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The main purpose of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients, wastes, hormones and gases. They are carried in the blood to and from the cells/tissues of the blood
Heart: the pump that pushes the blood with its muscular walls into the blood vessels, it is known as a dual pump because it pumps blood through 2 different circuits (pulmonary and systemic), the heart lies between the lungs and behind the sternum and is held in a pericardial sac with liquid for lubrication, a muscular wall called the septum divided the heart into a left and right side which prevent oxygenated and deoxygenated from mixing, there are 4 chambers (left and right atrium and left and right ventricle) the walls of the atria are thinner than ventricle walls because they only have to move blood to the ventricles, the left ventricle is the strongest because it pumps blood to the systemic system (the whole body)
Heart valves: the tricuspid valve is between the right atrium (3 flaps), the the bicuspid valve is between the left atrium and ventricle (2 flaps), chordate tendinae which prevent the flaps from inverting, the valves prevent back flow of blood into the atrium, the pulmonary semi lunar valve is between the right ventricle and he pulmonary trunk and the aortic semi lunar valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta, both of these semi lunar valve also prevent backflow of blood to the ventricles
Coronary blood vessels: the blood vessels embedded in the heart that supply the heart tissue with oxygen and nutrients and remove carbon dioxide and wastes, they are part of the systemic system
Nodal Tissue: the heart beat is controlled by this tissue that has nerve and muscular characteristics, the nodal tissue initiates and conducts the impulse that makes the cardiac muscle contract this is called intrinsic control, the sino-atrial node (found in the dorsal wall of the right atrium) makes the first impulse that moves to the atria which contracts both at the same time (systole)forcing blood into the ventricles which fill with blood (diastole) the atrioventricular node (found in the ventral wall of the right atrium) picks up the impulse and sends it down the septum to the bundle of his (found in the septum), and the purkinje fibres (embedded in the ventricle walls) which causes ventricular systole which forces blood out of the ventricles into the pulmonary trunk and aorta and the atria undergo diastole and fill with blood
Modification of heartbeat: the speeding up or slowing down of the heart beat can be achieved by stimulating the heart with nerve impulses or hormones called extrinsic control, autonomic regulation by the nervous system has 2 division the sympathetic and parasympathetic, in response to low blood pressure the medulla oblongata sends impulses that travels along the sympathetic system causes an increase in heart rate and strength, in response to high blood pressure the medulla oblongata sends impulses down the parasympathetic system that causes a decrease in heart rate and a weaker heart beat, in response to low blood pressure the medulla oblongata sends impulses through the sympathetic system to the adrenal glands the releases adrenaline and noradrenaline into the blood that increases heart rate
blood vessels: arteries carry Lois away from the heart, the walls are very tick and elastic which allows them to stretch, have 3 layers (outer layer is connective tissue, middle layer of smooth muscle and inner layer of endothelium) aterioles carry blood away from the heart between arteries and capillaries, these vessels vasoconstrict and vasodilate to change diameter depending on blood pressure, has same 3 layers as arteries, capillaries allow for exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases between tissues and the blood through the process of diffusion, the walls are one cell thick to allow for diffusion, they are highly branched and form capillary beds to increase surface area, some beds have sphincters which control the flow of blood which affect the blood pressure and the rate that oxygen and nutrients are used by tissues, venules have very low blood pressure and carry blood from capillaries to veins, the walls have the same 3 layers but the middle layer is less developed, veins carry low pressure blood toward the heart, major veins serve as blood reservoirs which can affect the blood pressure by forcing more blood through the system, the walls have the same 3 layers, major veins have a large lumen for reservoirs, many have one way valves that prevent backflow of blood
Blood pressure: the force on the walls of the blood vessels, the blood pressure in arteries tend to oscillate due to systole and diastole, as the blood moves further from the heart, blood pressure decreases
Blood velocity: the speed of blood, is very similar to blood pressure as the blood moves away from the heart the velocity decreases
Blood vessel Cross-sectional area: the total cross sectional area of all the blood vessels of the same type, arteries and veins have low cross sectional areas because there is a small number of them in the circulatory system but capillaries have a very high cross sectional area because there is a very large number of them in the circulatory system
Hypertension: is an abnormally highly blood pressure which is caused by things like excessive saturated fat and cholesterol in the diet which leads to artherosclerosis, excessive salt in the diet causing higher osmotic pressure etc.
Hypotension: is an abnormally low blood pressure which can be caused by excessive blood loss, decreased cardiac output and a leaky heart valve
Capillary exchange:
The exchange between blood and your cells and tissues depends on 2 pressures (osmotic and blood) blood pressure moves oxygen, amino acids, glucose and water out of the capillaries and osmotic pressure which is created by the presence of salts and plasma proteins moves water, carbon dioxide and wastes into the capillaries
Lymphatic system: lymph is mostly water with some solute particles in it, it is the fluid that wasn't returned to the blood and it enters the lymphatic system, lymphatic vessels include capillaries and veins, they rely on the contraction on skeletal muscles to move the lymph, the vessels have one way valves to prevent backflow, the function is to gather and return fluid to the blood, the thoracic duct empties into the left subclavian vein and the right lymphatic duct empties into the subclavian vein, lymph nodes are structures surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue and are located on the lymphatic vessels, each node has sinuses that contain lymphocytes and marcophages which remove microns and debris from the lymph
Fetal circulatory system: the fetus relies on the placenta for exhchabge of nutrients, wastes and gases, the forsaken ovals is a whole in the septum which allows blood to move from the right to left atrium bypassing the lungs , the ductus arteriosus is a shunt between the pulmonary trunk and the aorta that also allows blood to by pass the lungs, the umbilical artery carries blood away from the fetus and to the placenta that is high in wastes and is located in the umbilical cord, the umbilical vein carries blood high in nutrients to the fetus from the placenta which is also in the umbilical cord, the ductus venosus is the attachment between the umbilical vein and the fetal's posterior vena cava

