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Reproductive strategy is the collective morphological, physiological and behavioural adaptations which increase biological fitness.

There are 2 main kinds of reproductive strategies is Semelparity and Iteroparity. (Jerod)

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It is a reproductive strategy where a species reproduces only once in its lifetime afterwards it will die. This strategy is often observed in species with high investment in a single large reproductive effort such as octopus. The primary advantage of semelparity is that it allows a large amount of energy and resources to be used to one reproductive event which in return increases reproductive success. (Jerod)

The disadvantage is that there is no other opportunity to produce offspring in subsequent favourable conditions since they only reproduce and die (Rui Han)

This strategy is risky as their entire reproductive output is tied to a single event, if the conditions are not optimal, it would result in a complete loss of reproductive effort. (Rui Han)

One example would be the Pacific Salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), which lives for many years in the ocean before swimming to the freshwater stream of its birth, spawning, and dying. (Rui Han)

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it is a reproductive strategy where the organisms lay eggs that develops and hatches outside of the mother’s body. Within the egg it contains all the nutrients required for the development of the embryo until it reaches a stage where it can survive independently. (Jerod)

In oviparous species, fertilization can occur internally or externally, depending on the species. This primary feature of oviparity is that the embryo develops in a protected environment, often within a shell or egg case, but does not receive further direct nourishment from the mother after the eggs are laid. (Jerod)

Advantages (Rui Han):

Are able to produce a large number of eggs, increasing the likelihood that some off-springs will survive to adulthood.

One example would be a female Ocean Sunfish which can produce up to 300 million eggs in a single spawning cycle (Mola mola)

The production of eggs requires relatively less energy as compared to other reproductive strategies

Disadvantages (Rui Han):

The larvae are very vulnerable as they drift through the water column, subjected to predation, environmental conditions

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It is a reproductive strategy whereby organisms gives birth to live young that have developed inside the mother’s body. In viviparous species, the embryo is nourished directly by the mother, typically through a specialized structure called a placenta or a similar organ that facilitates nutrient and gas exchange.

Viviparity allows the development of the embryo within a protected environment, providing it with continuous nourishment and protection from external harm. This strategy often results in fewer offspring compared to oviparous reproduction but can increase the likelihood of offspring survival. (Jerod)

Advantages (Rui Han):

The embryos receive direct nourishment form the mother, allowing for a more complete development.

Off-springs are fully advanced at birth, with a greater chance of survival as they are capable of fending for themselves immediately.

Disadvantages (Rui Han):

If the mother dies, the off-spring are likely to die as they rely completely on heir mother for nourishment and protection during their development.

The mother carrying the off-spring is more vulnerable to predation as carrying the developing young can hinder their mobility and increase their energy needs.

An example would be dolphins where they occur where the mother is supported by other members of her pod. (Rui Han)

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It is a reproductive strategy where embryos develop inside the mother’s body but is not directly nourished by the mother. In this strategy, the eggs are fertilized internally, and the developing embryos are enclosed in eggs, which hatch internally before the young are born. The embryos rely on the yolk stored in the eggs for nourishment. (Jerod)

Advantages (Rui Han):

The eggs develop within the mother's body, providing greater protection from predations and environmental conditions as compare to oviparous species.

The off-springs are born live more developed at birth which significantly increases their chances of survival as they are able to fend for themselves better.

Disadvantage (Rui Han):

Lower off-springs are produced compared to oviparous species as it requires a lot of energy for the females to carry the eggs inside her until there are more mature to be born live.

One example would be tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) where their eggs hatch internally and are born live when fully developed. (Rui Han)

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It is a reproductive strategy in which an organism reproduces multiple times throughout its lifetime. Unlike semelparity, where an organism reproduces only once before dying, iteroparous organisms have several reproductive events over their lifespan. This strategy often involves producing fewer offspring per event but allows the organism to reproduce repeatedly, which can increase the chances of reproductive success over time. (Jerod)

Disadvantages (Rui Han):

Resources must be divide between current reproduction, future reproduction, growth, and survival which can limit the number of off-spring produced in any single event. (Energy Allocation Trade-offs)

An example would be , minnows (Cyprinidae) (Rui Han)

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It is a reproductive strategy in which organisms release a large number of eggs and sperm into the water column at the same time, allowing fertilization to occur externally. This method involves minimal to no parental care and relies on the sheer quantity of gametes to increase the likelihood of successful fertilization. (Jerod)

Key characteristics of broadcast spawning include: (Jerod)

Large Gamete Release: Both eggs and sperm are released into the water simultaneously.

