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Good Morning

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Good Morning.

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hello

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hello

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greetings fellow humans

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hello

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hello

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hello

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Scale rules have different sizes as there is different sized things that need to fit on a page such as floor plans side plans and more.

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scale ruler- 1:1 1:5 1:10 1:20 1:100 1:50 1:200 A scale drawing is a shrunk down version of a larger drawing

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bench marking setting out buildings -marking out , positioning of a building

Methane gas can be a problem

Mistakes are expensive to correct on further stages it could even result in the building been demolished

Building line imaginary line set by the local authority

Boundary Line is something you cant build over like. A fence

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helo0]

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barren land is where buildings are torn down and left for ages and possibly decades. A building line is an imaginary border to let you know where you are allowed to build as it shows which piece of land is your property this can be shown as a wall or fence

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a temporary bench mark (TBM) is used a a level to build off of

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you can use pythagorian theorem to ensure that something is square

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keeping level Osbm ordnance survey bench mark also known as datum

Used for the sea level mark

Transit levels. Can provide a vertical plum line

Laser levels are the modern Piece of technology

Keeping it square is very important cause a building needs ro be square 90

To. Make. It square the 3 4 5 message is used Pythagorastherum.

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contract documents, like agreements, drawings, and specifications; legal and administrative documents, such as permits, licenses, and insurance; project management documents, including progress reports, risk assessments, and method statements; and technical documents, like site plans, structural drawings, and bills of quantities

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risk assesments ,spreadsheets, blueprints , accident book, drawings , invoice, contract

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blue prints

Floor plan

Risk assessment

Rules and regulations

Costs and orders

Drawings

schedules

Emails

Letters

cdm. Regs

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pipes should be insulated to keep them from bursting.

lower R values means better insulation capabilities

Wet insulation loses up to 50% of its capabilities

Glass wool or rock wool trap air in fine fibers

Polystyrene and polyisocyanurate foam contain trapped gas cells

perlite, vermiculite, and cellulose offer loose fill options

foil faced surfaces reflect heat

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Thermal resistance (r-value)- higher R-values indicate superior insulation performance.

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Lower R values means it has better insulation capabilities.

Glass wool and mineral wool trap air in fine fibres.

Polystyrene and polyisocyanurate foam contain trapped gas cells.

Perlite, vermiculate and cellulose offer loose-fill options.

Foil-faced materials reduce radiant heat transfer by reflecting thermal radiation.

If insulation becomes wet it will have less capabilities and will be less efficient.

Refrigeration systems, chilled water distribution and cryogenic storage facilities require specialised low-temperature insulation.

Hot water systems. steam distribution and HVAC applications utilise standard thermal insulation materials.

XPS foam boards have excellent moisture resistance.

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1.to reduce the rate of heat transfer, keeping a heated space warm in winter and a cooled space cool in summer by minimizing heat loss or gain

2.prevents heat transfer

3.to prevent mold growth, maintain energy efficiency, protect structural integrity, and extend the lifespan of buildings

4.Temperature range determines the thermal conductivity and R-value of insulation materials

5.impacting its thermal resistance (R-value), thermal mass, and sound insulation capabilities

6.to save lives by providing time for safe evacuation and firefighting, prevent property damage by slowing fire spread and maintaining structural integrity, and comply with building regulations which mandate specific fire performance standards for safety

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1. The primary purpose of thermal insulation materials is to help heat to be contained in a building

2. Lower thermal conductivity means superior insulation as significantly less heat passes through the material.

3. Moisture can severely degrade insulation effectiveness by increasing heat transfer through conduction pathways.

4. Fibrous (glass wool), cellular (foam boards), granular (perlite), and reflective (foil-faced) materials each serve specific purposes.

5. Materials must withstand and perform efficiently within specific temperature ranges to maintain effectiveness and safety.

6. Higher density typically provides better durability and structural integrity but may increase weight and cost considerations.

7. Fire resistance ensures occupant safety and prevents fire spread in buildings and critical industrial equipment.

8. .

9. Different materials slow ice melting at varying rates by reducing heat flow, clearly demonstrating relative insulation quality

10. .

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1. Minimising heat flow, energy efficiency and comfort (ORIGINAL ANSWER). To reduce heat transfer and maintain desired temperatures efficiency in various applications and environments.

2. Thermal conductivity is a critical factor in determining the effectiveness of insulation materials in construction (ORIGINAL ANSWER). Lower thermal conductivity means superior insulation as significantly less heat passes through the material.

3. To reduce stop mold from growing and maintain energy efficiency (ORIGINAL ANSWER). Moisture can severely degrade insulation effectiveness by increasing heat transfer through conduction pathways.

4. Fibrous, cellular and reflective materials each serve specific purposes.

5. Materials must withstand and perform efficiently within specific temperature ranges to maintain effectiveness and safety.

6. Higher density typically provides better durability and structural integrity but may increase weight and cost considerations.

7. Fire resistance ensures occupant safety and prevent fire spread in buildings and critical industrial equipment.

8. By carefully considering R-value requirement, durability needs, installation ease and comprehensive budget constants.

9. Different materials slow ice melting and varying rates by reducing heat flow.

10. Different materials slow ice melting and varying rates by reducing hear flow demonstrating relative insulation quality.

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building information management

temperature sensors monitor the heat levels outside and either switches on the radiators or AC

buildings consume 30 to 40% of global energy and contribute to 1 third of greenhouse gas emissions

water scarcity and rising energy demand threaten ecosystems and human health across the globe

efficient buildings reduce carbon footprint conserve precious resources and lower operational costs significantly

houses in the Northern hemisphere typically face south as that's where the sun rises in the UK

properly sized high efficient HVAC equipment like heat pumps and condensing boilers deliver optimal comfort

strategic placement of windows skylights and light wells maximises natural lighting

energy efficient LED lighting combined with occupancy sensors ensures lights operate only when needed

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Building information management it informs the computer and will inform the full system to shut down.

Heat levels outside and either switches on the radiators or AC.

Water scarcity and rising energy demand threaten ecosystems and human health across the globe.

Efficient buildings reduce carbon footprint, conserve precious resources and lower operation costs significantly.

Buildings consumer 30-40 percent of globe energy and contribute over one-third of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.

The urgency for sustainable building practices has never been greater. With rapid urbanisation and climate pressures mounting every building decision today shapes our environment tomorrow.

High-performance insulation and continuous air sealing from the foundation of energy efficiency.