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Purpose: to break food down into molecular sized particles which can be absorbed

Chemical digestion: break food into molecular sized particles by enzymes that are secreted into the digestive tract, it prepares food for absorption

Mechanical digestion: the physical breakdown of food into moderate sized particles by the teeth, tongue, and muscular walls of the stomach, it prepares food for swallowing by increasing the surface area

Digestive enzymes: chemically breakdown food to molecular size for absorption, all are hydrolytic (addition of water to break bonds)
Examples: salivary amylase from salivary glands in the oral cavity breaks down starch into maltose
Pepsin from gastric glands in the stomach breaks long polypeptides into short polypeptides
Trypsin from the intestinal glands in the small intestine breaks long polypeptides into short polypeptides ( pepsin and trypsin are proteases )
Pancreatic amylase from the pancreas break starch into maltose
Lipase/bile from the liver/gallbladder in the small intestine (duodenum)breaks fat into fat droplets and further into one glycerol and three fatty acids
Maltose from the pancreas in the small intestine (jujeum) breaks maltose into glucose
Peptidases from the intestinal glands (ileum and jujeum) break short polypeptides into amino acids
Nuclease from the pancreas and intestinal glands (duodenum) breaks DNA and RNA into nucleotides and further into nitrogenous bases, a pentode sugar and a phosphate group

Mouth: the oral cavity mechanically breaks down food by chewing and mixing with the teeth and tongue to increase the surface area and chemically breaks down food with salivary amylase from the salivary glands (parotid glands by your cheeks/ear, sublingual glands under your tongue and submandibular glands under your jaw) saliva has a neutral pH

Pharynx: a muscular passage way that connects to the oral cavity to the esophagus, it is the site of swallowing (the soft palate moves back and closes off the nasopharynx, during the epiglottis covers the glottis (opening to the larynx) preventing food from going to the lungs, food is then forced from the pharynx by its muscular wall to the esophagus

Esophagus: a tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach, smooth layers of muscle push food by waves of contraction (peristalsis) , the food reaches a ring like muscle the cardiac sphincter that controls what goes into the stomach and prevents back-flow of food

Stomach: a muscular j-shaped expandable sac that lies just beneath the diaphragm, the stomach has 3 layers of smooth muscle that mixes the food with gastric juice, the walls of the stomach have folds called rugae that allow the stomach to expand, the lining of the called mucosa has epithelial cells that secrete mucus that protects the wall from the acidic gastric juice (pH of 2-3), the epithelial cells have gastric pits which are openings to gastric glands that secrete gastric juice ( Pepsinogen and HCl), no nutrients besides alcohol are absorbed in the stomach into the blood, the digestion in the stomach turn food into a semi liquid state called chyme, the chyme must go through the pyloric sphincter which controls the flow of chyme into the small intestine

