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Summary:

After the U.S. declared war on the Central Powers in World War One, African Americans thought that if they showed their patriotism and devotion towards their country, they would be looked upon more fondly and as equals.

So by 1917, "over 700,000 African Americans registered for military service"(Delaware.gov).

Even though African Americans showed great devotion and sacrifice as well as patriotism to their country, when the end of the war came, they were still not looked upon as equals.

Link to original article: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1pYU5uTYOJMAeFvdBazEHr3EWHnxkxluDkt6LZn4B2zA/edit#

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First Sights of Segregation During The Great War

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First Sights of Segregation During The Great War

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Because of segregated divisions in the military during WW1, African Americans had to work tedious jobs, like loading and unloading ships, forging, repairing battlefields, building roads, etc. This lead to many getting diseases, and dying. Blacks faced very poor treatment while in the military from their officers, and even from white soldiers. Despite all of this, the ones who did see the front lines, fought bravely and hard. They proved themselves to be more effective than many white divisions.

Link to original article: https://oaklandcemeteryhistory.org/exhibits/show/wwi-aah/segregationhttps://oaklandcemeteryhistory.org/exhibits/show/wwi-aah/segregation

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Before the first training camp opened, African American men experienced resistance from military officials, commissioned white officers and white soldiers, all of whom regarded their presence as unsatisfactory and a threat to entrenched American race relations. Racist beliefs that black soldiers could not be depended on to serve with dignity and honor due to their so-called inherent weaknesses in character, mental capacity and moral turpitude shaped the experiences of all drafted and enlisted men. Adopting a policy of strict segregation to maintain and preserve discipline, the War Department organized separate units in direct response to the problems anticipated between white soldiers, who would not accept black soldiers as equals, and black soldiers, who would refuse to be intimidated by whites and their sense of entitlement. In the South especially, black troops were denied adequate medical treatment, clothing and housing. In some instances, shelter for African American troops "often consisted of tents without the flooring or boxing usually provided for whites housed under canvas, and sometimes without stoves in winter weather."[1] Overpopulated barracks, the lack of proper sanitation facilities and infrequent medical attention quickly advanced the spread of preventable diseases.

Services of Supply

The health, morale and overall welfare of black troops mattered less to military officials, since most black soldiers were destined to serve in the rear as the muscle needed to supply America's white soldiers on the field of battle with the necessary supplies, rather than as fighting troops.[2] Of the nearly four hundred thousand African American soldiers serving during the First World War, only 40,000 saw combat, while the majority served in the Services of Supply (SOS) regiments unloading ships, repairing battlefields, and building roads. These men represent the invisible labor that was nonetheless critical for the Allied victory. As early as June 1917, black labor battalions, or stevedores, were responsible for loading the hulls of cargo ships with supplies bound for France. Black stevedores had also arrived in the port cities of Brest, St. Nazaire and Bordeaux, where they unloaded ships laden with supplies for the front. These noncombatant soldiers were also responsible for road building, constructing ammunition dumps, cooking, building warehouses and salvaging materials from the theater of war. The assumed low status of black soldiers also made them vulnerable to ill-treatment by their white counterparts, many of whom asserted their sense of superiority in the belief that no black man had any rights that a white man was bound to respect. Even in France, white men accustomed to exercising their assumed dominance over blacks did so with impunity. In some instances, white soldiers and officers even participated in murdering black soldiers as a form of sport.[3]

On the Front Lines

With the support of Secretary of War Newton Baker, the all black 92 nd and 93rd combat Divisions were formed and deployed to France. By mid-September 1918, the 368 th Regiment of the 92 nd Division, along with the 77 th American Division and the French 4 th Army, moved into position near the Argonne Forest in preparation for an offensive against the German army. Prior to this assault, the all-black regiment had had very little training in maneuvers under heavy shelling, lacked the proper equipment to cut through the thick entanglements, and were not supplied with the necessary "signal flares and grenade launchers."[4] These factors made them ill-prepared to maintain their organizational effectiveness in combat. What's more, the trust black soldiers had in their white commanding officers was continuing to erode as "many of the field officers seemed far more concerned with reminding their Negro subordinates that they were Negroes" than preparing them to execute the orders handed down from General Headquarters.[5] On 28 September, the 368 th came under intense German fire, and in the confusion of combat several companies "withdrew in disorder," choosing to retreat to the trenches in an effort to regroup.[6] Not only was the regiment accused of cowardice, but the accusation was extended to the entire 92 nd Division.

Conversely, the most recognized and well-known black infantry regiment to serve during the First World War was the 369 th of the 93 rd Division. Historically known as the Harlem Hellfighters, the 369 th was originally formed out of the 15 th New York National Guard Regiment created in 1916. The regiment included men from all walks of life, including laborers, doctors, lawyers, hustlers, baseball players, educators and musicians. On 12 March 1918, the all-black regiment was assigned to the French army as replacement troops - one of four infantry regiments from the 93 rd Division who served with the French for the duration of the war. It is here that the 369 th made a name for itself. Serving at the front for 191 consecutive days, the Harlem Hellfighters defended not only the French lines against the German assault, but the honor and pride of all African Americans whose futures would be impacted by the outcome of the war as well. Indeed, the heroism of Private Henry Johnson, whose valiant efforts to save fellow soldier Needham Roberts from being captured by a German raiding party earned him the French Croix de Guerre, supported the notion that African American soldiers were not only brave, but were honorable and loyal too.