Double or triple-glazed windows with low-emissivity coatings significantly improve thermal performance.

Properly sized, high-efficiency HVAC equipment like heat pumps and condensing boilers deliver optimal comfort whilst minimising energy consumption.

ERV and HRV systems recycle heat from exhaust air whilst providing fresh air circulation.

Zoning systems and programmable thermostats enable precise temperature control in different building areas.

Strategic placement of windows, skylights and light wells maximises natural lighting.

Energy-efficient LED lighting combined with occupancy sensors ensures lights operate only when needed.

Rooftop solar photovoltaic panels with optimal orientation and grid-tied net metering generate clean electricity.

Install WaterSense-labelled toilets, faucets and showerheads that maintain performance whilst significantly reducing water consumption.

Rainwater harvesting captures precipitation for irrigation and non-potable uses.

Design compact plumbing layouts to minimise pipe lengths and reduce water waste.

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1.considering the energy used in manufacturing, the longevity of the material, and its end-of-life recyclability

2.Sustainable building materials can have higher upfront costs, but this is often offset by long-term savings from lower energy consumption, maintenance, and replacement costs, making the overall lifecycle cost comparable or even lower than traditional methods

3.sequestering carbon in buildings, using less energy in manufacturing than steel and concrete, and replacing these high-emission materials, thereby lowering the overall carbon footprint of construction

4.its composition of hemp shiv and lime binder provides both thermal mass and natural breathability, which together regulate indoor temperatures by absorbing and slowly releasing heat

5.can be used for structural elements

6.having a significantly lower carbon footprint than cement

7.reducing waste, lowering energy consumption, minimizing on-site pollution, optimizing material usage, and improving overall energy efficiency due to controlled factory environments

8.higher upfront costs, limited availability of many sustainable materials, a lack of awareness and expertise within the construction industry, and complex regulatory and policy barriers that do not always support innovative solutions

9.significantly reducing transportation-related carbon emissions, thus lowering a project's carbon footprint and greenhouse gas pollution

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1. A building material is eco-friendly if it minimizes environmental impact throughout its entire lifecycle, from extraction and production to use and disposal.

2. Sustainable building materials can have higher upfront costs, but this is often offset by long-term savings from lower energy consumption, reduced maintenance, and lower replacement costs.

3. CLT reduces carbon emissions by isolating carbon absorbed by trees during their growth, locking it in the wood, and by replacing carbon-intensive conventional materials like steel and concrete.

4. Hempcrete is an good insulation material because its composition of hemp shiv and a lime binder provides a unique combination of low conductivity, high thermal mass, and vapour permeability.

5. Cork can also be used for other structural elements in construction, such as flooring, wall coverings, and external facades.

6. Lime mortars contribute to sustainability by having a significantly lower carbon footprint due to less energy-intensive production and by actively absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere as they cure, making them a carbon-neutral or even carbon-negative material.

7. Prefabrication plays a vital role in sustainable construction by significantly reducing waste through controlled factory environments, improving energy efficiency by creating tighter building envelopes, and lowering the carbon footprint by reducing transportation emissions and optimizing material use.

8. .

9. challenges exist in the UK when adopting sustainable materials, including high upfront costs, limited availability and supply chain issues, a lack of awareness and expertise, regulatory complexities, and resistance to changing established industry practices.

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1. Environmental impact, resource efficiency, durability, health and well-being and regulatory compliance.

2. Sustainable building materials are generally more expensive upfront than traditional materials, but they offer long term savings and benefits.

3. As trees absorb carbon dioxide as they grow and the wood structure absorbs the carbon.

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1.Aggrogate, sand shar and cement.

2.4 sand shar, 2 Aggrogate and cement.

3.The 3 main types of foundations used in constructions are strip and wide strip, raft and pile foundation.

4.4 ballast and 1 cement depending on the foundation.

5.6 ballast and 1 cement.

6.Strip foundations are arguably the cheapest form of foundation available to designers and constructors.

7.Excavate trench, pour concrete, reinforce with rebar, construct walls to DPC and backfill as required.

8.Raft foundations are often used where the ground had poor load-bearing capacity.

9.Excavate soil, stabilise soil, pour concrete raft and construct walls.

10.Hardcore is a layer of solid, granular, non-combustible materials such as crushed rock, gravel and recycled concrete or bricks.

11.Piled foundations are frequently used on large, heavy buildings or where the ground had poor load-bearing capabilities.

12.

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concrete

4 fine aggregate

2 course aggregate

1 cement powder

or

6 ballast

1 concrete

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Waste Management

10 Tonnes of builing waste is created every year costing roughly 1.5 billion pounds

what is waste

waste can be any sort of material that cant be used in any sort of way or scrap material.

inert waste is waste that will not decompose such as rubble metal and rubber

putrescible waste is waste that will rot such as timber food and paper

special waste is waste that is dangerous to dispose of

there are individual tip for certain waste materials

tip A brick rubble cement paster paster board

tip B empty paint tins adhesive tins or drums

tip C wood cardboard paper carpet

tip D scrap metal pipe wire

tip E various chemicals oil grease

tip F PVC window mouldings gutters and down pipes

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waste is something That is useable or unwanted products.

Rubble is inert waste that doesn’t decompose putrescible is something that decays like food paper

Special waste is dangerous eg oil chemicals

Big skip costs around 300 pounds

Liscence is required if you deposit recover or dispose of. Controlled waste

A. Brick

B paint tins

C. Wood

D pipes.

E oil

F gutters

Site waste management plans regs 2008

Part h of the building regulations

Improves health safety and welfare

Helps reduce cost of materials

Household waste.

Industrial and commercial waste

Grey water clean waste. Water from baths and kitchen apliainces

Foul water is toilet water cess pit

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1.5 billion of waste every year

waste is stuff that no longer has use like offcuts of wood broken bricks any unwanted items waste that will not decompose like rubble concrete metal rubal there is diffrent tips for everything site waste pans regulations 2008 part H of the building regulations improves health and safety on site for foul water drainage and disposal

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1.10 million tonnes of construction products are wasted every year, at a cost of $1.5 billion.

2.Weight-24% wood, 38% cardboard, 11% drywall, 1% masonry, metals and other.

3.Waste are things that have no use or barley any use for example metal, wood and bricks.

4.Waste is any substance which constitutes a scrap material or effluent, or otherwise any unwanted surplus arising from the application of any process.

