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Air pollution (or air pollution) is an alteration of air quality that can be characterized by measurements of chemical, biological or physical pollutants (called "air contaminants"). It can have harmful consequences for human health, living beings, the climate, or material goods.

Pollutants can be of natural or anthropogenic origin and concern atmospheric air or indoor air in enclosed spaces (vehicles, houses, factories, offices). They generally constitute cocktails of pollutants such as suspended particles, or other substances whose concentration and duration of presence are sufficient to produce a toxic or ecotoxic effect. They can interact with light (photochemical pollution). A distinction can be made between pollutants released directly by humans (carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, heavy metals, etc.)

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Qu'il s'agisse du smog qui plane sur les villes ou de la fumée à l'intérieur des logements, la pollution atmosphérique est une menace majeure pour la santé et le climat.

La pollution de l'air ambiant (extérieur) dans les villes et les zones rurales crée des particules fines qui provoquent des accidents vasculaires cérébraux, des maladies cardiaques, des cancers du poumon et des maladies respiratoires aiguës et chroniques.

En outre, environ 2,6 milliards de personnes sont exposées à des niveaux dangereux de pollution de l'air à l'intérieur des habitations du fait de l'utilisation de foyers ouverts polluants ou de simples fourneaux pour cuisiner, qui sont alimentés au kérosène, à la biomasse (bois, déjections animales et résidus agricoles) et au charbon.

Les effets cumulés de la pollution de l'air ambiant et de la pollution de l'air à l'intérieur des habitations sont associés à 7 millions de décès prématurés par an.

Les sources de pollution atmosphérique sont nombreuses et varient en fonction du contexte. Les principales sources de pollution de l'air extérieur comprennent l'énergie domestique utilisée pour la cuisson et le chauffage, les véhicules, la production d'électricité, l'agriculture, l'incinération des déchets et l'industrie. Il est possible de réduire les principales sources de pollution de l'air ambiant grâce à des politiques et à des investissements favorisant une utilisation durable des sols, des énergies domestiques et des moyens de transport plus propres, des logements, des centrales électriques et des usines économes en énergie, et une meilleure gestion des déchets municipaux.

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Human Causes:

1. Industrial Emissions:

Factories and power plants release pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter into the air.

2. Vehicle Emissions:

Cars, trucks, and buses emit carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons.

3. Deforestation:

Cutting down trees reduces the ability of forests to absorb carbon dioxide, increasing air pollution.

4. Agricultural Activities:

Use of pesticides and fertilizers releases harmful chemicals into the atmosphere.

5. Burning of Fossil Fuels:

Coal, oil, and natural gas combustion for energy produces carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides.

6. Waste Disposal:

Burning of waste materials and landfill operations emit methane and other toxic gases.

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1. Volcanic Eruptions:

Release large amounts of sulfur dioxide, ash, and particulate matter into the atmosphere.

2. Forest Fires:

Emit carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and particulates.

3. Dust Storms:

Carry large amounts of dust and particulate matter into the air.

4. Natural Gas Emissions:

Methane and other gases are released from natural processes such as the decay of organic matter in wetlands.

5. Oceanic Activities:

Sea spray and the emission of organic compounds from marine organisms contribute to air pollution.

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Impact on Health:

WHO Estimate: 7 million deaths annually from air pollution.

Historical Event: 4,000 deaths in London during a severe smog in 1952.

Ozone Pollution: Affects lungs, causing difficulty breathing, sore throats, coughing, inflammation, and potential permanent lung damage.

Vulnerable Groups:

Children, the elderly, and people with ongoing illnesses.

Urban populations are at greater risk.

Short-Term Exposure Symptoms:

Coughing, wheezing, eye/nose/throat irritation, headache, dizziness, fatigue.

Long-Term Exposure Effects:

Respiratory diseases, cardiovascular damage, harm to liver, spleen, blood, nervous system damage, cancer, birth defects, death.

Environmental Impact:

Reduces visibility, blocks sunlight, causes acid rain, and and harms forests, wildlife, and agriculture.

Contributes to climate change through greenhouse gas pollution

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Harming Animals and Plants

Effects on Wildlife:

Wildlife experiences similar health issues as humans due to air pollution, including respiratory problems, neurological issues, and skin irritations.

Effects on Plants and Crops:

Ozone Damage: Causes brown patches on leaves and harms plant structures called stomata, reducing plant growth.

Agricultural Losses: Between 1980 and 2011, $9 billion worth of soybeans and corn were lost in the US due to ozone pollution.

Soil Damage: Acid rain, lead toxicity, and nitrogen oxides deplete soil nutrients, affecting agriculture, forests, and grasslands.

Overall Impact:

Air pollution damages habitats, water, and food sources necessary for plants and animals to survive.

