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Critical Thinking Skills | PBS LearningMedia

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Find lessons on Critical Thinking Skills for all grades. Free interactive resources and activities for the classroom and home.

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Most of the students at King will be the first in their family to go to college. While at King, students are surrounded by others from similar backgrounds. Nationwide, more than 85 percent of KIPP students are from families eligible for the free or reduced-price lunch program; 95 percent are African American or Latino. However, when they get to college, most find themselves for the first time in an environment of predominantly white students from higher-income communities.

So the goal becomes doing as much as humanly possible to erase any doubt in the minds of students that they can succeed in college. The teachers at King are narrowly focused on arming their students with the skills they need to meet the particular challenges of higher education. From the moment one of their graduates steps onto a college campus, KIPP educators want her to feel confident that she belongs in that rigorous academic environment. Singer believes that the intellectual asset that is leveraged most on college campuses is critical thinking. By teaching these skills at King, he says, "we've given them what they need to persist through college." When they emerge to take their places in the workplace, degrees in hand, "that is the moment when we close the achievement gap," Singer adds.

How It's Done

Inquiring Minds

Ideally, teaching kids how to think critically becomes an integral part of your approach, no matter what subject you teach. But if you're just getting started, here are some concrete ways you can begin leveraging your students' critical-thinking skills in the classroom and beyond.

Questions, questions, questions

Questioning is at the heart of critical thinking, so you want to create an environment where intellectual curiosity is fostered and questions are encouraged. For Jared Kushida, who teaches a global politics class called War and Peace at KIPP King Collegiate, "lecturing" means integrating a flow of questions throughout a lesson. "I rarely go on for more than 30 seconds without asking a question, and I rarely stop at that one question," he explains.

In the beginning stages, you may be doing most of the asking to show your students the types of questions that will lead to higher-level thinking and understanding. You can also use "wrong" answers as opportunities to explore your students' thinking. Then ask more questions to lead them in a different direction. As students become more comfortable and skilled, their questions will drive the class discussions.

Start with a prompt and help them unpack it

Pose a provocative question to build an argument around and help your students break it down. Identify any ambiguous or subjective terms and have students clarify and define them. For example, Katie Kirkpatrick, who teaches ninth-grade Speech & Composition at KIPP King Collegiate, poses this question in the first unit of her class: "Is a life in poverty the responsibility of the individual or a result of outside factors?" She guides her class to identify "responsibility of the individual" and "result of outside factors" as what she calls "shady terms" that need definition. Once the terms are clearly defined, students are better able to seek and find evidence that is relevant to their argument.

Provide tools for entering the conversation

At the beginning of the year, Kirkpatrick gives her students a list of sentence starters and connectors such as "I agree/disagree because," "I can connect to your statement because," and "Can you clarify what you mean by." Providing them with these words gives them ways to enter the conversation and will guide their thought process in analyzing the argument.

Model your expectations

"It all comes back to modeling," says Kellan McNulty, who teaches AP world history and AP U.S. history at KIPP King Collegiate. "If you have a behavioral expectation, the best way to teach that is to model." In fact, he learned how to facilitate effective Socratic discussions by observing his colleague. Similarly, he demonstrates for his students ways to enter a conversation, the difference between an analytical point and a summary, and appropriate ways to disagree with one another. Kirkpatrick uses examples, both good and bad, of people presenting arguments and having Socratic discussions from sites such as YouTube.

Encourage constructive controversy

Lively discussions usually involve some degree of differing perspectives. McNulty even uses a "devil's advocate" card that he secretly gives to a student before each discussion, charging him or her with the role of bringing up opposing views. You can give students controversial topics and let them hash it out, but make sure to first demonstrate for them respectful ways of disagreeing and establish clear rules for voicing different perspectives. These rules include the language to use when disagreeing and that the disagreement must be objective, such as finding a flaw in the evidence or the reasoning, not a subjective disagreement based on personal opinions.