External Fertilization: Fertilization occurs outside the body of the organisms, in the water column.

Minimal Parental Care: Usually, there is no parental care of the eggs or offspring after spawning.

Disadvantages (Rui Han):

There is a high mortality due to predation and environmental factors

Fertilizations success is highly dependent on water conditions, currents, and timing

Gametes can also be diluted in the water column, reducing the likelihood of fertilization

One example would be the elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata)

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It is a reproductive strategy where the eggs are laid on or near the substrate such as the sea floor, coral reefs, or vegetation rather than being released into the water column. This method often involves some form of parental care or protection of the eggs.

Key characteristics of demersal spawning include:

Egg Placement: Eggs are deposited on a surface or in a specific location rather than being scattered in open water.

Protection: The eggs are often laid in nests or in other protected areas to reduce predation and environmental hazards.

Parental Care: Many demersal spawners exhibit some degree of parental care, such as guarding the eggs or ensuring the eggs are in a safe environment. (Jerod)

Advantages (Rui Han):

Eggs are often well hidden or camoflauged, reducing the risk of predatiion

Eggs are less likely to be swept away by the currents

Disadvantages (Rui Han):

Eggs are very vulnerable to changes in water quality, temperatures and oxygen levels.

Demersal spawners that guard eggs would cost more energy and increases the chances of predation for the parents.

One example would be clownfish, where they lay eggs on anemone substrates and provides parental care for them. (Rui Han)

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It is a reproductive condition in which an individual organism possesses both male and female reproductive organs. This allows the organism to perform both sperm and egg production functions. Hermaphroditism can occur in several forms:

1. Simultaneous Hermaphroditism:

An individual has both male and female reproductive organs at the same time and can potentially produce both eggs and sperm simultaneously.

2. Sequential Hermaphroditism:

An individual starts as one sex and later changes to the other sex during its lifetime. This can be either from male to female (protandry) or from female to male (protandry).

(Jerod)

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Polygamous is a type of mating system where one sex has multiple partners of the opposite sex. However, it can split into 2 different sub-categories. (Jervis)

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Polyandry is when one female individual mates with multiple males, some benefits of polyandry include

1. Increased genetic diversity, by mating with many males, genetically diverse offspring will be produced, enhancing their survival and adaptability in various environments

2. Higher fertilization rates, with multiple mates, there will be more sperm, ensuring fertilization of the egg

3. Parental care, Multiple males may contribute to the care and protection of the offspring, increasing chance of survival

(Jervis)

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Polygyny is when one male individual mates with multiple female, some benefits of polygyny include

1. Increased reproductive output for male, mating with many females mean that males can father a larger number of offspring, spreading their genes widely across the population.

2. Access to resources for female, males of species that undergo polygyny usually have to control either valuable territory or resources to attract many female, females that mate with these males will have access to these territories or resources.

3. Quality genes, females can mate with males with preferable traits such as larger size and since there are multiple

(Jervis)

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Hermaphroditism refers to presence of both male and female reproductive organs within an individual. It can be split into 2 categories. (Jervis)

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A type of hermaphroditism where organisms are born with both male and female reproductive systems, allowing them to act as both male and female in reproduction. (Jervis)

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A type of hermaphroditism where organism changes sex at some point in it life. This can also be split up into 2 different categories. (Jervis)

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Protogyny is when a female transitions into a male. This usually occurs in species where males benefits from being larger. Young female species are still able to reproduce but as they mature and grow larger they transition to male as they are large enough to defend mates and offspring, allowing them to contribute to reproduction their whole life. (Jervis)

One example would be a reef fish, bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum). In this species, dominant males defend spawning sites for courtship with females. Loss of a dominant male results in protogynous sex change of a large female. (Rui Han)

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Protandry is when a male transitions into a female. This usually occurs in a species where female benefits from being larger, as if they are larger they may be able to lay more eggs due to their size, this increases reproductive success due to more offspring. (Jervis)

Protandry is rare as compared to protogyny. (Rui Han)

One example would would be monogamous clownfish (Amphiprion and Premnas sp.) show protandrous sex change. In a small social group of clownfish, there is typically a single breeding pair consisting of a dominant female and a smaller male, along with several smaller, non-breeding subordinate fish. If the dominant female dies, the smaller male undergoes protandrous sex change to become female, and one of the subordinate males matures to take over as the breeding male. (Rui Han)

