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Orson and Lorenzo Fowler's "Phrenological Cabinet"

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This poster is from Orson and Lorenzo Fowler's “Phrenological Cabinet” in New York. It housed a huge collection of skulls and served as a publishing house and mail-order business (1).

Phrenology was a 19th-century pseudoscience. Despite Victorian society's initial skepticism toward disciplines conflicting with religion, phrenology gained popularity in America by reconciling scientific principles with religious beliefs. George Combe, a British phrenologist, played a crucial role in popularizing the movement in the United States with his influential work, "The Constitution of Man" (2). The Fowler brothers, Orson Squire Fowler and Lorenzo Niles Fowler emerged as prominent phrenology promoters, bridging the gap between science and religion. Their emphasis on God and self-improvement contributed to phrenology's acceptance in Victorian America. The movement, downplayed scientific research and aligned with scripture becoming widely accepted and influential culturally, but this view of the brain did not last long.

Sources (2)

(1)

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/phrenology-in-victorian-america.htm#:~:text=Orson%20and%20Lorenzo%20Fowler's%20%E2%80%9CPhrenological,house%20and%20mail%2Dorder%20business.&text=Phrenology%20asserted%20that%20the%20brain,moral%20reason%20and%20character%20development.

(2)

https://www.victorianweb.org/science/phrenology/combe.html

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An illustration of the retinocortical projections in a dog. (Munk 1881)

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Hermann Munk, a German physiologist, is known for his contributions to understanding brain function and localization. One of his discoveries is associated with cortical localization related to vision (1).

Munk conducted experiments on dogs to investigate the role of different areas of the brain in visual processing. His work focused on the occipital cortex, the region at the back of the brain. Through a series of experiments in the 1870s, Munk observed that lesions or damage to specific areas within the occipital cortex resulted in distinct visual deficits.

One of the notable findings by Munk was the importance of the posterior part of the occipital cortex for vision. He observed that lesions in this area led to a condition known as cortical blindness, where the animals showed impaired vision despite their eyes and optic nerves being intact (1).

Munk's work provided evidence supporting the idea of cortical localization, which suggests that different functions are associated with specific regions of the cerebral cortex. While he focused on vision, his contributions helped pave the way for a broader understanding of how different areas of the brain are for specific functions.

Sources (2)

(1)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hermann-Munks-illustration-of-the-retinocortical-projections-in-the-dog-Reproduced-from_fig9_281621502

(2)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7555576/

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Early experiments in the late 19th century, like Richard Caton's electrical brain recordings, marked the beginning of neuroimaging techniques.

Richard Caton was a British physician and physiologist who made important contributions to neurophysiology. In 1875, Caton conducted experiments related to the electrical activity of the brain (1). He was among the first to use electrical recording techniques to study brain activity in animals. Caton's work involved placing electrodes on the exposed brains of animals, particularly rabbits and monkeys, to measure and record their brain's electrical signals. He observed variations in the electrical activity and noted the presence of rhythmic oscillations (1).

While Caton's work was important for understanding brain activity, it was Hans Berger, a German psychiatrist, who conducted the first human electroencephalogram (EEG) in 1924. Berger's work built upon the foundation laid by Caton, and the EEG became an essential tool for studying brain function and disorders. Caton's early experiments played a crucial role in sparking interest and exploration in neurophysiology and visualizing brain electrical activity (2).

Sources (3)

(1)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16435031/

(2)

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/003591575905200816

(3)

https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fi.ytimg.com%2Fvi%2FRgeG36PXOhU%2Fmaxresdefault.jpg&tbnid=kv9tMepkJuAySM&vet=12ahUKEwiGvLKVppWEAxU45MkDHUbjDA0QMygBegQIARA2..i&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DRgeG36PXOhU&docid=U_NO1sPlKf72PM&w=1280&h=720&q=galvanometer%20used%20by%20caton&ved=2ahUKEwiGvLKVppWEAxU45MkDHUbjDA0QMygBegQIARA2

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The first successfully documented brain tumor removal surgery is attributed to Sir Victor Horsley, a British surgeon, and Rickman John Godlee. In 1884, Horsley performed the surgery on a patient named Thomas Holmes (1).

Thomas Holmes had a tumor in the left parietal lobe of his brain, and Horsley was a pioneer in neurosurgery and decided to attempt its removal. On July 25, 1884, Horsley conducted the surgery at London Hospital (1). The operation involved exposing the brain and carefully removing the tumor. The patient survived the surgery and experienced some complications, but he lived for several years afterward.

Victor Horsley's successful brain tumor removal surgery marked a significant milestone in neurosurgery and laid the groundwork for future advancements in the treatment of brain tumors (2).

The surgery allowed Horsley and other neuroscientists to gain insights into the localization of brain functions. By understanding the impact of tumors on specific regions of the brain and observing the outcomes of their removal, researchers began to link brain anatomy with function.

Sources (3)

(1) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6387062/#:~:text=On%20November%2025%2C%201884%2C%20Mr,at%20the%20suggestion%20of%20Dr.

(2)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11841730/

(3)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Sir-Victor-Horsley-1857-1916-From-Paget-S-Sir-Victor-Horsley-A-Study-of-His-Life-and_fig1_272519301

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The Neuron Doctrine, introduced by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, transformed our understanding of the nervous system in the late 19th century (1). It proposed that the nervous system consists of distinct and individual nerve cells rather than a continuous network. This concept clarified the brain's structure and directional flow of information within neurons. Cajal's Golgi staining technique visually confirmed individual neurons, supporting the doctrine (2).

The neuron doctrine laid the foundation for modern neuroscience, influencing research and discoveries. It formed the basis for investigating the roles of specific neurons, their connections, and how information is processed within the brain.

Sources (2)

(1) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12378051/#:~:text=The%20'neuron%20theory'%20or%20',anatomic%2C%20functional%20and%20trophic%20units.

2

https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/neuron-doctrine-1860-1895

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MRI technology has advanced significantly, enabling researchers to capture the highest resolution images of a mouse brain to date. Led by Duke's Center for In Vivo Microscopy, the research involves enhancing MRI resolution, resulting in images that surpass typical clinical MRI quality for humans. This refined MRI, with a voxel size 64 million times smaller than a clinical MRI voxel (a voxel represents a value on a regular grid in three-dimensional space). This allows visualization of the mouse brain's microscopic details and better able to see brain connectivity (1).

The breakthrough offers a new approach to studying neurodegenerative diseases, providing valuable information on conditions like Alzheimer's and enhancing the understanding of how the brain changes with age or diet.

Sources (1)

https://today.duke.edu/2023/04/brain-images-just-got-64-million-times-sharper

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Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish neuroscientist in the 19th century, is the docent for this museum. He is a foundational figure in neuroscience and his work using the Golgi staining technique significantly contributed to our understanding of the nervous system (2).

Employing the Golgi staining technique, Cajal visualized and documented the intricate structures of individual neurons, leading to the formulation of the neuron doctrine which caused a shift in understanding the nervous system. His detailed drawings and descriptions provided a comprehensive map of the microscopic anatomy of the brain, and he classified different types of neurons based on their morphology (1). Cajal is a foundational figure in neuroscience, shaping modern neuroanatomy.

Sources (2)

(1)

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1906/cajal/facts/

(2)

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Santiago-Ramon-y-Cajal