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Cause: Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur and nitrogen oxides, which mix with water in the atmosphere to form acid rain.

Impact on Environment: Damages vegetation, increases soil and water acidity.

Health Effects: Linked to over 500 deaths annually.

Property Damage: Causes $5 billion in damage each year by dissolving mortar, weakening stone structures, and destroying ancient buildings and statues made of marble.

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What is Acid Rain? | National Geographic

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Cause: The ozone hole is caused by pollutants like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which release chlorine that destroys ozone molecules.

Impact of CFCs: A single chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules.

Function of the Ozone Layer: It blocks harmful ultraviolet-C (UVC) and ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation, similar to how sunscreen protects the skin.

Consequences:

Increases skin cancer risk in humans.

Affects plant growth and development.

Slows development in fish and amphibians.

Reduces phytoplankton in marine ecosystems.

Causes faster breakdown of natural and synthetic materials.

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Climate 101: Ozone Depletion | National Geographic

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Sources: gaseous ammonia (NH₃) from agriculture and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) from vehicles and airplanes.

Impact on Soil: Increases nitrogen levels in soils.

Effect on Plants: Excess nitrogen can limit some plants' growth while boosting others, disrupting ecosystem balance.

Environmental Impact: negatively affects grasslands and other fragile ecosystems worldwide.

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Why too much of nitrogen is a bad thing.

Nitrogen is in the soil under our feet, in the food we eat, and in our DNA, the building blocks of life. Without it, there would be no life on Earth. Nitrogen helps to make croplands fertile and is a key component of protein, which all living organisms need to grow.

Nitrogen is the most abundant element in our atmosphere. Pure nitrogen must be chemically bonded with other elements, either naturally or artificially, for it to be usable for most organisms.

The discovery a century ago of the Haber-Bosch process that converts nitrogen in the air to ammonia made the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizers possible at an industrial scale and was followed by a spectacular increase in global food production.

Today, nitrogen pollution is one of the most pressing pollution issues facing humanity, threatening our environment, health, climate and ecosystems.

But too much of this reactive nitrogen is being lost to the environment. It is polluting water and air, degrading soils, causing toxic algal blooms and creating (dead zones) in the ocean.

There has been limited public discussion about the need to take action to #BeatNitrogenPollution to mitigate climate change. But it's an issue we cannot afford to ignore. If we don't limit nitrogen pollution now, we will face a cascade of negative impacts that jeopardise the environment, the economy, our well-being and livelihoods -- from degraded ecosystems to polluted soil, water and air, and species loss.

How did we get here - and what can we do about it?

First the science.

In its pure form, nitrogen is not usable for humans, animals and plants. In its reactive forms however, it becomes accessible and creates impacts at each stage of the nitrogen cycle, moving through the air into the soil and living organisms.

By producing fertilizer or ammonia, humans have interfered with the natural nitrogen cycle.

Click below to find out more

Humanity's interference in Earth's nitrogen balance

Humanity's knowledge and understanding of nitrogen has improved rapidly over time. We have learned, for instance, how to extract nitrogen from the air and combine it with other elements such as oxygen, hydrogen and carbon into various reactive forms. These compounds were subsequently harnessed for use in industrial and agricultural activities.

In the early 20th century, two German chemists - Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch - developed a way of converting nitrogen (N ₂) and hydrogen (H ₂) into ammonia (NH ₃), using high heat and pressure. Their discovery spurred the mass production of nitrogen-based fertilizers, helping to boost crop yields and sustain an expanding world population.

The Haber-Bosch process revolutionized farming globally, but it also marked the start of humanity's long-term interference with Earth's nitrogen balance.

The amount of reactive nitrogen produced by humans is now greater than the amount created through natural processes. Humans have doubled the rates of nitrogen fixation.

Nitrogen pollution contributes to the triple planetary crisis of climate change, nature and biodiversity loss, and pollution and waste.

Today, about 80 per cent of reactive nitrogen - estimated to be worth US$200 billion - is lost to the environment every year.

It is therefore critical that governments accelerate actions and legislation to significantly reduce nitrogen waste globally by 2030 and promote sustainable nitrogen management. This could lead to billions of dollars in savings, while benefiting the environment, biodiversity and human health.

What are the biggest drivers of nitrogen pollution today?

One of the main drivers of nitrogen pollution has been the rising consumption of nitrogen-based fertilizer, which doubled between 1978 and 2014 globally.

In Asia alone, this doubling happened in just 27 years, between 1987 and 2014. Today, almost half of the world's population relies on fertilizers for food production.

Nitrogen pollution is also the byproduct of burning fossil fuels to meet growing demands in the agriculture, transport, industry and energy sectors.