Small intestine: chemical digestion and absorption, the smooth muscles on the intestinal walls use peristalsis to move the chyme,
Duodenum: the first section, has ducts from the gallbladder and pancreas that secrete bile and pancreatic juice that chemically digest the chyme
Jejeunum and ileum: site of the majority of chemical digestion and absorption, the long length provide time for digestion and absorption smooth muscle mixes the chyme with digestive enzymes, the walls contain intestinal glands that secrete intestinal juice, the inner surface has large folds called mucosal folds help maximize surface area for absorption, the mucosa have smaller folds called villus containing a capillary network containing blood for nutrients to absorb into and lacteals containing lymph for fat absorption, the villi contain epithelial cells which increase surface area and they contain mitochondria to provide energy (ATP) for active transport of nutrients, micro villi on the villi contain micro filaments that make currents to pull in nutrients

Large intestine/colon:
The cecum joins the small and large intestines has a small projection called the appendix which is believe to help the immune system, the walls of the colon have smooth muscle which move contents by peristalsis, the colon has 3 regions (ascending, transverse and descending), bacteria including E. Coli live in the colon to help break down cellulose/ fibre and produce vitamins which we absorb, the final part of the colon is the rectum that stores the wastes (feces/undigested material/wastes) before leaving the body through the anus

Liver: produces bile, removes and metabolizes toxic substances, uses amino acids to produce plasma proteins like prothrombin and fibrinogen (used in blood clotting), stores iron and vitamins, converts hemoglobin from old red blood cells into the bile pigments bilirubin and biliverdin to be removed from the body, converts lactic acid into pyruvic acid used in ACR, helps control blood glucose levels (stores glucose and glycogen when levels are high, break glycogen into glucose and adding it to the blood when levels are low, converting amino acids into glucose to increase levels) and maintain homeostasis

Pancreas: insulin is created in the pancreas which lowers blood glucose levels ( promoting glucose uptake in the liver, muscle and fat cells, stimulated the liver and muscle cells to store glucose as glycogen, inhibiting the breakdown of glycogen and conversion of amino acids into glucose)

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posteriorThe ability of an organism to maintain its internal environment
For example: sweating, shivering, vasodilation and vasoconstriction
Abnormal conditions are detected by sensory receptors which stimulate the control centre which stimulates the effectors (muscles/glands) that carry out the response
Osmoreceptors detect low blood water and stimulates the hypothalamus which stimulates the posterior pituitary causing it to release antidiuretic hormone into the blood which goes to the kidneys which reabsorb water from the urine back into the blood
So what?
If our bodies couldn't maintain homeostasis a lot of things could go wrong because it wouldn't be as easy to fix fluctuations that occur in our bodies.

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A hormone produced by the thyroid gland
It increases the metabolic rate (rate of protein synthesis, uptake of oxygen in cells, increases production of respiratory enzyme)
Increasing rate of ACR which increases ATP production
When levels are low the hypothalam (base of brain) releases the hormone through the anterior pituitary gland and into the blood stream
Once the hormone reaches the thyroid it is stimulated to produce and release thyroxin
When the levels are normal the hormone is no longer released and the production stops
So what?
This is important to produce when you are cold or stressed because your metabolic rate is slowed which can caused problems by the slowed rate of oxygen up take in your cells. So when thyroxin is produced your metabolic rate increases so your cells can function normally again

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Metabolism: the sum of all biochemical reactions, arranged in metabolic pathways such as ACR, the product of one reactions because the reactant in another reaction this process can be sped up by an enzyme
Anabolic pathways: reorganize and combine smaller particle into larger ones, energy is require ex: protein synthesis and photosynthesis
Catabolic pathways: break larger molecules into smaller ones, energy is released ex: ACR and fermentation
Free energy: the energy available to do work found in things like glucose(a lot) and water( a small amount)
Exergonic reaction: release energy in the form of heat
Endergonic reactions: absorb energy
Activation energy: free energy that kick starts the reaction by helping break chemical bonds so the product can be formed
Catalysts: increase the rate of a chemical reaction by collecting free energy
Enzymes: are catalysts that are made of proteins that decrease the rate of metabolic reactions by lowering the activation energy required to start the reaction, each enzyme has a specific structure which allows it to catalyze specific reactions
Substrate: the reactant of an enzyme that gets converted into the product, the substrate binds to the enzymes active site
Cofactors: non protein helpers that assist the enzyme in its function by accepting or contributing atoms during the reaction ex: zinc, iron and copper
Coenzymes: organic, vitamins like niacin, riboflamn and thiamine
Factors that affect enzyme Catalysis: temperature( low slows particle movement, high denatures protein optimal is 37 degrees) pH ( high and low pH denatures proteins, optimal pH increases reaction rate) heavy metals ( denature the protein site so no substrates can bond to it so the reaction rate decreases) substrate concentration ( low concentration is low reaction rate less reactions occurring, higher concentration increases chance of successful reactions increasing reaction rate) enzyme concentration ( low concentration is a slow reaction rate, high concentration increases chance of reactions and increases the reaction rate) competitive inhibitors (similar to substrate and they take over active sites causing less successful reactions decreasing the reaction rate)
So what?
Enzymes are very important in our bodies because they help all of our reactions to happen and without those reactions we wouldn't survive we couldn't breakdown foods, produce energy etc.