Choose content students will invest in

It's important to choose topics that are relevant and significant to students to get them talking and engaged. Kirkpatrick wanted social justice to be the overarching theme for her class. The topic struck a chord with the students and motivated them to build the communication skills they needed to effectively voice their views. Kushida spends much of his prep time finding rich sources (including texts, photos, art, even a single word) about pressing, relevant content to help fuel the discussions. He follows up with a deep arsenal of questions that range from factual to analytical to connective to philosophical.

Set up Socratic discussions

Socratic discussion is the method of inquiry in which participants ask one another questions that test logic with the goal of gaining greater understanding or clarity. At King, teachers regularly set up formal Socratic discussions to give students the opportunity to challenge one another intellectually. The teachers serve primarily as observers, offering prompts only when there is a lull in the conversation, but otherwise leaving it to the students to keep the discussion moving. They strive to engage students in Socratic dialogue informally as well. Kushida explains that he works Socratic questioning in every single day by "never being satisfied with a student answer that does not result in another question and always pushing and counterquestioning and teaching them to do the same."

Assess their reasoning through different methods

To know whether your students are learning to think critically, you need a window into their thought processes. So challenge them to communicate back to you. Essays, Socratic discussions, and speeches give students the chance to demonstrate their skill and allow you to evaluate their reasoning in a variety of situations. Even written tests can foster critical thinking if they require the student to provide counterarguments to a series of statements using details and evidence from the unit of study. You can also assign your students topics to research and then let them lead the classroom discussion. Doing so will help you assess their understanding of the material and their skill at communicating it.

Let students evaluate each other

It can be difficult to assess students while simultaneously facilitating a Socratic discussion. But one way teachers at King give some of the responsibility to the students is by setting up the room in a "fishbowl" configuration, with an inner circle and an outer circle. Students in the inner circle are the active participants while those in the outer are their peer evaluators. Kirkpatrick, McNulty, and others at King use a Socratic seminar rubric that clearly lays out the components of analytical thinking so the students know exactly what to look for. And by evaluating their peers with the same rubric the teacher uses, students gain a better understanding of the criteria for strong critical thinking and discussion.

Step back

It can be hard for a teacher to let go of the reins and let the students do the teaching. "But when you remove yourself from the equation," McNulty explains, "that really forces the kids to step up." And when you give students the responsibility to be the thinkers in the class and drive the content, they may take it in unexpected directions that are more relevant to them and are thus more likely to stick.

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Most of the students at King will be the first in their family to go to college. While at King, students are surrounded by others from similar backgrounds. Nationwide, more than 85 percent of KIPP students are from families eligible for the free or reduced-price lunch program; 95 percent are African American or Latino.

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7 Tips for Cultivating Critical Thinking for Kids Throughout the School Year

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7 Tips for Cultivating Critical Thinking for Kids Throughout the School Year

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In the world of education, the phrase "critical thinking skills" is used so widely, that most of us don't stop to truly contemplate about what it means for our early learners. Over the years, many educational buzzwords have come and gone, but now more than ever before are teachers and researchers realizing the true importance of planting the seeds for critical analysis.

Most of us already know that our little learners are notoriously concrete learners, which is to say that they tend to think literally about ideas and concepts. Any teacher could tell you that students don't actually develop the ability to think critically in an authentic way until well into adolescence. So naturally, you might be wondering just how we can go about teaching critical thinking skills to children.

That's why it's important to know that critical thinking isn't just about possessing the skills or ability to be able to do it; instead, teachers and parents must form the foundations for such analysis by cultivating a mindset in which kids are able to develop throughout their elementary and middle school years. As a result, the goal is for students to use such skills effectively as they approach complex topics and ideas in high school.

Before exploring strategies parents and teachers can use to foster critical thinking for kids, it's important to understand exactly what analytical thinking entails and how it helps kids grow into successful adults.

Why Critical Thinking Matters?

