric stand mixer fitted with a paddle attachment, or hand-held mixer fitted with its beaters, or by hand with a large wooden spoon. If shortening AND butter are to be creamed with sugar, initially, do not beat the two fats together; first beat the shortening, then add the butter and beat the two together. Then, the sugar should be added slowly while beating to create air bubbles held in by the fat. The mixture is beaten until it is lightened in color and often described as fluffy from its tiny air bubbles.

LIGHT AND FLUFFY - WHAT DOES THAT MEAN?
This is kind of a misnomer; the beaten solid fat and sugar mixture actually has many visual attributes. Here's what to look for:

1. Volume of the butter and sugar has increased;
2. Color of the butter has become lighter (described as pale ivory) from its incorporation of air bubbles;
3. Texture becomes aerated and is creamy while the butter still retains its plastic-like shape;
4. The mixture has numerous ridges in it from the beater blades and is sticky when scraped from the beater blades and bottom and sides of the bowl or when the blades are lifted:
5. The mixture coats the bottom and slightly up the sides of the bowl, an 1/8 to a 1/4-inch thick; and,
6. When touched, it will have the consistency of thick, somewhat gritty (from the sugar) facial cream (sorry--couldn't think of anything else).
7. The mixture should be somewhat cool.

Creaming butter and sugar until light and fluffy can sometimes be a misnomer, especially if you have little sugar and butter (fat), as in the case ofCOOKIE RECIPES, or less butter when baking reduced-fat HEALTHY BAKING RECIPES, which I call the "Healthy Oven Reduced-Fat Creaming Mixing Method." In those cases you will never reach the light and fluffy stage, rather the final mixture will feel more like creamy sand.

One of the most common mistakes is to either over or under-cream the fat and sugar together, cream with the mixer on too fast or to use fat that is too warm. When the mixture is over-creamed, creamed too fast or the fat is too warm, the fat starts to break down and release the previously creamed-in air bubbles. With butter, the milk solids separate, causing it to lose air and/or not be able to form air bubbles when the sugar crystals cut into it. This results in a whole host of problems, such as dense, flat and flavorless recipes (even cookies).
SARAH SAYS: I have watched bakers creaming butter and sugar until it is really fluffy. What happens is the butter and sugar starts to melt and become greasy around the edges of its fluffy mass, meaning it is too warm and/or you haven't scraped down the mixer blades and bowl adequately.

BUTTER TEMPERATURE
Most cookbooks suggest using "room temperature" butter. That typically means that the butter sits out of the refrigerator for about 20 to 45 minutes, and some think it means an indoor temperature of from 68 to 77 degrees F (20 to 25°C). Many times, the butter becomes too soft, greasy or melts. (Butter, in fact, melts at 68 degrees F). If done right, butter should be 65 degrees F and give slightly when pressed with a fingertip, cold to the touch but warm enough to spread. If not done in advance, there are lots of tips on how to microwave butter just right to soften rather than melt it, and many times this will cause the outside of the butter to become too warm. If this happens, the butter should no longer be used for creaming. It's because butter is of water in fat, with some dairy solids that help hold them together. Once butter is melted, it's gone - it cannot be used for creaming. Warm butter can be rechilled and refrozen, but once the butterfat gets warm, the emulsion breaks, never to return.

Through my research and testing, I have found that room temperature butter is too warm when creaming with sugar while using a n electric stand mixer. In fact, if you start with room temperature ingredients and use an electric mixer, the finished batter will be too warm. The optimal ending temperature for butter cake batter should be around 68 - 72 degrees F.
SARAH SAYS: Thus, I recommend using butter (and, other perishable) ingredients cold, right from the refrigerator, because today we use electric mixers. The friction caused by the electric beaters quickly warms the creamed butter and sugar for you, in about a minute or so. (Note: the exact mixing time is dependent on the amount of butter and sugar being creamed.) It helps keep the creamed butter from softening too much during the rest of the cake mixing process, releasing air bubbles and producing off results.

I believe that originally, room temperature ingredients were necessary to aid in the mixing process when butter cakes when mixed BY HAND with a wooden spoon; the butter was softer(at room temperature) and would cream more readily with the sugar. As I write in my Baking 9-1-1 Book (Simon and Schuster, 2003):
" SARAH SAYS: Today, we use electric stand mixers most of the time and they warm the ingredients. This may sound blasphemous, but I think the whole room temperature thing is old-fashioned. I usually use ingredients cold from the refrigerator except for temperature sensitive ingredients such as chocolate. In the case of creaming butter and sugar, cold butter will take longer to get to the right consistency before you can add the sugar, but it will get there." - I counted 60 seconds!"