Nitrogen pollution is also the byproduct of burning fossil fuels to meet growing demands in the agriculture, transport, industry and energy sectors.

Livestock waste, also contributes to nitrogen pollution. The livestock sector currently emits 65 teragrams (Tg) of nitrogen per year, equivalent to one-third of current human-induced nitrogen emissions. Of that amount, 68 percent is associated with feed production.

Some 50 percent of industrially produced nitrogen is applied to three major cereals:

These cereals provide the bulk of human food consumed either directly as grain or indirectly through livestock products.

Wildfires and the burning of forests can also increase emissions of nitrogen oxide (NO), a harmful component of smog, and nitrous oxide (N ₂ O), a potent greenhouse gas, known collectively as NOx.

Wildfire emissions of NOx account for approximately of global NOx emissions.

Forms of Nitrogen

Investigate about the different forms of pollution.

Different forms of reactive nitrogen in the environment

To learn more about the different forms of reactive nitrogen in the environment, click on the white circles.

Impact of nitrogen pollution

Industrial and agricultural activities have more than doubled the amount of reactive nitrogen in the environment, impacting water bodies, biodiversity and humans everywhere.

Climate change and the ozone layer

When it comes to tackling climate change, most of the world's attention has focused on reducing carbon dioxide emissions - yet nitrous oxide is 300 times more potent. In the past four decades, nitrous oxide emissions have risen by 30 percent.

With an atmospheric lifetime of up to 200 years, nitrous oxide poses a much more long-term threat than other forms of pollutants.

Nitrous oxide is now the dominant ozone-depleting substance emitted through human activities.

Air

Nitrogen oxides are a group of air polluting chemical compounds, including nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide. They are generated from coal power plants, factory emissions and vehicle exhausts. At high concentrations they can lead to smog - and ground-level ozone.

Reactive emissions can mix with rain to create nitric acid rain, which can damage buildings and sink into the soil harming plants and other living organisms.

Biodiversity and ecosystems

Together with habitat destruction and climate change, nitrogen pollution is one of the biggest drivers of biodiversity loss on the planet today.

According to a recent study, ecosystems such forests, heaths and surface waters are more sensitive to atmospheric nitrogen pollution than previously thought.

Land and soil

When nitrogen is deposited on terrestrial ecosystems, a cascade of effects can occur, often resulting in biodiversity declines.

Excess nitrogen causes nitrogen-tolerant species to thrive and outcompete more sensitive wild plants, fungi and aquatic species. It can cause the inadvertent fertilization of trees and grasslands affecting growth rates and nutrient imbalances, which harm ecosystems and biodiversity.

Water

Excess nitrogen in soil that plants cannot absorb leach into groundwater, contaminating it. This results in the rapid growth of algae which block sunlight to aquatic plants causing them to die. In the decomposition process the plants rob the water of oxygen and the lake, river or stream becomes ultimately lifeless. This eutrophication causes widespread shifts in species and biodiversity loss.

Nitrogen pollution especially impacts in the marine and coastal environments, where excess nitrogen can lead to algae blooms and oceanic dead zones, that are growing both in scale and frequency.

Human health

An estimated 77 per cent of people breathe annual average concentrations of nitrogen dioxide beyond safe levels. Agricultural ammonia emissions combined with pollution from vehicle exhausts can create extremely dangerous particulates in the air, which can exacerbate respiratory diseases. There is also growing evidence of a connection between reactive nitrogen in air and several types of cancer.

Nitrates from wastewater and agricultural sources can also threaten drinking-water quality.

One of the first links between reactive nitrogen and human health was found with high levels of nitrate in drinking water in the 1940s. Infants whose formula was mixed with water containing high concentrations of nitrate had a high risk of developing methemoglobinemia, known as "blue baby syndrome".

Food production

Nitrogen is a major growth factor in food production and it therefore plays an important role in global food security.

Long-term application of ammonium-based fertilizers causes soil to become acidic, negatively affecting crop production.

50 per cent of nitrogen fertilizers added to farm fields ends up as pollution. Through denitrification some is turned back to N ₂.

Since it is not nitrogen per se but excessive reactive nitrogen that is a threat, we must urgently improve our management of the nitrogen cycle to avoid inefficiencies and waste.

Political momentum for collective action on nitrogen is increasing. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the leading environmental authority in the United Nations system, is convening stakeholders to tackle nitrogen pollution globally.

In March 2019, the United Nations Environment Assembly - the world's foremost environmental decision-making body - adopted a resolution calling for sustainable nitrogen management. In March 2022, the Environment Assembly adopted a second resolution on the topic.

What actions can be taken?

Sustainable nitrogen management is needed to live in harmony with nature on a planet that is pollution-free and climate-stable. It is essential to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and securing a cleaner, healthier environment for future generations.