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Diffusion: passive, high to low concentration, in and out of cell, movement lipid soluable molecules (water and gases)
Osmosis: passive, high to low concentration, movement of water in and out of cell
Facilitated transport: passive, use of a carrier protein, high to low concentration, transports sugars and amino acids in and out of cell
Active transport: active, low to high concentration, uses a carrier protein transports amino acids and sugars in and out of the cell
Endocytosis: active, transports macromolecules into the cell with vesicles formation
Pintocytosis: vesicles forms around molecule and takes sips
Phagocytosis: molecule engolfed by an amoeba
Exocytosis: active, uses carrier protein to transport macromolecules out of the cell
Factors that affect rate of diffusion: temperature (high heat particles move faster, less heat particles slow down) size (smaller faster diffusion, larger slower diffusion) concentration gradient ( higher concentration faster diffusion, lower concentration slower diffusion) density of medium ( high density slower diffusion, lower density faster diffusion)

Surface area
When a cell gets bigger their surface area is lower than it's volume so the ratio of SA/V decreases, if the cell doesn't have a big enough surface area compared to its volume it can't exchange wastes and nutrients fast enough for the cell to survive so the cell usually divides when it gets to a certain size by the process of mitosis

So what?
Without a large enough surface are the processes of moving particles across the cell membrane can't not happen well enough for the cell to survive which can greatly affect our health. It can cause a build up if wastes in the cell and a lack of nutrients in the cell. If our cells contain too much wastes it can greatly effect our health because then our cells wouldn't be able to function properly.

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Made up of 2 parts the solvent which dissolves in the solute
Water is the solvent in organisms
Isotonic solution: when the solute concentration is equal in and out of the cell
Plant cell: no change
Animal cell: no cell
Hypertonic solution: the solute concentration is greater outside of the cell than inside of the cell
Plant cell: cell will shrink (plasmolysis)
Animal cell: shrink or crenate
Hypotonic solution: the solute concentration is less than the concentration inside of the cell
Plant cell: swell (turgar pressure)
Animal cell: Swell or lyse
So what?
The concentration of solute has a huge affect on us if we get anything injected into our blood stream it is very important that it is an isotonic solution because it could cause our cells to lyse or crenate which could have a major effects on our bodies!

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The cell membrane's 3 main functions are protection, holding the cytoplasm inside the cell and regulating what goes in and out of the cell
The cell membrane is semi permeable so it regulates what goes through based on physical and chemical properties
Phospholipids: form a double layer with fatty acid tails on the inside (non polar) and phosphate heads on the outside (polar) and has a consistency of a fluid
Proteins: peripheral proteins are attached to the inner and outside of the bilayer while intergral proteins have hydrophobic regions so they are mostly embedded in the bilayer
Channel proteins allow particles to pass through the membrane
Specific carrier proteins transfer particles across the membrane by changing shape
Specific receptor proteins allow hormones to bind the the proteins and affect cellular metabolism
Cell recognition glycoproteins helps identify the cell
Enzymatic proteins catalyze reactions
Cholesterol: is embedded in the bilayer and helps prevent solidification in cold temperature and reduces fluidity in high temperatures
Glycoproteins and glycolipids: serve as cell recognition
Plant cell wall: provides structural support and protection
Primary: composed of cellulose fibrils that lie at right angles that provide additional strenght
Secondary: composed of lignin which provides additional strength
So what?
The cell membrane is so important to our cells it has so many roles and components to it that we wouldn't survive without it. We wouldn't be able to rid of wastes or get nutrients into our cells without it