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Different to oviparity, ovuliparity is where fertilization is external. The female releases unfertilised oocytes into the environment, while the male releases sperm near the eggs. Most ovuliparious eggs contain more yolk to support the growth and activity of the embryo after fertilization. (Justin)

One example would be trout. Trout are ovuliparous and they reproduce through a process called spawning. (8) The female trout, often called a "redd", selects a suitable spawning site in a clean, gravelly area of a river or a stream. (9) She uses her tail to create a depression in the gravel, which will serve as a nest for the eggs. (10) The female will release her eggs into the nest (11) and then the male trout, which will be attracted by the female's release of pheromones, fertilizes the eggs by releasing his milt (sperm) over them. The female then covers the fertilized eggs with gravel to protect them from predators and the current. (12) (Verine)

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Black Hamlet (Hypoplectrus nigricans) - Simultaneous Hermaphrodite and Polygamous) - Jervis

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Case Study of Giant Australian Cuttlefish !!! (Sepia apama) 

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Case Study of Giant Australian Cuttlefish !!! (Sepia apama) 

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Reproductive strategies of Australian Cuttlefish 

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Reproductive strategies of Australian Cuttlefish 

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Mating and competition

Males possess a specialized arm, the hectocotylus, used to transfer sperm packets to the female. (1)

Males engage in elaborate displays of color and texture to attract females. These displays involve rapid changes in skin pattern and coloration.

When mating does occur, the couple would 'cuddle' in a head-to-head embrace. This act involves the male jetting water from its funnel towards the mouth region of the female and the transfer of sperm packages.

Following mating, males may also actively try to prevent females from mating with other males. (Guarding) (4)

Males may also attempt to displace the sperm of rival males by flushing water through the female during mating to increase the chances of fertilization by their own sperm.

Egg laying and parental care

Unlike many cephalopods, female cuttlefish exhibit some level of parental care, guarding the eggs until they hatch.

The annual aggregation of Giant Australian Cuttlefish for breeding is a spectacular event, providing researchers with a unique opportunity to study their reproductive behaviors in detail. (3)

(Verine)

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How these strategies contribute to the survival of the species

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How these strategies contribute to the survival of the species

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1. Mating Aggregations (Rui Han)

The annual aggregation in Spencer Gulf provides a concentrated areas where thousands of individuals can find mates.

Mass gathering increases the chances of likelihood of successful mating encounters

The genetic pool broadens, promoting genetic diversity within the population, enhancing the species resilience.

2. Displays of Color and Texture (Azhar)

Using cells known as chromatophores, the Giant Cuttlefish can put on spectacular displays, changing colour in an instant.

By raising parts of its skin, it can also change shape and texture to imitate rock, sand or seaweed.

To entice females, males perform intricate displays of color and texture changes.

These displays, which alter skin tone and pattern quickly and dynamically exhibit the male's physical prowess and superior genetic makeup, these exhibits are meant to draw in females. Strong hereditary qualities and good health may be indicated by displays that are more sophisticated and brighter.

3. Egg laying and parental care (Rui Han)

By guarding their eggs, female cuttlefish protect their eggs from potential predators, reducing the likelihood of their eggs being eaten --> higher survival rate

Parental care for the eggs also helps maintain optimal conditions for the eggs, keeping them clean from sediments and other things that could potentially harm the embryo.

Females also choose their location for laying eggs carefully, often in crevices or under rocks in order to protect them from currents and predators (indirect parent care)

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Male and Female Reproductive Strategies 

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Male and Female Reproductive Strategies 

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Smaller males often employ alternative strategies to overcome size disadvantages through mimicry and stealth.

Mimicry - Some males will mimic the appearance of females in order to avoid confrontation with larger males.

Stealth - Smaller males may attempt to sneak past larger males (using its size as an advantage) to mate with females and avoid competing with larger males.

(Verine)

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Females can store sperm for extended periods, delaying fertilization until optimal conditions (such as optimal water temperature and environment) for egg laying to occur.

Females also play active role in selecting mates, often based on male displays and physical attributes.

(Verine)

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In addition to changing colour, they are able to alter their skin texture to appear smooth or spiky, further enhancing their ability to blend into various environments

They are able to hypnotize their prey with their colour-changing abilities and use their tentacles to capture fish and crustaceans.