What can governments do?

Accelerate actions to support the Global Biodiversity Framework Target 7 by reducing excess nutrients lost to the environment by at least half, including through more efficient nutrient recycling and use.

Share information on existing national action plans where available.

Improve reporting and data collection capacity to identify nitrogen pollution and address its sources.

What can the private sector do?

The agricultural industry could:

Ensure proper disposal of animal waste.

Avoid unnecessary waste of food production.

Improve nutrient management in crop production and in the livestock sector.

Invest in the recovery of nutrients from wastewater and livestock waste to use as fertilizers, closing the circle and promoting the efficient use of fertilizers.

Harness ecological processes to manage soil fertility (for example, through crop rotation) and use methods such as no-till farming to limit the disturbance of natural habitats and processes.

Replace conventional agriculture with agroforestry and agro-ecological practices such as mixed farming to support biodiversity.

The fertilizer industry could:

Improve the recovery of nutrients from wastewater and livestock waste to reuse as fertilizers.

The livestock industry could:

Adapt protein in livestock diets to reduce nitrogen losses through waste.

Invest in air-cleaning systems on pig and cattle farms to tackle nitrogen emissions.

What can banking institutions do?

Sign up to the 2019 Principles for Responsible Banking; and the 2012; and the 2006 Principles for Responsible Investment.

Recognise sustainability as a strategic priority.

Invest in agro-ecological systems and nature-based solutions.

What can industrial and small-scale farmers do?

Embrace sustainable agriculture techniques that emulate nature to preserve soil fertility, prevent pollution and protect biodiversity.

Improve nutrient management in crop production and in the livestock sector.

Invest in the recovery of nutrients from wastewater and livestock waste to use as fertilizers, closing the circle and promoting efficient use of fertilizers.

What can the public do?

Advocate for the reduction of nitrogen pollution.

Alter dietary choices to reduce consumption of meat, dairy and eggs, which would lower ammonia and nitrogen emissions.

Avoid food waste.

Reducing reactive nitrogen would prevent millions of premature deaths, avert debilitating illness, contribute to food security, while helping to protect wildlife and the ozone layer. There is no single solution to reducing nitrogen pollution. But everyone can play a part in stopping it from poisoning our lakes, rivers, air and soil.

Date Published: 28 Sept, 2023

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Explore why too much nitrogen is a bad thing.

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Cause: Greenhouse gas pollution leads to climate change and global warming.

Impact on Ecosystems: Ecosystems change faster than plants and animals can adapt, causing many species to go extinct.

Ocean Acidification: Carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater makes it hard for marine species to form shells and skeletons.

Climate Effects: Melting ice sheets, warming oceans, and extreme weather threaten ecosystems globally.

Ecosystem Balance: The decline of a few species can disrupt entire ecosystems.

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How does the greenhouse effect work?

As you might expect from the name, the greenhouse effect works ... like a greenhouse! A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass roof. Greenhouses are used to grow plants, such as tomatoes and tropical flowers.

A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the daytime, sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside. At nighttime, it's colder outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm inside. That's because the glass walls of the greenhouse trap the Sun's heat.

The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat similar to the glass roof of a greenhouse. These heat-trapping gases are called greenhouse gases.

During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface warms up in the sunlight. At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat back into the air. But some of the heat is trapped by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our Earth a warm and cozy 58 degrees Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius), on average.

How are humans impacting the greenhouse effect?

Human activities are changing Earth's natural greenhouse effect. Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere.

NASA has observed increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and some other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Too much of these greenhouse gases can cause Earth's atmosphere to trap more and more heat. This causes Earth to warm up.

What reduces the greenhouse effect on Earth?

Just like a glass greenhouse, Earth's greenhouse is also full of plants! Plants can help to balance the greenhouse effect on Earth. All plants - from giant trees to tiny phytoplankton in the ocean - take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen.

The ocean also absorbs a lot of excess carbon dioxide in the air. Unfortunately, the increased carbon dioxide in the ocean changes the water, making it more acidic. This is called ocean acidification.

More acidic water can be harmful to many ocean creatures, such as certain shellfish and coral. Warming oceans - from too many greenhouse gases in the atmosphere - can also be harmful to these organisms. Warmer waters are a main cause of coral bleaching.

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Learn more about this process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat.

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1. Global Agreements:

Paris Agreement: Aims to limit global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Montreal Protocol: phased-out substances like CFCs that deplete the ozone layer.

2. International Regulations:

IMO Regulations: The International Maritime Organization (IMO) sets limits on sulfur content in ship fuel to reduce emissions.