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Cells consist of a plasmid cell membrane which surrounds the cell, a fluid called the cytoplasm, small organisms called ribosomes and molecules such as DNA, RNA, ATP, carbohydrates and neutral fats
Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and other organelles (Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles and vacuoles), they are found in bacteria
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and other organelles, they are found in fungi, Protista, plantae and animalia, they are larger than prokaryotes
Nucleus: surrounded by a nuclear envelope that has pores, the fluid inside is the nucleoplasm that contains chromatin
Function: DNA in the chromatin controls the process of protein synthesis, the nucleolus is the site where rRNA is produced
Mitochondria: bean shaped double membrane bounded organelle, the inner membrane is highly folded called cristae, the compartment inside is called the matrix which contains some DNA and proteins
Function: ACR (aerobic cellular respiration) is the process where glucose is oxidized to release energy, also can synthesis some proteins
Chloroplast: found in plant cells and are double membrane bounded, the fluid inside is called stroma, flatted sacs (thylakoids) are arranged in stacks (Hana), chlorophyll is embedded in the thylakoid sacs which are connected by lamella, stroma contains some DNA and ribosomes
Function: site of photosynthesis which converts light energy into chemical energy, can also synthesis some proteins
Ribosomes: made up of large and small subunits which are made up of proteins and rRNA, they are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or float in the cytoplasm
Function: used in protein synthesis for translation
Vacuoles and vesicles: membrane bound sac like structures, vacuoles are bigger than vesicles
Function: store materials such as water, wastes and nutrients, in plants the central vacuole provides structural support, also transport materials in and out of the cell by fusing with the cell membrane
Lysosomes: vesicles formed by the Golgi apparatus, they contain hydrolytic digestive enzymes
Function: they fuse with vesicles that contain viruses and digest what is inside the vesicles called intracellular digestion, also digest worn out organelles or the entire cell called autodigestion
Endoplasmic Reticulum: system of membranous channels and flattened sacs that extends from the nuclear envelope, rough ER has ribosomes on its surface and smooth ER had no ribosomes
Function: can transport molecules, rough ER is apart of protein synthesis called translation, the smooth ER can detoxify drugs, produce steroid hormones and phospholipids, and packaged proteins and lipids into vesicles
Golgi apparatus: saccule are arranged in stacks that have vesicles along their edges, saccule contain enzymes
Function: recieves vesicles and modify them with enzymes and repackage them, some vesicles produced transport molecules to the cell membrane called secretory vesicles, also produce lysosomes
Cytoskeleton: network of interconnected filamentous proteins which include actin filaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments, it is suspended in the cytoplasm
Function: provides attachment site for cell organelles and maintains the cells shape, allows the cell to change shape and to move
So what?
Our cells make up everything in our body and I don't think people appreciate them enough. It amazes me that things that are so small make up who we are. All the processes that occur in them and all the small parts that work together to make us living.

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Mutation: a change in DNA
Mutagen: a physical or chemical agent that changes DNA ex: ionizing radiation, heavy metals, x-rays, chemicals etc.
Most mutations occur during replication or during cell division, there is gene and chromosomal mutations they are both found in somatic and gamete cells they cannot be passed to offspring but can be passed on in cell division, mutations in replication can be passed onto offspring
Gene mutations affect individual genes in a chromosome, they involve a change in the base sequence of one gene and affect one protein
Point mutations:
Substitution: one base replaces another in a DNA triplet, may affect one amino acid in a protein, may be serious or not
Deletions: one base is lost from the DNA sequence, affects every triplet after the deletion, can result in proteins that don't function properly
Insertion: one base is added to the DNA sequence, affects every triplet after, same as deletion
Chromosome mutations: affect parts of chromosomes or whole chromosomes, may cause severe problems

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Recombinant DNA technology allows scientists to use enzymes to cut a gene from a chromosome of a particular organism (human) and splice it onto the DNA from another organism (bacteria), the recombinant DNA can be taken up by the bacterial cell which can then make the protein coded for by the gene, the bacterial cell is then cultured which results in millions of daughter cells which allow for large amounts of the protein to be produced inexpensively
Steps:
1. a plasmid is removed from a bacterial cell and a specific restriction endonuclease is used to cleave open the plasmid creating a sticky end
2. The desired gene is cut out of its chromosome by using the same restriction endonuclease that cut open the plasmid
3. The cleaved bacterial plasmid is mixed with the desired gene, DNA ligase splices the gene and the plasmid creating recombinant DNA which is added to the bacterial cell and is cultured producing millions of daughter cells with the cloned desired gene