Simply put, it is the ability to think clearly and rationally about a complex topic or idea and analyze it in a way that helps us solve problems. Deep analysis over a topic or problem is key to success in college and in our careers, as it helps our society move forward with solutions to our everyday problems. Without it, doctors and researchers wouldn't be able to create different therapies for common ailments, and law enforcement agencies wouldn't be able to solve crimes. In all walks of life, critical thinking is essential to our lives.

For elementary students who aren't yet developmentally able to think deeply as adults, developing these skills mean that parents and teachers must plant the seeds to form a foundation on which kids can grow their ability to do so. This means that we must encourage a critical thinking mindset, which goes beyond just having the skills themselves; fostering an attitude or frame of mind that allows children to learn to think analytically is what teachers and parents should really strive for. As adults guide elementary school children towards deep thought, they should notice the attributes listed below of a budding critical thinker.
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What Does a Critical Thinker Look or Act Like?

To continue with the above metaphor, once teachers plant the seeds for critical thinking, how do they know of those seeds start to sprout? Pay attention to the following attributes that show a student moving from concrete to critical thinking:

They approach learning situations with an open mind

They understand that there might be more than one right (or wrong) answer

They look for evidence to support their ideas

They ask questions based upon evidence

If you found the list above eye-opening, don't worry! Kindergarteners certainly do not step foot in the classroom already armed with the above qualities. At this point, you might be wondering how children can reach such a level where they exhibit the mindset above. Let's take a look at strategies to help move kids from literal to analytical!

7 Tips for Cultivating a Positive Critical Thinking Mindset

Whether you're a teacher or a parent, you might be curious what you can do to support your kids in their learning journey. Try the following strategies to unleash your child's inner analytical thinking skills:

Think about the last time you read a book with your kids. Chances are, you might have asked a few comprehension questions. But were those questions yes or no questions? Did they necessitate more than a one-worded response? Any question that can be answered using one word is a close-ended question.

Because a student can easily answer them with simple recalled facts, these types of questions are unhelpful when it comes to fostering critical thinking. Instead, ask questions that allows children to think about a response and provide a full sentence (or more!) response. Don't forget to allow students enough time to process information, so be patient while waiting for a response. If they get stuck, give them a small hint to guide them down the right path.

Teaching critical thinking in schools is important, but it isn't affective if students are afraid to raise their hand and join in the discussion or answer the question! Oftentimes, kids are reluctant to speak in class because they're afraid of how they will be judged by their peers if they answer incorrectly. Instead, to foster critical thinking skills, create a classroom (or family) environment where they can feel free to think deeply without the fear of being laughed at.

To do this, stress to children that it's okay to be wrong sometimes, and that we learn the most when we learn through our mistakes. Create a strong rapport with children to ensure that they know that you care about them as a person, so they will be willing to take risks, think deeply, and volunteer ideas and answers, even if they might be wrong.

During class or family discussions, games, or activities, it's important to connect different ideas together to see the relationships that exist between them. For instance, if a child is volunteering at a soup kitchen for homeless people, they might eventually wonder how people end up in that position where they need such public assistance. This would be the perfect time to connect different ideas in an age-appropriate way, like poverty, racial inequality, or family issues. Talking about these subjects would help connect certain issues, like poverty, to homelessness, showing the relationship between them.

Kick off a conversation with your little learner after watching a video. Explore topics your kid is curious about and discuss them in a fun and engaging manner! Check the video below to get your conversation rolling:

Oftentimes children will believe that there is only one "right" way of thinking, when in fact everyone is different and has the right to have varying opinions on complex topics. When faced with a subject like social studies, it's important to encourage kids to seek out and try to understand topics from others' point of view. This not only will help kids learn to think critically, it will also make them more compassionate and empathetic towards others.

It's hard to think critically about any topic that's boring for kids! Children are known for their vast imaginations, and it's important to use it to their full advantage! To do this, think about project-based learning, or allowing kids to have a choice about what topics they explore in preschool learning worksheets within the wider curriculum. As a teacher, write (guided) student choice into your lesson plans for a particular activity or project. As a parent, explore ideas your child is interested in through science experiments, art projects, etc.