3. Global Monitoring Programs:

UNEP Initiatives: The United Nations Environment Programme monitors air quality and promotes cleaner technologies globally.

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International Day of Clean Air for blue skies | United Nations

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The 2021 theme for the International Day of Clean Air for blue skies is "Healthy Air, Healthy Planet" which emphasizes the health aspects of air pollution, especially considering the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Benefits of Eco-Driving:

Reduced Fuel Consumption: Save money on fuel by driving more efficiently.

Lower Emissions: Help reduce greenhouse gases and other pollutants, contributing to cleaner air.

Improved Vehicle Longevity: By adopting smoother driving habits, you reduce wear and tear on your vehicle, extending its lifespan.

Cost Savings: In addition to fuel savings, eco-driving can reduce maintenance costs due to less strain on the engine and brakes.

By adopting eco-driving practices, individuals can make a significant contribution to reducing air pollution and promoting sustainability.

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ECO-DRIVING improves road safety as well as the quality of the local and global environment and saves fuel and costs. All three benefits are important for furthering ECO-DRIVING. Different benefits facilitate bringing ECO-DRIVING to different stakeholders and policy fields and their activities. Additionally ECO-DRIVING provides direct benefits to the drivers and the passengers: More […]

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National Solutions:

1. Environmental Legislation:

Clean Air Act (USA): Regulates emissions of hazardous air pollutants.

National Emission Standards: Sets limits on pollutants from industries and vehicles.

2. Renewable Energy Programs:

Investing in solar, wind, and other renewable energy sources to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

3. Public Transportation and Urban Planning:

Expanding public transit systems and promoting sustainable urban development to reduce vehicular emissions.

4. Industrial Emission Controls:

Implementing stricter controls and cleaner technologies in industries to reduce emissions.

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Carnegie Endowment for International Peace

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Tunisia is facing a rapidly escalating climate crisis. Last summer, the government was forced to implement water rationing to address a severe drought. And the country's most vulnerable residents-many of whom rely on agriculture and fishing for their income-are being hit the hardest by worsening water and food scarcity and rising temperatures. Despite Tunisia being a globally recognized climate hot spot, President Kais Saied's government has failed to prioritize climate adaptation and mitigation, instead focusing on a political program that centralizes power into the leadership's hands and removes local agency. This political shift has had real and serious implications for the ability of local communities to address climate change. This piece will discuss the main climate challenges facing Tunisia today, the ways in which these challenges contribute to the country's socioeconomic inequality, and the measures the Tunisian government (as well as other actors, such as civil society organizations and the international community) are taking to address climate change.

Major Climate Challenges Facing Tunisia

The challenges facing Tunisia vary by region. The country has three different climate zones: a Mediterranean zone in the north, a steppe zone in the center of the country, and a desert zone in the south. Each zone faces its own unique climate-related challenges. In the north, sea level rise is already leading to erosion, flooding, and contamination of the coastal aquifers. Both the central and southern zones face water scarcity caused by rising temperatures and drought.

But one thing that unites the three zones is the overall dissatisfaction with the Tunisian government's efforts at addressing climate change. In 2022, Tunisians were, globally, the population most dissatisfied with efforts to preserve the environment (tied with Lebanon), according to a Gallup poll. And only 19 percent of Tunisians said they are satisfied with the quality of water in their city or area-the lowest number Gallup has recorded at the country level since 2005. In the south of the country, only 7 percent of residents were satisfied with water quality-a dramatic drop from a 48 percent satisfaction level in the south in 2015.

Water Scarcity

On March 31, 2023, the National Company for the Exploitation and Distribution of Water (called Sonede) began instituting water quotas due to extremely low water levels in Tunisia's thirty dams. At the time, the Sidi Salem Dam, a 1980s construction project that provided what was once the country's largest freshwater reserve, had fallen to just 16 percent of its capacity-an historic low.

The water scarcity problems have a particularly major impact on agriculture, which made up 10 percent of Tunisia's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2022 and employed 14 percent of the workforce. Seventy-seven percent of Tunisia's water is used for irrigation. Many farmers can no longer meet their water needs for irrigation and are experiencing crop loss. In a January 2023 poll, 73 percent of Tunisians said they were either somewhat concerned or very concerned about their household's access to food over the next six months. Alongside looming government mismanagement, the country is also expected to experience an increase in droughts that could decrease cereal production by 40 percent and olive production by 32 percent by 2050. In May 2023, the Tunisian government said that the wheat harvest was expected to reach only 250,000 tons of grain this year, compared to an average of 1.5 million tons annually. This shortfall has forced the cash-strapped country to import 95 percent of its grain, which has led to bread rationing and forced many bakeries to shut their doors.