HOW TO CREAM WITH A STAND MIXER
It is important to start on low to medium-low speed until all ingredients have been incorporated, then switch to medium to medium-high speed, making sure to scrape the bowl down periodically to make sure all ingredients have been mixed thoroughly.
To do:
1. Add the butter stick(s) to the mixing bowl of a stand mixer, fitted with a paddle attachment. When the butter is still cold, but takes the imprint of a finger when gently pressed, it is ready to be creamed.

If the butter is solid from the cold or your stand mixer is not powerful enough, you can cut it into tablespoon sized pieces before using. Refrigerate the pieces briefly if too warm or soft. Never use a microwave: it will melt it, even though it will look solid.
SARAH SAYS: The temperature of the butter will be around 42 to 44 degrees F. I measured it by sticking the end of an Instant Read Thermometer in the middle of the stick butter, and holding it there for a few minutes.

2. Beat the butter on low (or medium-low)until softened. It will take about 60 seconds or less, depending on the amount.
SARAH SAYS: When using a stand mixer, never go above medium speed, or the butter will heat up.

Stop and scrape the beaters and the sides and bottom of the bowl.
SARAH'S TIP: If you run the mixer at high speed for a few seconds, the butter will magically clear from the mixer blades. Then, scrape the bowl.
SARAH SAYS: Afterwards, the temperature of the butter mass will be around 60 degrees F. I measured it by gathering it together with a rubber spatula, then sticking the end of an Instant Read Thermometer in the butter mass, and holding it there for a few minutes.

3. Add the sugar in a steady stream at the side of the bowl with the mixer on low.

4. Increase the mixer speed to medium and beat for 1 or 2 minutes until lighter in yellow and somewhat aerated.

Stop the beater blades, and with a large rubber spatula, scrape the blades and the mixer bowl's sides and bottom.
SARAH SAYS: Afterwards, the temperature of the butter/sugar will be around 63 to 65 degrees F. I measured it by gathering it together with a rubber spatula, then sticking the end of an Instant Read Thermometer in the middle of the mass, and holding it there for a few minutes.

5. Next, if it is a shortened cake, the (cold) eggs are added gradually in stages, with the mixer on low. The yolks help emulsify and hold moisture within the formed air cells and create a water-in-fat emulsion.
NOTE: If the eggs are cold, the batter will curdle slightly. It's ok. The temperature of the mixed ingredients stayed around 63 degrees F.

6. Then, starting with the flour and dry ingredients, add it with the liquid (cold milk) alternately in stages. The mixture will curdle slightly from the cold milk, but will be corrected with the addition of flour.

7. After completing the last addition of flour, stop the mixer, and scrape the side and bottom of the bowl with a large rubber spatula. Then, let the mixer run for 30 seconds on LOW. The batter should look mixed. Do NOT overmix. Remove the mixing bowl from the mixer. With a large rubber spatula, give the batter ONE or TWO quick folds to incorporate any stray flour or milk left at the sides and bottom of the bowl. Then, STOP!

SARAH SAYS: Afterwards, the temperature of the batter was around 68 to 72 degrees F, which is optimal for a butter cake. I measured it by sticking the end of an Instant Read Thermometer in the middle of the batter mass, and holding it there for a few minutes.

HOW TO CREAM BY HAND WITH A SPOON
Some cream the butter and sugar by hand (I know my grandmother did) in a bowl with a large wooden spoon, but for beginners, I recommend using an electric mixer. She left the butter to sit at room temperature for an hour to soften, beat the butter first to soften and then added sugar. My grandmother then beat it to light, fluffy mass and only she could get it perfectly. For cold, hard butter, use the following system: cut the butter into 1/2-inch pieces and place it with the sugar in a mixing bowl set over barely simmering water. Beat with a wooden spoon for several seconds until the butter softens. Then set the bowl in a basin of cold water and beat for a minute or two until the mixture is light, fluffy, and a pale ivory color.

HOW CREAMING WORKS
When butter and sugar are creamed together, the rough sugar crystals cut into the fat, creating air bubbles that are held in by it. These small air bubbles serve as a nuclei for leavening gases, steam and heat. If the fat and crystalline sugar is adequately creamed, the entrapped air is more evenly dispersed amount the fat leading to a better and more even rising.

Creaming is forming a foam by incorporating air bubbles in a fat by stirring. Creaming fat is somewhat similar to beating eggs or egg whites, in that the enclosed air later aids in leavening. Air is enclosed in the fat more rapidly after some sugar is added, hence creaming is usually done by adding the sugar to the fat, either gradually during the creaming process, or all at one time. The sugar absorbs a portion of the fat on its surface and is suspended in the fat. In addition the sugar crystals aid in supporting the fat in the walls around the air bubbles in much the same manner as the fat globules in whipped cream. For a fat to cream or form a foam it must have some body, for if it is too warm so that it is partially or entirely melted it does not cream. On the other hand, a fat that is hard and brittle and not plastic does not cream well.