As it is often said, two brains are better than one! Working collaboratively with other peers help children consider viewpoints or thoughts that maybe they themselves wouldn't think of naturally on their own. If you're a teacher, plan in group work to allow students the opportunity to bounce ideas of their classmates. As a parent, it's important to find a way your child can work with other children. Organize a play and study group if you have an only child, or if your kids are not similar in age. Otherwise, let kids work together with siblings or cousins as they tackle science experiments or play-based learning.

One of the best ways to tell if kids are developing the skills they need to become critical thinkers is to observe their reactions to lessons, or projects. As they look at evidence to drive their conclusions, are they actively asking questions of their own? If so, are these questions relevant to what they've observed or learned, or are they more randomized? Guide children to create their own questions based upon what they learn to further help them think more deeply. Over time, children will learn how to use their own questioning to propel their learning to greater heights, coming to conclusions that they wouldn't otherwise have created without their analytical thinking skills!

Teaching critical thinking skills to children might at first seem like an impossible task considering the developmental capabilities of children as our kids tend to think on a more literal level. However, students don't suddenly develop analytical thinking skills overnight, and the process must be taught and reinforced throughout a child's education! Use the tips above to get kids in acritical thinking mindset to prepare them for high school, college, and beyond!
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Critical Thinking for Kids: Games, Questions, Activities, Skills for Elementary School

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Teaching critical thinking to children might seem like a tough task since kids are known to think literally! But at the elementary level, it's about developing a mindset to set the stage for deep thinking. Read this article to find more tips for helping kids to become critical thinkers!

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A Critical Thinking Framework for Elementary Students

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A Critical Thinking Framework for Elementary Students

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Guiding young students to engage in critical thinking fosters their ability to create and engage with knowledge.

Maskot Images / Shutterstock

Critical thinking is using analysis and evaluation to make a judgment. Analysis, evaluation, and judgment are not discrete skills; rather, they emerge from the accumulation of knowledge. The accumulation of knowledge does not mean students sit at desks mindlessly reciting memorized information, like in 19th century grammar schools. Our goal is not for learners to regurgitate facts by rote without demonstrating their understanding of the connections, structures, and deeper ideas embedded in the content they are learning. To foster critical thinking in school, especially for our youngest learners, we need a pedagogy that centers knowledge and also honors the ability of children to engage with knowledge.

This chapter outlines the Critical Thinking Framework: five instructional approaches educators can incorporate into their instruction to nurture deeper thinking. These approaches can also guide intellectual preparation protocols and unit unpackings to prepare rigorous, engaging instruction for elementary students. Some of these approaches, such as reason with evidence, will seem similar to other "contentless" programs professing to teach critical thinking skills. But others, such as say it in your own words or look for structure, are targeted at ensuring learners soundly understand content so that they can engage in complex thinking. You will likely notice that every single one of these approaches requires students to talk-to themselves, to a partner, or to the whole class. Dialogue, specifically in the context of teacher-led discussions, is essential for students to analyze, evaluate, and judge (i.e., do critical thinking).

The Critical Thinking Framework

Say it in your own words: Students articulate ideas in their own words. They use unique phrasing and do not parrot the explanations of others. When learning new material, students who pause to explain concepts in their own words (to themselves or others) demonstrate an overall better understanding than students who do not (Nokes-Malach et al., 2013). However, it's not enough for us to pause frequently and ask students to explain, especially if they are only being asked to repeat procedures. Explanations should be effortful and require students to make connections to prior knowledge and concepts as well as to revise misconceptions (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015).

Break it down: Students break down the components, steps, or smaller ideas within a bigger idea or procedure. In addition to expressing concepts in their own words, students should look at new concepts in terms of parts and wholes. For instance, when learning a new type of problem or task, students can explain the steps another student took to arrive at their answer, which promotes an understanding that transfers to other tasks with a similar underlying structure. Asking students to explain the components and rationale behind procedural steps can also lead to more flexible problem solving overall (Rittle-Johnson, 2006). By breaking down ideas into component parts, students are also better equipped to monitor the soundness of their own understanding as well as to see similar patterns (i.e., regularity) among differing tasks. For example, in writing, lessons can help students see how varying subordinating conjunction phrases at the start of sentences can support the flow and readability of a paragraph. In math, a solution can be broken down into smaller steps.