Other industries that are experiencing job loss due to water scarcity include low-income jobs like house and office cleaners and car washers. Furthermore, while wealthier families can afford to purchase bottled water, lower-income Tunisians also suffer from having to rely on unclean sources of drinking water.

Tunisia's water scarcity is attributable not only to climate change but also to poor governance and poor maintenance of Tunisia's water infrastructure. Hydrogeologist Radhia Essamin, a member of the Tunisian Water Observatory, told Le Monde, "There has been a lack of strategic vision for years. There are leaks that no one cares about, and as soon as there is a drought, citizens are the first to be affected by cuts."

Temperature Rise

The Tunisian National Institute of Meteorology predicts a temperature rise of up to 1.8°C by 2050 and up to 3°C for 2100. This disproportionately affects the interior regions, which are predicted to see temperature rises up to 2.3°C and 5.2°C by 2050 and 2100, respectively. These regions, which are home to much of Tunisia's agricultural economy, will face serious threats from heat waves that have the potential to decimate crop production. Rising temperatures can also lead to the evaporation of surface water, further exacerbating water scarcity.

Rising Sea Levels

A third climate threat is rising sea levels. Tunisia has experienced rising sea levels that have led to coastal erosion and contamination of the coastal aquifers on which farmers rely for irrigation. A majority of the Tunisian coastline (68 percent) is classified as moderately to very highly vulnerable. In Cap Bon, an aquifer experienced such high levels of seawater contamination that local farmers were forced to abandon their farming plots and wells.

How Climate Change Contributes to Inequality

Across the globe, climate change contributes to inequality and disproportionately impacts poorer communities. Wealthier countries tend to consume more energy and contribute to climate change at higher rates, while poorer countries pay the price for these wealthier countries' higher fossil fuel consumption. Furthermore, wealthier people have a higher adaptive capacity to climate change. For example, as temperatures rise, higher-income individuals are more likely to be able to access air conditioning, while lower-income individuals are more vulnerable to heat-induced cardiovascular and respiratory ailments and death.

Tunisia's north, where much of the country's cereal production takes place, also faces threats from rising sea levels and temperature increases, further aggravating economically disadvantaged groups and contributing to food insecurity. Food import dependency has especially exposed Tunisia's population to shocks in the food market and agricultural sector. As conveyed by Layla Riahi -a researcher, activist, and member of the Tunisian Platform for Alternatives-"In Tunisia we have economic policies that exacerbate environmental problems." She points to an economy that relies on extraction and is a "primary source of pollution."

Climate migration could also further harm Tunisia's most vulnerable residents. Sub-Saharan African migrants who move to Tunisia are likely to put additional stress on the country's poor infrastructure and add to an already overstretched employment market. Tunisia could also see internal rural-to-urban migration, leading to increased levels of urban poverty that is gendered, as more men migrate for employment and leave behind women and children in climate-vulnerable conditions. Existing migrants and refugees are also vulnerable as they often live without social safety nets. Additionally, lower-income housing has become increasingly threatened by the growing number of extreme weather events. Less-wealthy communities tend to spend a much larger fraction of their income than their wealthier neighbors on food and other basic necessities, making them more vulnerable to food and energy price shocks brought on by climate change and natural disasters.

Tunisia is also predicted to experience a dramatic drop in labor productivity because of climate change (measured as annual hours worked per worker). High-risk sectors (such as agriculture, mining, construction, and manufacturing) likely will see a national average of −29.4 hours by 2080-2099. These sectors tend to be concentrated in the traditionally marginalized regions in the interior of the country. Low-risk sectors (all other industries) will see a change of only −7.2 hours.

Additionally, Tunisia is experiencing unequal effects of climate change across genders. Women, especially poor and rural women, tend to face a variety of challenges such as "access to resources, opportunity for improving existing livelihoods and developing alternative livelihoods, and participating in decision making." Women are therefore less able to adapt to climate change, which can cause "exacerbated welfare impacts on individuals, households and communities."

Scholars have also documented links between climate change, epidemics, and socioeconomic inequality. Climate change is likely to increase more severe epidemics. Archibong and Annan note that "climate change and associated global warming may cause epidemics through changes in climate variables like temperature, precipitation and wind speeds, and indirect effects, where adaptive behavior to these direct effects by human populations through strategies like migration may more easily facilitate the spread of disease." They also show that "epidemics can worsen outcomes for groups in already relatively economically precarious circumstances, like women around the world, thereby widening group-based, socioeconomic inequality."