It's important to remember that leaveners simply enlarge the air bubbles that already exist in the batter; they do not create more. A cake or cookie will rise when chemical leaveners, such as baking soda and/or baking powder, are moistened and heated, steam is generated from the liquid ingredients and heat from the oven. Chemical leaveners will release carbon dioxide which gravitate to the air bubbles and expand them like tiny balloons. If not done properly, the result will be a cake that has risen more on one side, one that has not risen to its fullest potential or one that will first puff in the oven and then fall, causing it to be flat.

Different types of fat are better for holding air bubbles than others: shortening or lard, create and hold air bubbles the best but, stick butter is good, too. (Butter has the best flavor, however.) Margarine does not hold air as effectively, while vegetable oil doesn't at all.

Sugar crystal size affects creaming; the smaller the air nuclei formed during mixing, the more fine and close the texture. Thus, superfine sugar is often used in delicate cake recipes where a fine texture is desired. The sugar crystals are super small and create tinier air bubbles than when using regular crystalline sugar.

QUESTION: What if the recipe calls for creaming vegetable oil with butter. Does it work the same way?
SARAH SAYS: If there is little butter called for in the recipe, with additional vegetable oil, cream the butter and sugar together, first. It may not get light and fluffy, but will be rather sandy in texture. Then, add in the vegetable oil with the liquid ingredients; liquid fat cannot be creamed with solid fat as vegetable oil cannot create and hold air bubbles.

QUESTION: What if a recipe calls for beating shortening and butter with sugar. Do I simply add the two together?
SARAH SAYS: Do not add the shortening and butter together. First, beat the shortening until softened. Then, add in the butter and beat until softened. The addition of crystalline sugar follows. The reason is the two fats do not soften at the same rate. Room temperature shortening will have a tendency to soften faster than butter, and can rarely be overbeaten. By adding the butter last, you can avoid overbeating it.

QUESTION: I left my butter too long at room temperature and it is now really soft and greasy. Can I use it in the recipe?
SARAH SAYS: I do not advise doing so. Use a fresh stick of butter from the refrigerator; it can be beaten cold.

QUESTION: What if my creamed butter and sugar are not used right away in the recipe. Should I just leave it out at room temperature?
SARAH SAYS: Cover and place it in the refrigerator. Then, beat on medium-low for a minute or two to soften before using in the recipe. Do not let the butter get too warm.

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How to Cream Butter and Sugar | Crafty Baking | Formerly Baking911 | CraftyBaking | Formerly Baking911

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The first step in recipes mixed with the Creaming Method, are typicallySHORTENED (BUTTER) CAKES and some COOKIES . You will recognize it when the recipe indicates: "Cream butter and sugar together until light and fluffy"; or "Beat butter and sugar together until light in color"; or any combination of those descriptions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
While most of us are familiar with baking powder, there are many other chemical raising agents used to make bread, cake, and pastries. Also known as leavens, these different forms of raising agents release carbon dioxide during the baking process, causing bubbles and foaming to occur. This is what gives baked goods their light, fluffy texture. Although a simple enough concept, there's a lot more happening beneath the surface than you might think, and it all comes down to the chemical reactions taking place.

Chemical Raising Agents Explained

There are several different raising agents used in baking , but in all cases there is one main principle: to create thousands of small air bubbles in the dough or pastry. This can either be done mechanically, biologically, chemically, and even with the use of steam or lamination. Here's how each method works:

Mechanical: This involves beating egg whites quickly until bubbles are created, which are essentially pockets of carbon dioxide. The egg whites can then be mixed with the dough.

Biological: Yeast is commonly used to produce carbon dioxide in bread dough because it ferments sugars. This happens by the yeast feeding on the dough and releasing carbon dioxide.

Chemical: Chemical raising agents are the quickest and most popular way to aerate a baking mixture. 'Leaveners' produce carbon dioxide by reacting with water and acidic ingredients.

Self-raising flour: This is a variant of using chemical raising agents. because this flour already contains baking powder. This means there's no need to add any more raising agents to the mix.

Steam: Steam is also used to create air pockets inside dough or batter. This is the most common method used when cooking puddings, cantonese dumplings, and cha siu bao (steamed buns with meat fillings).

Lamination: This is the method used to make croissants. In a nutshell, alternating sheets of dough and butter are rolled out. When folded, the butter becomes fully sealed within the pastry. This causes all the moisture to evaporate during baking, providing a lift to the pastry.