5.Any substance or article which requires disposal as being broken, worn out, contaminated or otherwise spoiled.

6.Controlled waste is building and demolition waste and household industrial and commercial waste and it may also be divided into three types inert waste, putrescible waste and special waste.

7.Putrescible waste is waste which will rot and decompose for example timber, food and paper.

8.Special waste is waste which is dangerous to keep or dispose of for example oil, adhesives and chemicals.

9.The average 8 cubic yard skip costs $150.

10.The average cost of what is being thrown away in that skip is over $1.5 billion.

11.A reduction of 1% of this would save $15 million.

12.A licence is required if you deposit, recover or dispose of controlled waste.

13.A building contractor for example a joiner even if they carry their own waste, must have a proper transfer note, and this must be given to the site receiving the waste.

14.The transfer note must contain an honest description of the waste and it is illegal to carry or dispose of waste without a carrier licence and can result in getting fined.

15.A-brick, rubble, cement, plaster, plasterboard.

16.B-empty paint tins, adhesive tins or drums.

17.Site Waste Management Plans Regulations 2008.

18.Part H of the Building Regulations.

19.Improves health, safety and welfare on site, helps reduce cost of materials through recycling and can help reduce wastage costs.

20.Part H ensure that drainage systems are installed correctly to prevent blockages, leaks and pollution.

21.Part H6-solid waste storage.

22.PartH6-A-relevant waste collection legislation.

23.These regulations cover the storage and collection of household waste, industrial and commercial waste and they also cover access for the removal of waste to be maintained.

24.A ses pit is where all the extrament goes and stores it all and away from fresh water.

25.Industrial waste contains waste such as steel, oil and methane.

26.If you are involved in a construction or demolition project in the UK worth $300,000 or more, you have a legal duty to complete a Site Waste Management Plan.

27.SWMP- SITE WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN.

28.Improve efficiency and profitability by promoting reuse, recycling and recovery of waste rather than disposal.

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waste is something that is in no use anymore.

Type of waste:

-Building and demolition waste and household industrial and commercial waste.

Putrescible waste- waste which will rot and decompose, eg timber, food, paper.

Special waste- waste which is dangerous to keep or dispose of, eg oils

Site waste facts-

-The average 8 cubic skip costs around £150

-The average cost of what is being thrown away in that skip is over £1500

waste management system

-A licence is required if you deposit, recover or dispose of controlled waste.

-A building contractor who carries waste, eg a joiner, even if they carry their own waste, must have a proper transfer note, and this must be given to the site receiving the waste.

Loads should be segregated for correct disposal. This may mean several skips:

-A- brick, rubble, cement, plaster, plasterboard

-B-empty paint tins, adhesive tins or drums

-c-wood, carboard, paper, carpet

-D-Scrap, metal, pipe, wire

-E-various chemicals, oil grease

-F- PVC window mouldings, gutters and down pipes

The importance of waste management

1-Site waste management plans regulations 2008

2-Part H of the building regulations

Part H pf the buildings regulations

Part H6- solid waste storage

Part-H6-A - a relevant waste collection legislation

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10 million tonnes of construction products are wasted each year such as bricks wood plastics any thing youre not going to use anymore

inert waste: that wont decompose is like bricks

putrescible waste: waste that will rott

Special waste: is which is dangerous to decompose of

you have to have a permit to dump waste it is illiagal to dump with out one

the skips are separated by correct disposal A- brick rubble cement plaster plaster bored B-empty paint tins adhesive tins or drums C-wood cardbored paper carpet D- srap metal pipe wire E-vairous chemicals oil greace F- PVC window moldings gutters and down pipes

PART H building building regulations improves health and safty and wellfare on site helps deduce cost of matrials through recyling can help reduce waste cost

waste management

three aims of the SWMP

Improve efficiency and pofobilaty by promoting reuse, recycling and recovery of waste rather than disposoble

reduce fly tipping by keeping a full audit trail of waste removed from sites and complying with waste duty of ceare regulations

Increce environmental awarness of your workforce mangement your environments

mangement performance is likely to improve the more your workers are aware of their responcebilitys including site waste mangement plan information in induction training or as part of environmental awareness training can help with his aim

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1.Strip foundations are the cheapest form of foundation available.

2.Raft foundations are often used when the ground had poor load-bearing capacity.

3.Pile foundations are frequently used on large or heavy buildings.

4.Raft foundations steps-Excavate soil, stabalise soil, pour concrete raft and finally construct walls.

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Strip-a continious strip of concrete poured into a shallow trench to support load-bearing walls or closely spaced columns

common type of shallow foundation for light to moderate loads on stable

it can also be cost effective

pile- Installing long, slender piles (columns) made of concrete, steel, or timber deep into the ground to transfer a structures load to stronger soil or rock layers.

common methods

-driven piles

-bored piles

Raft-Preparing a site by excavating levelling, and compacting the ground, then laying a hard-core sub-base.

Key steps include placing damp-proof and insulation membranes, building form-work, and ensuring proper concrete coverage for the steel reinforcement.

Slab- a thick, level concrete slab poured directly on the ground floor of a building.

it is a popular and often cost-effective foundation type.

Includes a gravel base for drainage and steel reinforcement.

Internal and external walls:

Internal wall- An internal wall is a wall inside a building that divides rooms or spaces. It can be load-bearing or non-load bearing.

External wall:

An external wall forms the outside of a building, providing structual support, weather protection, insulation, and security. It seperates the inside of the building from the external environment.

Load bearing wall- a structual wall that supports and transfers the weight of the building, such as the roof, floors, and walls above it, down to the foundation.

None bearing wall- an interior wall that does not support the structual load of a building, such as a roof or floor above it.

Load bearing walls-

Lightweight or medium-density blocks, 100mm tick, are commonly used at this stage and can be used for the ground floor partitons, however ensuring they have the same density as the external walls.

This is timber stud work that is non loadbearing. The upper loads are being carried by the steel girders.

Internal wall finishing:

-plastering

-dry lining

-Dot and Dab

Wall ties:

Wall ties are used to hold the inner and outer leaves of a cavity wall to together to strengthen it.

They are positioned in between the mortar joints

Building reg state the maximum spacing for wall ties should be no more than 900 mm horizontally and no more than 450 mm vertically.

Weep vent/ holes:

weep vents provide essential ventilation for the internal wall cavity and drainage of water that may have entered the cavity through condensation, building damage or capillary action.