Tunisia's Efforts to Address Climate Change: Climate Adaptation Through Economic Resilience

The Tunisian government, on paper, is quite advanced when it comes to addressing climate change. Tunisia was the third country in the world to introduce climate protections as a right in their constitution-a measure that was carried over from the 2014 to the 2022 constitution, which explicitly states that "the state guarantees the right to a healthy and balanced environment and the right to participate in the protection of the climate." The government of former president and dictator Zine El Abidine Ben Ali ratified several international conventions related to the environment, and Tunisia was the first North African state to ratify the 1993 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the 2002 Kyoto Protocol, and the 2017 Paris Agreement. Following the 2011 revolution, the Tunisian Ministry of Local Affairs and the Environment developed a National Climate Change Strategy (known by its French acronym SNCC) in 2012 that includes both adaptation and mitigation measures.

Tunisia has since adopted a macroeconomic-focused climate adaptation framework that acknowledges the need for economically and socially inclusive climate policy solutions. Most recently, the Tunisian government issued a National Strategy for Ecological Transition that " seeks to implement a resilient, sustainable, socially fair, and inclusive development model that changes existing ways of consuming, producing, working, and living while promoting conservation, carbon neutrality and circularity."

Notably, Tunisia is targeting a 45 percent decrease in carbon intensity from 2010 to 2030. Decarbonizing energy supplies would yield lower energy costs for companies and households and has the potential to slash poverty by 12 percent. Tunisia's decarbonization policies also call for creating climate-resilient, green urban development plans that are specific to each Tunisian municipality, a demonstration of a climate adaptation method proportional to climate risk exposure levels.

As recognized in Tunisia's Nationally Determined Contribution and National Adaptation Plan, the consequences of inaction are particularly pronounced in the agri-food sector in terms of livelihood and production losses. As a result, Tunisia has prioritized efforts to establish food resilience for farmers, smallholders, and women. Plans to digitize food production systems and strengthen information sharing mechanisms between agricultural stakeholders, in addition to collaborating with economic actors on developing financial risk assessment methods, are underway.

By marrying economic and sustainability initiatives, Tunisia is embracing cross-sectoral and interministerial coordination as a climate response strategy, as evident in its national strategy for the development of green hydrogen. The strategy, beginning in 2022, is being developed by the Ministry of Industry, Mines, and Energy in cooperation with the German development organization GIZ with the aim of producing green hydrogen by 2025. Tunisian government partners include the Ministry of Energy, the Tunisian Company for Electricity and Gas (STEG), National Agency for Energy Management, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of State Domains and Land Affairs, Ministry of Environment, the Instance for Public Private Partnerships of the Ministry of Higher Education and Research, and the Groupe Chimique Gabes.

Through support from the international community, greater private sector and multistakeholder involvement is also at the forefront of Tunisia's climate strategy. Diversifying investment streams can be highly beneficial in helping Tunisia meet its climate financing needs. In July, the Tunisian Private Sector Energy Transition Support Program (known as Power Tunisia) launched to promote the adoption of renewable energy in the country. This five-year program, funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development, is meant to support private sector companies in transitioning to green energy through technical assistance and subsidies. It specifically seeks to "increase renewable energy deployment, reduce CO ₂ emissions, reduce electricity consumption, mobilize external capital in clean energy investments, and engage and support Tunisian firms." As the initiative's website notes, nearly all (98.1 percent) of Tunisia's electricity is derived from natural gas, two-thirds of which is imported from Algeria, which leaves the country "especially vulnerable to the volatility of international oil and gas price shocks." Power Tunisia has three tiers of support: large projects of $2 million or more, medium projects of $20,000 to $2,000,000, and small projects of less than $20,000. Targets of support range from small businesses and private residences to industrial Tunisian and international firms.

As a result of these initiatives, Tunisia has improved dramatically in the Ibrahim Index of African Governance on environmental policies, defined as "the extent to which environmental concerns are effectively taken into account in both macro and microeconomic terms." The country went from 42.9 out of 100 in 2012 to 71.4 out of 100 in 2021. However, in the same index, in terms of the enforcement of environmental regulations it decreased from 62.1 in 2012 to 51.4-a signal of the disconnect between commitments on paper and action in practice and therefore the need to reconcile policy, projects, and plans with structured, tenable implementation mechanisms.

How Structural Gaps in Governance Shape Inequality and Vulnerability

Scholars point to several challenges the Tunisian government and people face in dealing with climate change, including fragmented government coalitions, a prevailing rent-economy, financial constraints, a feeble institutional foundation for climate action, limited decentralization, the lack of a functional local government structure, and limited involvement of relevant stakeholders.

Municipalities and Civil Society Organizations
"municipalities in Tunisia have different bioclimates, which need specific action varying from one municipality to another. Therefore, municipalities in Tunisia experience extreme climatic events differently: loss of coastline in Djerba and ; food insecurity in , a governorate with one of the highest poverty rates; forest fires in Boukarnine or

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What Tunisia's Municipalities Can Contribute to Climate Adaptation

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Because Tunisia's regions face different climate threats and socioeconomic needs, municipalities should be more empowered to implement climate mitigation measures and protect vulnerable communities.