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The process that translates a sequence of DNA nucleotides into a sequence of amino acids which create proteins
DNA: contains the code for the protein to be synthesized
mRNA: carries transcribed DNA code from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
tRNA: carried a specific amino acid to the ribosomes for assembly into polypeptides
rRNA: together with protein forms ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis (translation)
Amino acids: the building blocks that are linked together by peptide bonds to form polypeptides
Transcription: occurs in the nucleus, RNA polymerase opens the DNA double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds, mRNA nucleotides pair with the DNA nucleotides, the mRNA nucleotides are linked by sugar-phosphate bonds by RNA polymerase, the mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
Genetic code: 3 bases (triplet) specifies an amino acid, each base triplet in mRNA is a codon (64 possible codons), 61 code for 20 amino acids, 3 codons are start and stop codons, AUG is the start codon and codes for methionine, multiple codons can code for 1 amino acid
Translation: occurs in ribosomes/cytoplasm, once in the the cytoplasm mRNA joins with the small then larger ribosomal subunits, tRNA pairs it's anticodon with mRNA codons and brings an amino acid which connect to another amino acid with peptide bonds, the ribosome shifts along the mRNA creating a polypeptide, a stop codon is encountered and the ribosome releases the complete polypeptide
chains, the ribosome dissociates into its 2 subunits and the mRNA is broken down into nucleotides and return to the nucleus

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Occurs in the nucleus before cell division
Each nucleotide serves as a template for the formation of a new strand
Helicase: splits up the dna strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds making the replication fork
Free nucleotides are connected to a strand by DNA polymerase with complimentary base pairing
DNA polymerase creates the phosphidester bonds between the nucleotides
2 DNA molecules are completed that are semi conservative because they have one parent and one daughter strand and they coil up into a double helix
DNA is anti parallel because one sides 5 carbon is pointing up and the 3 carbon is pointing down which is the leading strand while the other side is the opposite and called the lagging strand
The leading strand's replication is continuous towards the replication fork and the lagging strand's replication is discontinuous because it works away from the replication fork creating Okazaki fragments which are combined with ligase

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ATP: adenosine triphosphate, consists of a pentose sugar ribose, a nitrogenous base adenine and 3 phosphate groups which makes it a nucleotide, the removal of the outermost phosphate groups results in the release of energy, the removal results in 7.3 kCal of energy per mole of ATP and produces adenosine diphoshpate and one inorganic phosphate group , which then concludes in adenosine monophosphate and 2 inorganic phosphate groups in the removal of another phosphate group, energy needed to separate ATP comes from aerobic cellular respiration which is released when glucose is oxidized, the ATP cycle occurs in the mitochondria

So what?
ATP provides energy for protein synthesis, to transport substances across the cell membrane and allows structures associated with movement to function like muscles, cilia and flagella. These are all very important processes in our bodies which wouldn't be able to happen without ATP!

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Contain the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, hydrogen, carbon and oxygen
Nucleic acids are macromolecules and consist of multiple monomers called polymers
Monomers of nucleic acids are called nucleotides which consist of three parts: a phosphate group, a penthouse sugar and a nitrogenous base
Control the process of protein synthesis

DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
2 strands of nucleotides twisted into a double helix, phosphate group, five carbon sugar deoxyribose and a nitrogen base; adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymine adenine and guanine are purines which have 2 rings, cytosine and guanine are pyrimadines which have only 1 rings, nucleotide linked with dehydration synthesis, linked with sugar phosphate bonds which are covalent, hydrogen bonding between nitrogen bases with complimentary base pairing A=T 2 hydrogen bonds G=C 3 hydrogen bonds

RNA: ribonucleic acid
Phosphate group, pentode sugar ribose, nitrogenous base; Adeline uracil, guanine or cytosine, joined through dehydration synthesis, covalent surge phosphate bonds, single strand of nucleiotides,

So what?
DNA is the template for the production of proteins. RNA is made from DNA which then creates the amino acid chains which make up proteins! DNA to RNA to Proteins is the central dogma. It is what creates everything in our bodies and what makes us who we are. We are different because of our unique DNA which ends up making unique characteristics that differ between each human being.