Left unmaintained, weep holes can provide access for wasps and bees. Its therefor vital that weep holes are maintained with suitable and dedicated weep vents, ensuring air can flow, water can drain and unwanted visitors are kept out.

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foundations.

raft,pad,strip,pile

concrete mix

weight of the structure

purpose of the structure

history of the site

the soil of the site

ground support

activity in the structure

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pile a deep foundation that concists of long slender beams or concrete colloumbs

pad a rectanguler concrete load used to support a single point

strip a contiunus strip of leveld out concrete shearing the weight of the wall

raft a large concrete slab covering an entire blue print

concrete 1 cement 2 gravel 3 sand

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Pad foundation is a shallow foundation used to support. Things like a pier

Pile foundations is a deep foundation thats consists of long slender concrete datum’s

Strip foundation is a continuous strip. Of level concrete distributing the weight evenly.

Raft foundation is a large concrete slab that covers an entire footprint of a building

Concrete. Ratio is. 1.2.3

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An internal wall is a wall inside a building that divides rooms or spaces. it can be load bearing or non-load bearing.

An external wall forms the outside of a building, providing structural support, weather protection, insulation, and security. It seperates the inside of the building from the external environment.

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internal walls are the walls inside your house that divides rooms it can be load bearing or non load bearing

external walls are the outside walls of a building providing support weather protection insulation and security.

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as the external structure rises it will need to be buttressed by the internal walls or inner leaf and on the ground floor those walls will be supporting the first floor structure too. because of this they should rise from the foundations as load bearing walls and be tied in to the external walls

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Unit of area is meters

W x h

Internal wall finish plastering dry lining dot and dab

Wall Ties hold the internal and external walls from collapsing.

900 mm Horizontally 450Mm vertically

Weep vents and holes-allow drainage of water and any unwanted insects

Dpc is a layer that reverts water and moisture. From entering the building 150mm from the ground

Motor holds bricks

External walls can be rendered Render is sand and cement

Brick bonds stretcher and English Flemish

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this is timber stood work that is non load bearing with steel griders r.s.j wall ties should be no more than 900mm and no mo9re than 450mm vertically weep vents so that water can drain out and insects

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internal wall an internal wall is a wall inside a building that devides rooms or spaces it can be load bearing or non load bearing

extranal wall an extrenall wall forms of a building providing structual support wether protection insulation and securaty, it separeates the inside and the out side of the building

load bearing wall a structurall wall that holds and transfears the weight of the building such as the roof the walls and the foor above it down to the foundation #

none bering wall an intireor wall that dose not support the structual load of a building such as a roof or floor above it

internall walls will need to be butrest by extrnall walls or iner leaf or and the ground floor those walls are also supported by the ground flooring

load bearing walls always runn perpendicular to the joists

light weight blocks are used to ensure intiror walls have the same dencity as extirior walls

Any internall walls can be load bearing timber or block work

if its a timber all its set by a steel joist

the formular for mesureing a wall is hight times with or with times hight

wall ties make sure the wall docent fall in or out and they have to be in the regulations of more than 900mm horizontally and no more than 450mm vertically

walls that weep holes are mentatind with suitible and dedicated weep vents ensureing air can flow water can drain and unwanted visters can keep out

DPC has to be intalled 150 miters above extrnal wall finish it prevents riseing damp

morter is used to bond extria bricks

external walls can be coverd in render is a mix of sand an cement

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1.An internal wall is a wall inside a building that divides rooms or spaces and it can be a load-bearing or non-load-bearing.

2.An external wall forms the outside of a building, providing structural support, weather protection, insulation and security and separates the building from the external environment.

3.The purpose of a load-bearing wall is to support the weight of the structure above it and transfer the vertical load down to the foundation.

4.The purpose of a non-load-bearing wall is used to divide space and create rooms.

5.As the external structure rises it will need to be buttressed by the internal walls, or inner leaf, and, on the ground floor, those walls will be supporting the first-floor structure too.

6.Load-bearing walls always run perpendicular to the joist.

7.Lightweight or medium-density blocks, 100mm thick, are commonly used at this stage and can be used for the ground floor partitions, however ensuring they have the same density as the external walls.

8.Upper loads are being carried by the stell girders (R.S.J).

9.Internal walls-Partition walls-Block work, Timber stud work (Softwood or Canadian lumber standard) and Metal stud.

10.Metal studwork can be used in the same way as timber, it is very quick to erect and has better fire-resistant properties.

11.Internal walls are constructed to divide the internal space in useable rooms, they can be load bearing to support any walls, floors and roofs above, the main two types are-Blockwork and timber and both types can be load bearing-therefore a survey must be carried out prior to any work altering internal walls.

12.The formula for measuring walls is AREA=WIDTHXHEIGHT.

13.Internal wall finishes-Plastering, Dry lining and Dot and dab.

14.Cavity walls-A cavity is placed between the inner and outer leaf of the wall.

15.Wall ties are used to hold the inner and outer leaves of a cavity wall to together to strengthen it, they are positioned in between the mortar joints, building regs state that the maximum spacing for wall ties should be no more than 900mm horizontal and no more then 450mm vertically.

16.Weep vents provide essential ventilation for the internal wall cavity and drainage of water that may have entered the cavity through condensation, building damage or capillary action.

17.Left unmaintained, weep holes can provide access for wasps and bees. It's therefore vital that weep holes are maintained with suitable and dedicated weep vents, ensuring the air can flow.

18.The wall can be left without the external render finish, SOLID WALLS-THE WALL IS CONSTRUCTED AS A SINGLE LEAF.

19.DPC-A damp proof course is installed to prevent rising damp entering the property.

20.Mortar is the workable paste used to bind bricks.

21.External walls can be coated in render.

22.Brick bonds-When bricks and blocks are laid the vertical joints are staggered.

