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Selection from Illuminated Mishneh Torah, Northern Italy, 1457. Tempera and gold leaf on parchment paper, leather bound.

A law book had never seen such a beautiful illumination by the time this edition of Maimonides’ essential Jewish text was published. Narrative scenes depict the lawful interpretations of Halacha in a non-Jewish world. The image selected shows a man being shown before a rabbinical court, presumably after having done wrong. With the rulings posed by the book, he could be punished with any number of brutalities, including flogging and beatings.

Amid controversial mystic Judaism’s rise to popularity, and finding himself at the mercy of a non-Jewish land, Maimonides denounced unbiblical approaches to Jewish life in the Mishneh Torah and provided strict punishments for breaking its ancient rules, to be upheld and enforced by rabbinical courts during this time period. To this day, no Jewish library is complete without a copy of the Mishneh Torah.

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Title page of the first printed Edition of the Zohar. Ink on Paper, 1558. Library of Congress.

Though the text was first published in the 16th century, the Zohar traces its roots to 1280-86 Spain. In Muslim occupied Spain, Jews flourished academically and theologically and became caught up in a huge, ongoing debate between mysticism and traditionalism. The Zohar is a mystical interpretation of the Torah. It is notoriously difficult to understand. Nevertheless, it created the foundation for the mystic spectrum of Judaism known as Kabbalah, which is still practiced and renowned in the present.

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Sana’a Pentateuch, 1469, Sana’a, Yemen. Ink on Vellum. Via British Library.

Micrography as depicted in this picture is a Jewish art form, originating in the early medieval era. Tiny Hebrew script like that of this sample page are used to create geometric patterns and other unique shapes. Jewish art tends to mimic the art of whatever country it is created in. Seeing as this was created in Muslim dominated Yemen, this art work is emblematic of Islamic architecture: symmetry, animal and floral motifs, and geometric patterns are utilized in this micrographic depiction of a Psalm.

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Arba’ah Turim by Yaakov Ben Asher; illuminated manuscript. Ink on parchment, 1475. Via the British Library.

Arba’ah Turim was a series of Halakhic (Jewish law) code composed by a Rabbi. Of important debate during this time period (and today) was the observance of Jewish law in a non-Jewish society. The laws in this book govern every aspect of life, from eating to marriage. In spite of intense antisemitism and censorship of Jewish texts that defied Christian law in the fourteenth century, rabbis continued creating texts like these designed to help Jews keep kosher in exile.  The intricate illumination of the text mimics Christian prayer books and illuminated Bibles from this era.

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Amulet-Armband; Silver, inscribed. Egyptian or Greek, ca. sixth to seventh century. Via the Israel Museum.

This armband, inscribed with the Jewish Shema (daily prayer) along with Psalm 91 in the Greek language, was believed to have apotropaic properties. Medallions, amulets, coins, and armbands like this one, with Biblical verses inscribed, were commonly created to ward off a variety of diseases, miscarriage, infertility, and untimely death. They were very popular among Jews in the Middle Ages. In spite of Biblical passages condemning sorcerers, many if not most people nevertheless took part in magical practice throughout the Middle Ages.

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Woodcut illustration. Circa 15th Century, via British Library.

A focus of everyday life for Christians in the Middle Ages was to look for signs of anti-Christianity. The Antichrist was said to be looming around the corner, looking for people to tempt with sin and villainy. This illustration comes from “Life of the Malicious Antichrist”, and speaks of the Antichrist’s false miracles. In this scene, the Antichrist is perched at a podium and bribes his followers— all wearing turbans and hats in order to indicate that they are Jewish—with money. Many believed that the Antichrist would be Jewish and preach to Jewish followers. Desecrated Christian iconography appears in the foreground. Jews were depicted as greedy, selfish, and impious in almost all Christian propaganda.

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Double Cup, German or Bohemian. Circa 1325-50. Silver and enamel. Via the Met.

This drinking vessel was also found in the Colmar Treasure (see the gold wedding ring). The cup was designed to be shared among two people. A coat of arms on the top of the cup, depicting three Jewish hats, place it as the property of a Jewish family in Zurich. The cup also features the names of the Magi, or the Wise Men who brought Christ gifts at his birth. Interestingly, their names were often used by both Christians and Jews alike to evoke good fortune during this era.

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Painting of Queen Esther, Andrea del Castagno, Fresco, circa 1450. Via Uffizi Gallery.

In spite of her status as a Jewish woman, Queen Esther was heralded as a pious and virtuous woman that was given a special status among Christians. Her biblical nature made her an acceptable Jewish role model. Queen Esther is referred to in Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Merchant’s Tale. The story of her winning the affections of the King of Persia was a considered a great romance in the Middle Ages.

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Illuminated Haggadah. Ink on Vellum. Catalonia, 1476. Public domain.

Each year on Passover, Haggadah (or a creative retelling of the story of Exodus) is recited at the table. This picture depicts a Jewish man and boy performing the Havdalah ceremony during Passover. A lion is depicted, presumably to showcase the regal importance of the ceremony. The Hebrew inscription within the panel reads “Barakh”, or blessed. This Haggadah was created in Muslim-conquered Spain, where Jews were free to practice their religion with little to no outside scrutiny. Jews and Christians were considered dhimmis, or non-Muslims with legal protections in an Islamic state. Many enjoyed high status positions in society as merchants, academics, and scholars. However, a little under twenty years after this book was produced, Catholic monarchs conquered Spain and immediately began persecuting the Jews. Many were forced to convert to Christianity. In 1492, they were expelled from Spain.

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Gold and enamel wedding ring; circa 1300-1348. Via the Met.

This intricate wedding band bears an inscription that reads “Mazel Tov”. In Colmar, a city by the Rhine River in present-day France, the Jewish population thrived among their Christian neighbors in what was then the Holy Roman Empire. However, when the Black Plague erupted in the mid fourteenth century, hysteria ensued and the Jews were accused of poisoning the wells in order to kill off Christians. The Vatican attempted to rectify the situation to no avail. The people of Colmar burned their Jewish citizens at the stake. The Roman Emperor laid claim to any Jewish valuables, which included this ceremonial wedding band. It, along with other items, was buried for safekeeping but forgotten until it was rediscovered in the nineteenth century.