While all of these are viable options, using raising agents is the most straightforward method. In the case of baking powder or baking soda, for example, carbon dioxide is released from the bicarbonate with the help of acidic catalysts, like yoghurt and buttermilk. The heat from the oven also helps the carbon dioxide bubbles to expand further, thereby raising the dough.

The other ingredients used in dough, pastry or batter mixtures, such as eggs, milk, and sugar, don't usually chemically react with baking powder or other leavens. Instead, it's the water that facilitates the chemical reaction because it causes the baking powder to form ions. Interestingly, the effect of combining baking soda with water can also be used to ease indigestion or heartburn because of its behaviour as an antacid. Commercially available baking powder is a mixture of sodium bicarbonate and potassium bitartrate (cream of tartar to you and me), as well as an alkaline and an acidic ingredient.

How Do Chemical Raising Agents Work?

Chemical raising agents are usually alkalis, and they work by reacting with acidic ingredients, like milk, to produce carbon dioxide. When dry, the alkaline and acidic substances may already be combined in the mixture, but they'll be unable to react because they won't be in ionic form. Only once water or moisture is added can the acid-base reaction occur.

This reaction is slow at first, but it accelerates when the dough is baked inside the oven. During this process, the introduction of heat does more than speed up the chemical reaction - it also causes the pockets of gas to expand, forming larger bubbles. This means that while the dough grows in size, it becomes significantly less dense. Basically, the bigger the air bubbles, the lighter and fluffier the product. A cake, for example, has a lot of bubbles in it, which is what makes it less rigid than, say, bread.

What Chemical Raising Agents Are There?

There are three main types of chemical raising agents used in baking. To achieve the right texture and structure for whatever it is you're baking, it's important to use the right kind of leaven. Here's more about each one:

Baking soda: Also known as bicarbonate of soda or sodium bicarbonate, this is probably the most popular and readily available chemical raising agent. It's commonly used in soda bread and gingerbread. With the chemical formula NaHCO , this alkali is also used in many other applications besides baking.

Baking powder: This is often confused with baking soda, and many believe they're the same product, but there are distinct differences between these two leaveners . While baking soda is a base that reacts with acidic ingredients, baking powder is a of baking soda and a dry acid, usually cream of tartar. This means that baking powder doesn't need an additional acidic ingredient in order to react and produce CO . Because of this, baking powder is also the key ingredient in self-raising flour.

Cream of tartar: This is an acidic substance that is chemically known as potassium hydrogen tartrate, or potassium bitartrate (KC H O ). As we just explained, this is combined with bicarbonate of soda to produce baking powder. In this dry powder form, cream of tartar and baking soda are stable - but they react once they're dissolved in water, or when they're mixed with a moist dough. Cream of tartar is also often added to whipped egg whites or whipped cream in order to stabilise them while increasing their volume.

How Should Chemical Raising Agents Be Stored And Used?

Chemical raising agents are stable as long as they're kept in a dry environment. Since these agents react with water, any amount of moisture is dangerous. Baking soda, for example, has an exothermic reaction with water that produces carbonic acid, so keeping it in a dry cupboard away from moisture is the best way to lengthen its shelf-life.

Temperature is also an important factor. Even when sealed, chemical raising agents should be stored at moderate room temperature. If exposed to heat, like direct sunlight, they can potentially be ruined. Additionally, caking of the powder may occur if a chemical raising agent is stored for a very long time, and the powder becomes very compacted.

So, when using a leavening agent:

Make sure that it has been stored in a cool, dry place - but if it's been in your cupboard for a few years (yes, we've all been there), it might be time to purchase a new one

Only use the amount specified by the recipe; excess amounts can potentially ruin the taste of the bread, cake or pastry you are baking

Make sure that the acid-base reaction has completed as much as possible so that the optimal amount of carbon dioxide gets released

Thoroughly mix the chemical raising agent with the dough or batter so that it's evenly distributed. This also happens when you knead or roll it out

While we're on the subject, when a dough is kneaded it becomes more elastic. This happens because two proteins inside the mixture ( gliadin and glutenin ) combine to form gluten. So kneading and rolling are not only necessary to distribute the chemical raising agent, but also to create structure and strength of the dough.

This means that when dough is baked, its internal structure won't readily collapse, despite the thousands of bubbles produced by raising reagents. Instead, the gluten strengthens the dough with its protein chains, which, coincidentally, are also what make bread and other baked products classed as high-energy food .

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While most of us are familiar with baking powder, there are many other chemical raising agents used to make bread, cake, and pastries. Also known as leavens, these different forms of raising agents release carbon dioxide during the baking process, causing bubbles and foaming to occur.

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https://www.ifst.org/lovefoodlovescience/resources/raising-agents-physical

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Can you imagine what a cake would taste and look like if it had no air in it?

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