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1) weather barrier and structal support. Provide shelter, support structure, resist weather, provide security, thermal/sound insulation

2) a solid wall is a single wall with a thick layer of masonry and cavity wall is 2 layers and also leavs a gap Solid wall = one leaf thick; cavity wall = two leaves with air gap/insulation

3) exterior wall,internal wall, cavity wall Inner leaf, outer leaf, wall ties, DPC, insulation, cavity

4) timber and plasterboard Timber studwork, metal stud, blockwork, plasterboard 5)to connect the inner and outer wall Tie leaves together for strength/stability; prevent separation
6) To stop moisture rising through the wall B – To stop moisture rising through the wall
7)Internal partition wall C – Internal partition wall
8) On the inner surface of the plaster B – Between the inner and outer leaves

9) it can be stopped by using damp proof course dpc Cavity acts as barrier; wall ties angled downward; cavity trays; DPC/DPM

10) installation effiency and modern flexibility Lightweight and easy to install; flexible for layout changes; conceal services; good acoustic properties

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Q 1 to have structual support and environmtal cupport

Q2 cavity wall has two seprete layers with a space between while a soild wall is just one single leyer of brick

Q3 outter leaf inner leaf cavity

Q4 wood and plasterbored

Q5to connect the inner and outta layers (inner and outta leafs)

Q6 B

Q7 C

Q8 B

Q9 by placing damp proof casing two bricks with of the ground hight

Q10 cheap and quick to put up

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1. The two main functions of an external wall in a building are to act as a weather barrier and to provide structural support

2. A solid wall is a single, thick layer of masonry, while a cavity wall consists of two separate walls with a gap, or cavity, in between them.

3. The three primary components of a typical cavity wall construction are the outer leaf, the inner leaf, and the cavity.

4. Two materials commonly used to construct internal partition walls are plasterboard and timber.

5. The purpose of wall ties in a cavity wall is to connect the inner and outer leaves of the wall, providing structural stability by holding them together and preventing them from moving independently.

6. B

7. C

8. B

9. Cavity acts as barrier; wall ties angled downward; cavity trays; DPC/DPM

10. Lightweight and easy to install; flexible for layout changes; conceal services; good acoustic properties

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Two main functions of having an external wall building?

Structural support and environmental protection.

The difference between a solid wall and a cavity wall?

Solid walls consist of a single layer of material whereas cavity walls have two layers with a gap in between, providing better insulation and moist control.

Three components of typical cavity wall construction?

Inner leaf, Outer leaf and cavity.

Two materials commonly used to construct internal partition walls?

Gypsum wallboards and Glass partition walls.

What is the purpose of wall ties in cavity walls?

They act as connectors holding the two walls together.

Which of the following is a key reason for including damp-proof course in a external wall?

B

Which type of wall is designed to provide rooms within a building?

C

In cavity wall construction insulation is usually placed?

B

Describe how moisture is prevented from crossing the outer leaf to the inner leaf?

DPC

Two reasons why internal stud partition walls are often used in modern construction?

Lightweight and easy to install and flexible for layout changes.

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hardcore is used to provide a firm and solid base to build on

hard should not contain any water solluable sulphates

hardcore must be compressed to 100mm layers maximum

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sleeper walls are built on top of oversite concrete

air brick is used to provide air flow to suspended timber flooring

the insulation is supported so it doesn't touch the floor an become damp

block and beam is typically on the ground floor

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Hardcore must be compacted in 100mm layers maximum thickness. this should prevent any unacceptable settlement beneath the finished solid floor.

Hollow ground floors are traditionally constructed of timber. However, the preparation for the floor is carried out by the bricklayer.

one way to insulate the floor using glass fibre quilt which can be supported

Open web joists offer advantages over I-joists, primarily due to their open design which allows for longer spans, greater flexibility for installing services like plumbing and wiring, and reduced site waste and installation time.

I now know how floor insulation is implemented

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open web and i joists

The main disadvantages of using I-joists over open-web joists are poorer fire performance due to a faster burn rate, a greater susceptibility to moisture damage, and stricter requirements for running utilities, which requires following manufacturer guidelines for cutting holes in the web. I-joists can also be more expensive and more prone to splitting if not handled carefully.

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1. Concrete floors consist of the following-Hardcore, Blinding, DPM membrane and Site concrete.

2. Hardcore-A foundation of waste bricks and blocks used to make up a level base and should be compacted to make a good layer of foundation.

3. The hardcore should not contain any water-soluble sulphates or other harmful matter which could cause damage to any part of the floor.

4. Blinding is usually building sand spread on top of the hardcore to provide an even bed and to prevent any puncturing of the DPM by sharp pieces of hardcore.

5. The damp-proof membrane sheeting (IN RED) should be laid on top of the building and should be lapped onto the horizontal DPC of the brickwork to from a continuous membrane.

6. Hardcore must be compacted to 100mm layers maximum thickness and this should prevent any unacceptable settlement beneath the finished solid floor and for small areas a hand tamp can be used.

7. Whacker plate used to compress the hardcore.

8. The building regulations require ground floors to be insulated to prevent heat loss and there are several types of insulation available such as expanded polystyrene and rigid foam insulation.

9. A mix of course stones up to around 20mm, fine aggregate, cement and water and the concrete placed in between the ground floor walls is known as 'oversite concrete.'

10. There is no need to trowel finish the concrete unless it is the finished floor of the building such as in a garage or store.

11. Hollow ground floors are traditionally constructed of timber however the preparation for the floor is carried out by the bricklayer.

12. The sleeper walls are built straight on top of the oversite concrete, and timber wall plates are laid on top of the sleeper walls to support the joists.

13. Honeycombed sleeper walls are constructed with holes between the brickwork to allow air to ventilate the void below the floor.

14. The building regulations require all ground floors to be insulated to prevent heat loss and hollow ground floors may be insulated in a number of ways.

15. Timber hollow suspended floors are rarely used at ground level.

16. Concrete hollow floors benefits-Quick system, Solid floor that provides a level surface and no supporting walls needed.

17. Web joists have good flexibility for running services and achieving longer spans and can also lead to faster installation and reduced costs.

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Open-web steel joists possess an excellent bearing capacity with a long span superior to 15.2 m (50 ft). Since they require fewer columns, they allow for floor space optimization while minimizing warehouse organization constraints are cost effective have less waste and are less flammable

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hardcore, blinding, dpm membrane, site concrete, instaulation, floor finish.

hardcore should be laid at a maximum 100 mm and should be well compacted.

blinding is usually building sand spread on top of hardcore to provide an even bed.

whacker plate used to compress the hardcore. instalution should be laid above the dpm under the floor slab or on finished floor.

oversite concrete should be atleast a 100m thick if placed on instalution it will be 150mm thick. the most common way to instulte the flooring put something under the joist to hold it up. advantages of web joist easier to install utillty services and greater spanning capibility reduce site labour and waste stabiltty. the disadvantages of using i joists are they are more vunreble to fire and less stable more flexible

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we learn the difference of I joists and open web joists

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today i have learnt all types of flooring in constuction such as ground level fooring which consists of cement sand and worter and insolation in floors which is to keep the heat in the building and when doing a floor building regulations say you have to have insolation in and you have to also have DPC in the flooring. We have also learnt about the diffrent types of floor joists and which ones are more useful and which ones should be used more in modern times

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i know the importance of foundations and internal and external walls like external walls are outside internal walls are inside and floor joists are built to put floor boards on.