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Proteins are made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds which is a covalent bond, there are 20 different amino acids
Amino acids: consists in hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen atoms, 3 groups make up amino acids the amino group, the R group (side chain) and a carboxylic acid group

Peptide bonds: formed with dehydration synthesis, many peptides linked together are called polypeptide chains, a protein can be 1 or 2 amino acids chains linked together

Primary structure:
Linear sequence of amino acids, has no function at this stage

Secondary structure:
A regular repeated 3-D shape of amino acids, alpha helix or beta pleaded sheet caused by hydrogen bonding between peptide bonds

Tertiary structure: final 3-D shape formed by the twisting and bending of the chains caused by disulphide bonds, has function at this stage, has a polar outside and non polar inside

Quaternary structure:
Combination of 2 or more polypeptide chains formed by various bonds between the R (side) groups

Denaturation: when the R bonds are disrupted the protein cannot function
**STRUCTURE DETERMINES FUNCTION**
Caused by extremes of pH, very high temperature and the addition of heavy metals.

So what?
Proteins are the basis of a lot of things in our bodies for example, hemoglobin transports oxygen in our blood, keratin is our hair and finger nails, collagen is our muscles and tendons, insulin regulates sugar levels in our blood, enzymes like pepsin digest our food, antibodies help fight pathogens that enter and infect our cells, actin, myosin, tubulin contractile fibres allow for movement in our cell and proteins are also a huge component of cell membranes. These are a few reasons why proteins are so important to us.

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Contain mostly hydrogen and oxygen but also may contain nitrogen and phosphorus

Neutral fat: also called triglycerides are made up of 1 fat (glycerol) and 3 fatty acids which are combined through dehydration synthesis
Saturated fat: are saturated with hydrogen so they have no double bonds between carbon atoms, mostly animals fats and are solid in room temperature ex: butter
Unsaturated fats: have double bonds between carbon atoms because of the lack of hydrogen atoms, mostly plant fats and are liquid in room temperature ex: oil

Function: long term energy storage, insulation against the cold and protection of vital organs

Phospholipids: 2 fatty acids and 1 phosphate group which is linked to a nitrogen containing group, phosphorus group is polar and the 2 fatty acids are non polar

Function: major component of the cell membrane

Steroids: similar to cholesterol, consists of three 6 carbon rings and one 5 carbon ring

Function: act as sex hormones, cholesterol helps stabilize and strengthen the cell membrane and aldosterone helps control blood flow levels.

So what?
Lipids are very important to us in many ways. For example neutral fats provide long term energy, insulation and protection, phospholipids makeup the cell membrane in our cells and steroids are our sex hormones, cholesterol which strengthens and stabilizes our cell membranes, controls our blood levels and break down fats in our gal bladder These are essential to our bodies in many ways and are very important in our survival.

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contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, organic molecules

called carbohydrates because it has a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen

can be in the form or monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

Monosaccharides: one sugar unit, linked linear or ring structure, 3 carbons triose sugar Ex: glyceraldehyde, 5 carbon pentose sugar Ex: ribose/deoxiribose RNA/DNA, 6 carbon hexose sugar Ex: glucose energy source, common chemical formula: C6H12O6,

Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides combined through dehydration synthesis,
maltose: 2 glucose, engery storage
sucrose: 1 glucose 1 fructose, table sugar
lactose: 1 glucose 1 gulactose, dairy sugar

Polysacchaides: many monosaccharides linked together with dehydration synthesis, polymers,
starch: straight chain of glucose joned by alpha 1-4 bonds and found in plants, long term energy
glycogen: highly branched glucose joined by alpha 1-4 bonds, found in animals, energy source
cellulose: straight chain of glucose joined by beta 1-4 bonds found in plants, creates cell wall structure
So what?
Carbohydrates are a form of energy that help make glucose which is a sugar and also help break down proteins for energy. Carbohydrates also are found in our DNA and RNA as ribose and deoxyribose. They are very important because they are involved in the production of proteins which make up our whole bodies!

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pH is the measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution scale is 0-14
pH<7 : acids
pH>7 : bases
pH=7 : neutral

Acid: a substance that splits up in water and increases hydrogen ion concentration, proton donor

Base: a substance that splits up in water and increases hydroxide concentration, proton acceptor

Low pH# = high H+
High pH# = low H+
Neutral pH# = H+=OH-

Buffer: stabilize pH of a solution by added H+ or OH- Ex: hemoglobin in human blood maintains pH  and creates homeostasis (internal balance)

So what?
Acids and bases are very important to our bodies! Without acids we wouldn't be able to break down foods for energy and our blood is a great example of a base in our body. These things are crucial to our survival. Most importantly buffers help maintain an internal balance (homeostasis) by adding H+ or OH- so things like our blood won't get too acidic or our stomach acid won't become too basic! Our body needs balance and that what buffers are for!