Despite their size and intelligence, they have a short lifespan of one to two years :((

(Rui Han)

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Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Mollusca

Class: Cephalopoda

Order: Sepiida

Family: Sepiidae

Conservation status: Near threatened (6)

The Giant Australian Cuttlefish is the largest species of cuttlefish growing up to 50cm in mantle length and weighing over 10kg and is renowned for its remarkable reproductive behaviors and vivid displays. Native to the southern coastlines of Australia , famous for their annual spawning aggregation in the Spencer Gulf, South Australia, where thousands of these individuals gather to mate. Also known for their ability of rapidly change their colour and texture, utilizing these in complex courtship display sand deceptive tactics to maximize reproductive success.

(Rui Han & Verine)

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(Verine)

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Australia's Giant Cuttlefish Aggregation: Science, Stats and Conservation. Spectacular 4K Underwater

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https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn26963-cuttlefish-sex-looks-like-twisted-underwater-embrace%2F&psig=AOvVaw0PidNcSam4Gz-GONKpDmlv&ust=1722413832418000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCKCB59epzocDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAP

(Verine)

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More cuttlefish sex... (privacy please...)

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https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fgreatsouthernreef.com%2Fcuttlefish&psig=AOvVaw0PidNcSam4Gz-GONKpDmlv&ust=1722413832418000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCKCB59epzocDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAJ

(Verine)

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https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarblogs.emory.edu%2Fevolutionshorts%2F2014%2F04%2F26%2Fsexual-evolution-of-the-cuttlefish%2F&psig=AOvVaw0PidNcSam4Gz-GONKpDmlv&ust=1722413832418000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCKCB59epzocDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAU

(Verine)

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As a voracious predator, it helps regulate populations of fish and crustaceans, preventing prey species from overpopulating.

By maintaining prey populations in check, cuttlefish contributes to the overall health and stability of the marine ecosystem.

(Verine)

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Cuttlefish are a significant food source for larger marine predators, including sharks, dolphins, and seabirds.

When cuttlefish die, their bodies decompose, releasing nutrients back into the ecosystem, supporting the growth of phytoplankton and other organisms at the base of the food chain. (Nutrient cycling!!!!)

(Verine)

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The influx of nutrients from cuttlefish and their eggs can enhance local productivity.

(Verine)

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High densities of cuttlefish and their eggs can compete with other species for resources and may alter the local ecosystem temporarily.

(Verine)

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Verine

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(8) Trust, W.T. (2024) Trout Lifecycle. https://www.wildtrout.org/content/trout-lifecycle.

(9) Trout in the classroom (no date). https://www.dnr.sc.gov/aquaticed/trout/cycle.html#:~:text=As%20mating%20time%20approaches%2C%20the,build%20her%20redd%2C%20or%20nest.

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(11) https://teara.govt.nz/en/diagram/19589/rainbow-trout-life-cycle#:~:text=The%20female%20digs%20a%20redd,hatch%2C%20depending%20on%20water%20temperature.

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Rui Han

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Jerod

Wikipedia contributors (2024h) Ovoviviparity. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovoviviparity#:~:text=Ovoviviparity%2C%20ovovivipary%2C%20ovivipary%2C%20or,they%20are%20ready%20to%20hatch.

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Jervis

Orth, D. (no date) Advantages of Reproductive Strategies in Hermaphroditic Fishes, by Britney Kreiner. https://vtichthyology.blogspot.com/2013/05/advantages-of-reproductive-strategies.html#:~:text=Sequential%20hermaphroditism%20is%20an%20advantage,challenges%20of%20population%20structure%20biases.&text=Simultaneous%20hermaphroditism%20is%20exactly%20as,gonads%20at%20the%20same%20time.

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https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(13)01189-5.pdf

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Habitat destruction - Coastal development, pollution and sedimentation can degrade the cuttlefish's habitat, affecting breeding grounds and foraging areas.

Climate change - Rising sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and changes in water currents can disrupt the cuttlefish's life cycle and impact food availability,

Pollution - Industrial activities, including shipping and agriculture, can introduce harmful pollutants into the marine environment, affecting the cuttlefish's health and survival.

Desalination - The process of desalination can increase salinity levels in the water, negatively impacting egg hatching success.

Fishing pressure - Although direct fishing of cuttlefish is regulated, they can be caught as bycatch in other fisheries.

Disturbance - Human activities, such as diving and boating, can stress cuttlefish, especially during breeding season.

(Verine)

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Right (male), Left (Female)

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Predation - Sharks, dolphins, and larger fish prey on cuttlefish, affecting population numbers. (7)

Disease - Outbreaks of diseases can impact cuttlefish populations, especially when they are concentrated in large breeding aggregations.

Food availability - Fluctuations in prey populations can affect cuttlefish survival and reproduction.

(Verine)