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robust strong and healthy timber or build

stability the state of haveing a atable foundation or grounf floor

Durability ability to withstand preshure or weight

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robust: In carpentry and joinery, the word robust is used to describe structures, materials, or joints that are strong, sturdy, durable, and reliable enough to withstand significant force, stress, or everyday use without failure or disproportionate collapse.

Stability: In carpentry and joinery, the word stability primarily relates to the resistance of wood and finished structures to changes in size, shape, and position.

Durability: In carpentry and joinery, durability is a key performance factor that refers to a timber's lifespan and its ability to resist biological degradation (rot, fungi, and insect attack) and withstand wear and tear over time.

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robust . strong,sturdy, and durable enough to resist failure, significant wear and tear, and unexpected loads or events.

stability. prevent shaking or wobbling shifting and makes sure they stay firm and steady.

durabilty. long lasting with wear and tear a durable exterior door can outstand weather and everything

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1.Robust-Refers to the strength and sturdiness of a structure.

2.Stability-Prevent wobbling, shifting or collapse and it ensures that constructed items remain steady and firm.

3.Durability-Pertains to how long a carpentry piece can last without significant wear or deterioration.

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blinding is usually building sand to provide a even bed to. Prevent puncturing of the dpm

Hardcore should be compacted,laid maximum 100 m. And should not contain water solubles

Joists shouldn’t touch external walls because they will. Get damp. Or wet and that will result in rot

Honey combs sleeper walls are constructed with holes between the brick work to Allow air to Ventilate the void below the floor

Insulate the floor using glass fibre quilt thats supported under joist with metal wire

Advantage of open web joists are longer open plan with out internal space increased span capability

Robust is the sturdiness and. Strength of a building

Stability is how the structure wobbles and moves

Durability is how well It copes well under weather conditions and how strong the building is

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1- structual support and enviromental protection

2-A solid wall is a single layer of material, like brick or stone, with no gap, while a cavity wall is made of two separate layers with an air gap in between

3- Outer leaf, Inner leaf, Cavity gap

Ground floor construction:

-Concrete ground floor consist of the following components in order

-blinding

-Hard core

-Dpm membrane

-site concrete

-Insulation

-A floor finish

Hollow ground Floors:

-The sleeper walls are built straight on top of the oversite concrete

open design, which allows for easy and flexible installation of services like HVAC, electrical, and plumbing without the need for cutting or notching.

I-joists are generally cheaper and easier to install, but web joists (or trusses) have the advantage of superior strength and .the ability to easily run mechanical services through the open web design.

In todays lesson i have learned how foundations for floorings are made, different ways that are used to keep the structure/flooring supported.

Robust- strong and healthy timber

Stability- the quality of being firm, enduring, and not likely to change, whether physically, mentally, or in a more abstract sense.

durability-the ability to withstand wear, pressure, or damage.//

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flat roof, mono-pitch, gambrel roof

flat roofs are normally on a garage, balconys

couple roof normally called gable roof

hipped roofs have 4 sloped angles

lean-to roof the slope is fixed greater than 10% the trusses are spaced 400-600mm based on the architectures design

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1. Flat roof is a roof that has a slope of less than 10

2. A mono-pitch roof is a roof that has a single sloping surface but is not fixed to another building or wall.

3. A gambrel roof is a roof that has two differently angled slopes.

4. A couple roof is often called a gable end and is one of the most common types of roof of dwelling.

5. A hipped roof has slopes on three or four sides.

6. A lean-to roof is similar to a mono-pitched roof except it is abutted to a wall.

7. Roof components are each visible part of a roof and has a specific name or purpose.

8. King post, Fink, Cantilever, Fan, Raised tie, Mono 2/1, Mono 2/2, Mono 3/2, Queen post, Howe, Double W, Bobtail/Stub end, Flat top/Hip end, Scissor, Attic, Parallel

9. Roofs are normally constructed using a member of the rafters.

10. Typically the erection of truss rafters follow a set procedure.

11. The position of each of the truss rafters is marked on the wall plate.

12. Each of the rafters is then lifted into place.

13. The first rafter is lifted into position and is secured with truss clips.

14. Wall plates are usually secured to the wall with metal restraint straps.

15. In cases where gable ladders are not used, restraint straps at both rafter and ceiling level are used to prevent movement and cracking of walls.

16. Temporary longitudinal bracing- 75 x 25mm or 100 x 25mm- can be used to stabilise the trusses while they are being erected.

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1. Toolbox talk, Mobile phone, Emails, Signs and face to face talking.

2. Verbal communication-The use of words to share information.

3. Written communications-The use of written words to share information.

4. Non verbal information-The use of hand gestures, body language, tone of voice, facial expressions and eye contact.

5. Visual communication-The use of images, graphs, and other visual aids to convey a message.

6. Verbal or oral communication is an example of group discussions, meetings, face-to-face, one-to-one and telephone conversations.

7. The most common types of communication is informal conversations, formal conversations, recieving instructions, telephone calls, taking part in meetings and oral presentation.

8. Recieving instructions-Use the scraper to clean up the workshop floor.

9. Communication methods-Letters, memos and notes, timesheets, invoices, drawings and sketches, specifications, schedules and graphs and charts.

10. Communication methods continued-Telephone, fax machine, television and radio and computers.

11. Using the telephone-It is always accessible, you receive a rapid response, it is used by every firm, it has a global network and the equipment is both simple and easy to use.

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when pitching a roof the first thing that has to be done is a measurement of the run. then half it for your centre line and mark it on the wall plate. the rafter gets longer the higher the pitch.

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1. Take the whole width of the roof and centre the middle.

2. Walking halfway on wall plate to know where the ridge is going to go.

3. The rafter will get longer as it gets longer in length.

4. Setting the cut at ridge height.

5. Always clamp down the wood for safety.

6. Skips the line for the thickness of the ridge board.

7. A third of the thickness of the rafter.

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When’s pitching a roof you must know the overall dimensions

Find the centre on the wall plate and place the ridge

Rafter will get longer when putting it on a angle

Take dimension from the outside

3rd of the thickness of the rafter

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Q12 method of calculating a rafter length 

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Q12 method of calculating a rafter length 

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measure half the span use a roof pitch to measure the rise of a triangle applie trig using a roofing square and common graphter length

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1. W or fink truss, King post truss, Fan truss and Attic or 'room in roof' truss.