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molecular formula: H2O

2 covalent bonds between two hydrogen and one oxygen atoms called intra-molecular bonds

oxygen has a greater affinity to electrons than hydrogen making unequal sharing which makes the molecule polar

oxygen: slightly negative charge

hydrogen: slightly positive charge

water is an excellent solvent because all other polar molecules can dissolve in it

bond between water molecules is a weak hydrogen bond that is inter-molecular

hydrogen bonds give water important characteristics

High heat capacity: can absorb a large amount of heat with minimal change in temperature Ex: keeps temperature changes in the environment ad organisms moderate

High heat of vaporization: takes a lot of heat to vaporize it (100C) Ex: sweat cools body temperature

High surface tension: large attraction of water molecules Ex: keeps organisms moist (mucus)

Ice is less dense than water: when freezes molecules have more space between each other and form a lattice structure Ex: insulates organisms living in water from low temperatures

Dehydration synthesis: process of making larger molecules from smaller molecules, water is released by taking a hydroxide group from one molecule and a hydrogen from the other Ex: production of an protein by joining amino acids

Hydrolysis: process of breaking down large molecules into smaller molecules, water is added in order to break the chemical bond a hydroxide group is added to one molecule and a hydrogen is added to the other molecule Ex: the production of glycerol and three fatty acids by breaking down a neutral fat
So what?
Water is essential to life on earth and it is a main component of our survival! It has many characteristics that help us and other living things live. For example water has a high surface tension that helps some organisms stay moist by having a mucus coating like slugs and snails. Water also has a high heat of vaporization which controls temperature changes in the environment and in organisms so they stay moderate. Another characteristic water has is that ice is less dense than water so when ponds freeze during the winter the organisms in the water are insulated by the ice so they are able to survive. These are just some of the reasons why water is so important and that we need to stop taking it for granted because without water we will not survive.

# data[].attributes.body
Observation: when you see a natural event that you want to understand (noticing something)

Hypothesis: an explanation of a natural event which must be falsifiable
Ex: You notice that one of your sunflowers grew more than the other. You think the change might have been from the location of the plant. One plant is in the shade most of the day while the other is in the sun. A possible hypothesis for this natural event could be:  More sunlight makes the sunflower grow bigger

Testable Prediction: an "if" and "then" sentence to predict what will happen
Ex: If you increase the sunflowers exposure to sunlight then it will grow bigger

Experimental group: the group in which the independent variable is varied
Ex: the sunflowers that get varied amounts of time in the sun which are less than a whole day

Control group: one of the groups in your experiment that has nothing changed to it, allows for comparison with the experimental groups
Ex: a sunflower that gets sunlight during the whole day

Independent variable: the factor that is being tested
Ex: the amount of sunlight

Dependent variable: the factor being observed as it responds to the independent variable
Ex: the sunflowers growth

Sample size: amount in each experimental group, the larger the size the more valid your results will be
Ex: having groups of 50-100 sunflowers instead of groups of 1-10

Constant factors: things that ensure the experiment will be controlled and only one variable will be tested
Ex: having same soil, nutrients, sunflower supplier, water etc.

Data: the results of an experiment, should be observable and objective
Ex: using a bar graph to show and compare the sunflowers growth

Conclusion:  a summary of your results that includes; if your hypothesis was supported or not by quoting data, if this conclusion may lead to the hypothesis of another experiment and anything that could be changed about this experiment to make it more valid
Ex: The more sunlight a sunflower gets during the day increases it growth. The hypothesis was supported because the results showed that the sunflower with the most sun exposure grew to __cm and the sunflower with the least sun exposure grew to __cm. This experiment could have been more valid if the pots sizes were the same. The next experiment could test the temperature of the sun exposure and how that effects the sunflowers growth

The scientific method is  very important to all levels of science. It is a universal way to organize experiments. It creates an easy way to share experiments and to revise them with peers because they will all be formatted the same. It is also an easy way to point out errors in the experiment. Overall it has made science experiments clear, organized and uniform.