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1. Choose Clean Energy:

Switch to Renewable Energy: Support or opt for energy providers that use solar, wind, or other renewable sources of energy.

Use Energy-Efficient Appliances: Reduce energy consumption by using appliances that have high energy efficiency ratings (e.g., LED bulbs, energy-efficient air conditioners).

2. Reduce Waste:

Minimize Single-Use Plastics: Reduce the use of disposable plastic items that contribute to pollution when burned or dumped.

Recycle Properly: Participate in local recycling programs and dispose of recyclable materials in the correct bins.

Compost Organic Waste: Composting reduces the amount of waste in landfills, which can release methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

3. Advocate for Policy Change:

Support Environmental Policies: Advocate for policies that reduce emissions from industries, vehicles, and agriculture.

Promote Clean Air Initiatives: Support or volunteer for campaigns and programs aimed at improving air quality.

4. Plant Trees and Support Green Spaces:

Plant Trees: Trees absorb carbon dioxide and other pollutants, improving air quality.

Support Urban Green Spaces: Advocate for or participate in creating green spaces in cities to help absorb pollutants.

5. Educate and Raise Awareness:

Spread Awareness: Educate friends and family about the importance of reducing air pollution and encourage them to adopt eco-friendly habits.

Join Local Clean Air Initiatives: Participate in or support local organizations that work towards air quality improvement.

6. Be Conscious of Household Products:

Avoid Harmful Chemicals: Reduce the use of household products that emit harmful volatile organic compounds (VOCs), like certain paints and cleaning products.

Opt for Natural Alternatives: Choose eco-friendly, natural products that don’t contribute to indoor air pollution.

7. Limit Indoor Air Pollution:

Ventilate Homes Properly: Ensure that indoor spaces are well-ventilated to avoid indoor air pollution from cooking, heating, and cleaning.

Use Air Purifiers: Consider using air purifiers to help remove pollutants inside your home, especially in urban areas.

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Description: Planting trees on Earth Day is a great way to celebrate and take action to protect the planet. Trees play a crucial role in mitigating the impacts of climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and producing oxygen. By absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in their

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Eco-driving refers to driving techniques that reduce fuel consumption, lower emissions, and minimize the environmental impact of vehicles. It's a set of driving habits that focus on efficiency and sustainability. Here are some eco-driving practices that can help reduce air pollution:

Eco-Driving Tips:

1. Drive Smoothly:

Avoid Rapid Acceleration and Sudden Braking: Smooth, gradual acceleration and braking help conserve fuel and reduce emissions.

Maintain a Steady Speed: Use cruise control on highways to avoid unnecessary acceleration and deceleration.

2. Maintain a Proper Speed:

Observe Speed Limits: Driving at high speeds increases fuel consumption and emissions. Stick to speed limits, especially on highways, where fuel efficiency is best at moderate speeds.

Drive Within the Optimal Speed Range: Most cars are most fuel-efficient between 45-65 mph (70-105 km/h). Driving faster than this increases fuel consumption.

3. Reduce Idling:

Turn Off the Engine: If you're stopped for more than 30 seconds (except in traffic), turn off the engine to avoid wasting fuel and generating unnecessary emissions.

4. Use Gears Effectively:

Shift to Higher Gears Early: Shifting to higher gears as soon as possible reduces engine load and fuel consumption.

Avoid Over-revving: Keep the engine in a lower RPM range to optimize fuel efficiency.

5. Keep Tires Properly Inflated:

Check Tire Pressure Regularly: Under-inflated tires increase fuel consumption and wear out more quickly. Proper tire pressure can improve fuel efficiency by up to 3%.

6. Reduce Weight and Drag:

Remove Unnecessary Items from the Car: Carrying heavy loads or unnecessary items in your vehicle uses more fuel. Only carry what you need.

Remove Roof Racks When Not in Use: Roof racks or carriers increase air resistance, reducing fuel efficiency. Remove them when they're not needed.

7. Plan Your Trips:

Combine Errands: Plan your driving routes to avoid unnecessary trips and minimize the time spent in traffic.

Avoid Rush Hours: If possible, avoid driving during peak traffic times to reduce idling and fuel consumption.

8. Use Air Conditioning Wisely:

Minimize A/C Use: Air conditioning can increase fuel consumption. Use it only when necessary, and try to keep the windows closed at higher speeds to reduce drag.

9. Choose the Right Vehicle:

Opt for Fuel-Efficient Cars: If purchasing a vehicle, consider energy-efficient models such as hybrids, electric cars, or vehicles with lower fuel consumption.