2. Chevon brace, Gable wall, Diagonal wind brass, Truss, Temporary brace, Longitudial blinders.

3. Tie down straps, Wall plate, Roof truss, Ceiling joists, Blockwork, Outer brick, Rafter.

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Roofs are Constructed in one of 2 ways-traditional cut roof or roof trusses

Popular trussed rafter-w/fink truss

King post truss

Fan truss

Attic or room in the roof truss

Truss clips placed 400-600 centres

Restraint straps fixed at maximum 2.0m from the store

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Building Regulations (especially Parts A, B, H, K, L for structure, fire, drainage, safety, energy efficiency), the Building Safety Act 2022 (accountability, competence), Health & Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (worker safety, falls prevention), and relevant British Standards (like BS 5534 for tiling, BS 8414 for cladding

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Part A (Structure): Ensuring roof can support loads.

Part B (Fire Safety): Material flammability.

Part H (Drainage): Weatherproofing and rainwater.

Part K (Protection from falling): Safe access and fragility.

Part L (Conservation of Fuel & Power): Mandatory insulation upgrades.

Building Safety Act 2022 (BSA): Establishes dutyholders, improves competence, and focuses on higher-risk buildings, impacting all parties.

Health & Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (HSWA): General duty for safe workplaces, crucial for preventing falls (scaffolding, harnesses).

Party Wall etc. Act 1996: May apply if shared walls are affected by work on terraced/semi-detached properties.

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Timber is classified as either hard or soft wood.

Hardwood trees have broad leaves with and encased seed ad knows as deciduous

Softwood trees have needles and seeds held in cones and are known as coniferous

4 main conversions

Through and through - simplest way making planks or slabs

Tangential -the board and planks are sawn out of wood tangentially to annual rings .

Quarter sawn - each quarter is then cut separately by tipping it up on its point and sawing boards successfully along the axis.

Boxed heart - when the heart of the tree is rotten or badly shaken the heart may be boxed in to keep the defect within the section produces short planks

Knot is where a branch has formed

Defects can be caused by insects,fungi,conversion and seasoning

Fungal defects - blue stain,dry rot,wet rot

Common furniture beetle

Wood boring beetle

Death watch beetle

House longhorn beetle

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1. MDF is cancerogenic meaning that we do not use it.

2. We use CLS timber instead.

3. Timber is classified as either hardwood or softwood, Hardwood trees have broad leaves with an encased seed and known deciduous, Softwood trees have needles and seeds held in cones and known as coniferous.

4. The four methods of conversion are Through and through, Tangential, Quarter sawn and Boxed heart.

5. Timber conversion-The simplest way of converting a log is by using a method called through and through.

6. Quarter sawn-The way a log is quarter sawn is by cutting it into four pieces.

7. Box heart-The way boxed heart is cut is by cutting it thinly three times but leaving the heart in the middle.

8. Tangential-The way tangential is cut is by cutting the annual rings.

9. Natural structure defects-These are defects that occur within a growing tree, and can influence the strength and appearance of the surface of the timber.

10. Natural structure defects-Thunder shake causes the timber to split across the grain.

11. Other defects-Insects, Fungi, Conversion and Seasoning.

12. Common furniture beetle, Wood boring weevil, House longhorn beetle and Death watch beetle.

13. Defects if not seasoned properly-Twist, Cupping, Bow, Case hardening and Splits.

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Warping (Distortion):

Bow: A curve along the face of the board, typically from end to end.

Cup: A curve across the width of the board (like a "U" shape).

Twist: A spiral distortion where the four corners are no longer in the same plane.

Crook/Spring: A curve along the edge of the board, while the face stays flat.

Cracking & Structural Issues:

Check: A longitudinal crack that does not pass through the entire piece, often caused by rapid surface drying.

Split: A crack that extends through the piece from one face to the other.

Honeycomb: Internal cracks or voids within the heartwood caused by excessive drying stresses.

Case Hardening: The surface dries faster than the core, causing permanent stresses that lead to warping when the wood is cut.

Collapse: Flattening of wood cells during drying, causing a shriveled, uneven appearance.

wet rot is caused by a high moisture content in the wood between 30 and 60%

dry rot is caused by a moisture content around 20% because of busted pipes or leaks

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-through and through

-quarter sawn

-box heart

-Tangental

Beatles

-Death watch

-wood boring

-house long horn

-long horn beatles

Defects

-Twist, thunder shakes

-knot hole

-Bend bowing cupping

LTD company vs PLC company

A Public Limited Company (PLC) is a type of limited liability company in the UK, Ireland, and various Commonwealth jurisdictions that can offer shares to the general public and list on a stock exchange. PLCs require a minimum of £50,000 in share capital, at least two directors, and a qualified company secretary, providing higher capital-raising potential but necessitating stricter regulatory compliance.

An Ltd (Limited) company is a business structure that's a separate legal entity from its owners, offering limited liability, meaning personal assets are protected from business debts, and requiring formal registration, accounts filing, and compliance with regulations like GOV.UK. Key features include its own legal identity, ability to own assets and incur debt, and potential tax advantages, but directors must meet strict responsibilities for records and returns.

Door lining usually differ around the types of wood you can use for it.

housing joint used on door linings

-Rebating door lining

-braces help hold lining and stud wall in place.

-weather tight helps prevent water and moisture from negative weather get through

-door lining legs rest directly onto timber floors.

Type of window/door frames and linings

Softwood linings in domestic buildings are generally fixed by nailing. The nails are generally 60-75 mm in length.

The type of nail used are:

-cut clasp nails for nailing directly into block work

-Oval nail for nailing directly into studwork or timber slips or plugs

Types of window/door frames and linings

-Decide which leg of the lining to ix first

-plum edge of leg with level

-plumb face of leg using a straightedge and level

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Case Hardening where the outside hardens while the core Still has moisture

Dry rot

Blue stain

Wet rot

Defect

Split twisting bowing cupping crood knot holes wanie thunder shake.