-Pellom McDaniels III, Ph.D.

Footnotes:

[1] Arthur E. Barbeau and Florette Henri, The Unknown Soldiers: Black American Troops in World War I, (Philadelphia 1974): 51.

[2] Chad Williams, Torchbearers of Democracy: African American Soldiers in the World War I Era, (Chapel Hill 2010), 111.

[3] Williams, Torchbearers of Democracy, 113.

[4] Barbeau and Henri, The Unknown Soldiers, 150.

[5] Quoted in Richard Slotkin, Lost Battalions. The Great War and the Crisis of American Nationality (New York: Macmillan, 2005): 287.

[6] Ibid., 288.

Text adapted from:

McDaniels III, Pellom: African American Soldiers (USA) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2014-10-08. DOI: 10.15463/ie1418.10175.

Historical Contexts

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Before the first training camp opened, African American men experienced resistance from military officials, commissioned white officers and white soldiers, all of whom regarded their presence as unsatisfactory and a threat to entrenched American race relations.

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Conditions for African Americans During WW1

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Conditions for African Americans During WW1

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Even though most African American soldiers were issued non-combatant roles, they served a crucial part in providing troops on the front lines with the supplies they needed. But, the black soldiers who WERE on the front lines saw quite a lot of action, leading the American and French forces to many victories. This gave them a purpose to keep fighting for justice.

Link to original article: https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/wwi/war

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When war broke out in Europe in 1914, Americans were very reluctant to get involved and remained neutral for the better part of the war. The United States only declared war when Germany renewed its oceanic attacks that affected international shipping, in April 1917. African Americans, who had participated in every military conflict since the inception of the United States, enlisted and prepared for involvement. However, many of those who enlisted or were drafted found themselves in noncombative support roles. Many African Americans served under the Services of Supply section of the American Expeditionary Forces. This section comprised of stevedore, labor, and engineers service battalions and companies. The main function of these companies was to support and provide materials to other companies along the front.

The notable exception were the soldiers who fought on the front lines in the 92nd and 93rd Infantry Divisions. The 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the Harlem Hellfighters, were assigned to the French Army in April 1918. In this post the Hellfighters saw much action, fighting in the Second Battle of the Marne, as well as the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. For his valiant and brave actions during World War I, Private Henry Johnson became the first American to receive the Criox de Guerre, and an additional 170 members of the 369th were also awarded the French medal.

The 370th Infantry Regiment, given the name "Black Devils" by Germans, were also assigned to the French Army. This was the only unit to be commanded by Black officers. Corporal Freddie Stowers was a standout soldier among the 371st Infantry. During the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Stowers lead troops through a German line in spite of receiving mortal wounds. He was recommended for the Medal of Honor shortly after his death, but it was not processed and awarded until 1991.
Search the Catalog for Records relating to Blacks in the Military
Selected Photographs

Resources

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African Americans in the Military during World War I

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When war broke out in Europe in 1914, Americans were very reluctant to get involved and remained neutral for the better part of the war. The United States only declared war when Germany renewed its oceanic attacks that affected international shipping, in April 1917.

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Almost all African American officers had no authority during World War Two. During the war, whenever a black soldier became an officer, he only had authority over his squad of other black soldiers. Whenever there was a white officer in one of these squads, black officers "were not allowed to have higher positions" (KU Libraries). This was done because since Jim Crow laws were still around, African Americans didn't have full rights, meaning that they were seen as inferior to any white enlisted member. If African American soldiers were ever worthy of receiving a medal, they were "excluded from recognition" (KU Libraries). These actions were due to "pernicious beliefs of "race""(KU Libraries). This left the African American enlisted degraded, due to a lack of respect.
Link to original article: https://wwii.lib.ku.edu/background#:~:text=All%20of%20them%20conducted%20their,from%20local%20white%20civilian%20communities

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African American Service Men and Women in World War II

More than one and a half million African Americans served in the United States military forces during World War II. They fought in the Pacific, Mediterranean, and European war zones, including the Battle of the Bulge and the D-Day invasion. These African American service men and women constituted the largest number enlisted in the Army and Navy, and the first to serve in the Marine Corp after 1798.

However, as members of the United States military, this Greatest African American Generation encountered unequal treatment and limited opportunities for promotion and transfer due to the practice of racial segregation adhered to by the U.S. military, as well as the nation. Despite the 1940 United States Selective Service and Training Act outlawing racial discrimination, African Americans were only accepted if there were openings in units and training facilities specifically designated for their "racial" category. Since most U.S. bases did not have such additional areas that included housing, only half of the nation's African American volunteers and draftees were actually inducted into the U.S. military during World War II. Those who were inducted usually served in large units whose members represented a wide range of skills and levels of formal education. All of them conducted their work assignments separate from white soldiers, received medical treatment from separate blood banks, hospitals, and medical staff, and socialized only in segregated settings. If they left their stateside bases, they often experienced hostility from local white civilian communities.