Death watch beetle

Wood boring

Long horn

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dry rot

wet rot

blue stain

when its wet rot the timber has 70% moisture

twist/thunder shakes

through and through

quarter sawn

cupping

death beatle

knots

twists

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Public Limited Company (PLC) in the UK is

a company that can sell shares to the general public on a stock exchange, raising capital, with shareholders having limited liability, and it must have at least two directors, £50,000 minimum share capital, and a qualified company secretary, requiring more stringent regulations and reporting than private companies, ending its name with "PLC"

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Public limited company (PLC) Corporation Tax in the UK is 25% on profits over £250,000 and 19% for profits of £50,000 or less. Profits between £50,000 and £250,000 are subject to Marginal Relief, creating an effective rate of 26.5% on profits in that range.

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Door lining musts

Plum Flush

Level and square

10mm housing joint

Rebating door lining

Square housing

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door lining

housing joint

rebated door lining

u need a lat and temporary bracings at the bottom and at

the top of the lining

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tax rate on a limited company

profits under £50,000 pay the 19% small profits rate, while profits over £250,000 pay the main 25% rate, with profits in between (£50k-£250k) receiving Marginal Relief for a gradual rate increase

door lining

the first step of building a door lining is to measure the door and see how much wood is needed

second cut out a through housing 10 millimetres from the edge and cut the other length to fit and do the same with the other side and screw it together

third make sure the legs of the door lining are square and add the temporary bracing

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bowing this is where the timber Bowes in the middle creating a dip in the timber this is because it has dried faster in different area than the rest of the timber

the wood can also twist if its dride out to much

knott wholes this is where the tree has had a branch

dry wrot this is where the timber has been dride to much or to harshly

wet wrot this is where the middle of the timber has a higher water percentge than the outside

split this is where the timber splits during drying

Going limited does not automatically raise your personal tax thresholds, but it changes how you are taxed, often offering higher overall tax efficiency compared to being a sole trader. You pay 19%–25% Corporation Tax on profits instead of income tax, and can take a mix of low salary and dividends, which can reduce your personal tax bill.

VAT Threshold: Becoming a limited company resets your VAT registration threshold, allowing a fresh start if your previous sole trader turnover was approaching the limit.

for a door frame you start with a housing

VAT Threshold: Becoming a limited company resets your VAT registration threshold, allowing a fresh start if your previous sole trader turnover was approaching the limit.

joint to connect the 3 pices of timber then you fit the pices together and fit lats/ braces to hold it together until you fit it into the door space the door lining cannot rest directly onto concrete and there must be a gab between the doorlineing and the concrete floor to avoid damping. domestic buildings softy wood lineings a generally fitted by 60-70mm in length

when the building is wether tight all the internal first fix stage can start which is the internal capantry work

four most popular windows are the traditional casement windows storm proof windows box frame sliding widows bay windows. A casement window is a type of window hinged at the side (or top) that opens outward or inward like a door, often operated by a hand crank, lever, or cam handle. Storm-proof windows, also called lipped casements, are designed for superior weather resistance with a sash that overlaps the frame, creating a tighter seal against wind and rain. Sliding windows, including aluminum (often Cortizo 4700 or similar) and uPVC (such as Advance 70) options, are modern, space-saving windows that open by sliding horizontally along a track. A bay window is a window that projects outward from the main wall of a building, creating a nook or alcove inside the room,

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Windows

Windows are generally designed to allow natural daylight and air into a room

The four most common are:

-Traditional casement window-side-hinged window units, often made of timber, that open outwards like a door, providing excellent ventilation and a classic look, commonly featuring glazing bars for period styles and modern performance.

-storm proof window- feature a sash that overlaps the frame to create an enhanced seal against wind, rain, and cold.

-box frame sliding sash window- a traditional window style, often in period homes, featuring two vertically sliding panels (sashes) within a deep, "boxy" frame that hides counterweights and pulleys, allowing smooth, balanced opening and closing, distinct from modern spring-loaded versions

-bay window- a structural, multi-pane window assembly that projects outward from a building's main walls to create an interior nook or ledge, typically featuring a large central picture window flanked by smaller, angled, or straight side windows

Box frame sash window-a type of window with two sliding sashes that move vertically.

windows- components

Window components include the main Frame (head, jambs, sill), the movable Sash holding the glass (panes, rails, stiles), and various functional/decorative elements like Locks, Grilles, Casing, Mullions, and Hardware (handles, hinges, balances)

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1. Beetles-Death watch beetle, Wood boring and House long horn.

2. Defects-Twist, Thunder shakes, Wave, Cupping and Knot holes.

3. Dry rot, Blue stain and Wet rot, Case hardening, Crook and Split.

4. Corporation tax and VAT threshold.

5. Door lining-Plumb, Wining, Square, Speed square, 3 mil between the space and the door, 10 mil for the carpet space, Bracing, Housing joint, Rebating door lining and Support braced.

6. When a building is weather tight, all the internal carpentry work can be carried out before plastering begins.

7. This stage is known as the 'first fix' stage, the fixing of internal linings is carried out at this stage.

8. Door lining legs rest directly onto timber floors.

9. Door lining legs do not rest directly onto concrete floors, a gap is left to allow for the final stand and cement floor screed to be laid.

10. Rebated door lining and square housing.

11. Softwood linings in domestic buildings are generally fixed by nailing, the nails are generally 60-75 mm in length.

12. Cut clasp nails for nailing directly into block work and oval nails for nailing directly into studwork or timber slips or plugs.

13. Typical assembled door lining with braces.

14. Decide which leg of the lining to fix first, Plumb edge of leg with level, Plumb face of leg using a straightedge and level, Position folding wedges 150mm down from top of the frame and nail wedges through lining to prevent movement, leave head of nail protruding.

15. The four most common window designs are-Traditional casement window, Storm proof window, Box frame sliding slash window and Bay window.

16. Top rail, Box frame, Sash cord, Weight pocket, Parting bead, Staff bead, Meeting bars, Stile and apron.

17.

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1. Approved document K is the official government guidance in England and Wales for meeting the requirements of part K of the building regulations.

2. The pitch lines runs at the nose of the tread and runs at the top of every step going up the stairs.

3. The max width before a flight of stairs needs 2 handrails is between 900 and 1100.

4. The minimum rise of a private dwelling is 900.

5. The minimum going for each rise is 220 mm and the maximum is 300 mm.

6. Stairs- Going, Rise, Pitch line, Stringer, Newell pest, Trimmer, Landing, Spindles and Building regulations K.