Moreover, the authority of African American officers was restricted to African American units only and, if there were white officers in these units, the African American officers were not allowed to have higher positions. In addition, pernicious beliefs of "race" often stalled the use of African American troops in combat units and excluded them from receiving recognition for their World War II service. It was not until 1993 that the first Medal of Honor was awarded to an African American World War II veteran.

About 4,000 African American women joined the Army's Women's Army Corps. While they often experienced racially-integrated instructional facilities, they were usually assigned to menial labor positions. However, one of these African American units served overseas as a postal battalion. They also served in limited numbers as nurses in the Army Nurse Corps and a few in the Navy's WAVES.

The Double V Campaign

For the Allied Powers, "V" was the WWII symbol that unified their war effort to achieve victory for democracy over the tyranny of the Axis powers. But in the United States, "Jim Crow" laws and practices continued to deny African Americans their full citizenship rights, including equal opportunities for work, and equal access to housing, schools, and public facilities.

A month after the attack on Pearl Harbor, on January 31, 1942, an African American resident of Wichita, Kansas, Mr. James G. Thompson, wrote a letter to The Pittsburgh Courier, one of the nation's leading African American newspapers, suggesting "that while we keep defense and victory in the forefront that we don't lose sight of our fight for true democracy at home." In response, the Courier, supported by other African American newspapers, created the insignia which featured two Vs and described as double victory for "Democracy at Home and Abroad," launching the Double V Campaign in 1942 in support of the nation's war effort. Posters, emblems, and various displays featured two Vs. The Double V slogan was adopted by many African American communities who used it to mobilize volunteers from their churches, organizations, and schools to engage in the War's mass civilian efforts and support African Americans in the United States Armed Forces.

This World War II oral history project is sponsored in part by the Sandra Gautt KU Endowment Fund, which Professor Emerita Gautt established to honor her father, Sgt. Thaddeus A. Whayne, a member of the Tuskegee Airmen unit. It is part of the ongoing efforts of the African American Experience Collections to document life in the Kansas region.

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World War II: The African American Experience

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More than one and a half million African Americans served in the United States military forces during World War II. They fought in the Pacific, Mediterranean, and European war zones, including the Battle of the Bulge and the D-Day invasion.

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This peacetime draft made it to that all men 21-35 must enlist, regardless of race. This gave African American men more hope towards their fight.

Link to original article: https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/african-americans-world-war-ii

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African Americans in World War II | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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Explore profiles, oral histories, photographs, and artifacts honoring African American contributions to World War II from the Museum’s collection.

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African American lives changed drastically in the military after this acts was passed.
Link to original article: https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/african-americans-world-war-ii

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African Americans in World War II | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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Explore profiles, oral histories, photographs, and artifacts honoring African American contributions to World War II from the Museum's collection.

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Doris Miller was able to help his wounded Captain get to safety under enemy fire during the bombing of Pearl Harbor, and was awarded the Navy Cross. He was one of the few African Americans noticed for his bravery, setting a new perspective on African Americans.
Link to original article: https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/african-americans-world-war-ii

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African Americans in World War II | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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Explore profiles, oral histories, photographs, and artifacts honoring African American contributions to World War II from the Museum's collection.

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(1944) FIRST AFRICAN-AMERICAN TANK UNIT TO SEE COMBAT

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(1944) FIRST AFRICAN-AMERICAN TANK UNIT TO SEE COMBAT

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The 761st was the first African American tank unit to see combat, and they were going to rise to success for their allies and the African American race.
Link to original article: https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/african-americans-world-war-ii

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African Americans in World War II | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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Explore profiles, oral histories, photographs, and artifacts honoring African American contributions to World War II from the Museum's collection.

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(1942)FIRST AFRICAN AMERICAN IN WOMEN'S ARMY AUXILIARY CORPS

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(1942)FIRST AFRICAN AMERICAN IN WOMEN'S ARMY AUXILIARY CORPS

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Major Charity Adams was the first African American woman to be in this Corps. She set the turning point for enlisted African American women, and African American women in general.

Link to original article: https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/african-americans-world-war-ii

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African Americans in World War II | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Explore profiles, oral histories, photographs, and artifacts honoring African American contributions to World War II from the Museum's collection.

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Despite receiving nothing but hate after returning home, the African Americans became more motivated to keep fighting for racial equality.
Link to original article: https://time.com/5450336/african-american-veterans-wwi/?__scribleNoAutoLoadToolbar=true

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African-American Veterans Hoped Their Service in World War I Would Secure Their Rights at Home. It Didn’t

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Black people emerged from the war bloodied and scarred. Nevertheless, the war marked a turning point in their struggles for freedom

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The turning point in this movement would be Executive Order 8802 since it so drastically changed racial equality for African Americans.