Look for structure: Students look beyond shallow surface characteristics to see deep structures and underlying principles. Learners struggle to see regularity in similar problems that have small differences (Reed et al., 1985). Even when students are taught how to complete one kind of task, they struggle to transfer their understanding to a new task where some of the superficial characteristics have been changed. This is because students, especially students who are novices in a domain, tend to emphasize the surface structure of a task rather than deep structure (Chi & Van Lehn, 2012).

By prompting students to notice deep structures-such as the characteristics of a genre or the needs of animals-rather than surface structures, teachers foster the development of comprehensive schemata in students' long-term memories, which they are more likely to then apply to novel situations. Teachers should monitor for student understanding of deep structures across several tasks and examples.

Notice gaps or inconsistencies in ideas: Students ask questions about gaps and inconsistencies in material, arguments, and their own thinking. When students engage in explanations of material, they are more likely to notice when they misunderstand material or to detect a conflict with their prior knowledge (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). In a classroom, analyzing conflicting ideas and interpretations allows students to revise misconceptions and refine mental models. Noticing gaps and inconsistencies in information also helps students to evaluate the persuasiveness of arguments and to ask relevant questions.

Reason with evidence: Students construct arguments with evidence and evaluate the evidence in others' reasoning. Reasoning with evidence matters in every subject, but what counts for evidence in a mathematical proof differs from what is required in an English essay. Students should learn the rules and conventions for evidence across a wide range of disciplines in school. The habits of looking for and weighing evidence also intersect with some of the other critical thinking approaches discussed above. Noticing regularity in reasoning and structure helps learners find evidence efficiently, while attending to gaps and inconsistencies in information encourages caution before reaching hasty conclusions.

Countering Two Critiques

Some readers may be wondering how the Critical Thinking Framework differs from other general skills curricula. The framework differs in that it demands application in the context of students' content knowledge, rather than in isolation. It is a pedagogical tool to help students make sense of the content they are learning. Students should never sit through a lesson where they are told to "say things in their own words" when there is nothing to say anything about. While a contentless lesson could help on the margins, it will not be as relevant or transferable. Specific content matters. A checklist of "critical thinking skills" cannot replace deep subject knowledge. The framework should not be blindly applied to all subjects without context because results will look quite different in an ELA or science class.

Other readers may be thinking about high-stakes tests: how does the Critical Thinking Framework fit in with an overwhelming emphasis on assessments aligned to national or state standards? This is a valid concern and an important point to address. For teachers, schools, and districts locked into an accountability system that values performance on state tests but does not communicate content expectations beyond general standards, the arguments I make may seem beside the point. Sure, knowledge matters, but the curriculum demands that students know how to quickly identify the main idea of a paragraph, even if they don't have any background knowledge about the topic of the paragraph.

It is crucial that elementary practitioners be connected to both evolving research on learning and the limiting realities we teach within. Unfortunately, I can provide no easy answers beyond saying that teaching is a balancing act. The tension, while real and relevant to teachers' daily lives, should not cloud our vision for what children need from their school experiences.

I also argue it is easier to incorporate the demands of our current standardized testing environment into a curriculum rich with history, science, art, geography, languages, and novels than the reverse. The Critical Thinking Framework presents ways to approach all kinds of knowledge in a way that presses students toward deeper processing of the content they are learning. If we can raise the bar for student work and thinking in our classrooms, the question of how students perform on standardized tests will become secondary to helping them achieve much loftier and important goals. The choice of whether to emphasize excellent curriculum or high-stakes tests, insofar as it is a choice at all, should never be existential or a zero-sum game.

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A Critical Thinking Framework for Elementary Students

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Guiding young students to engage in critical thinking fosters their ability to create and engage with knowledge.

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Promoting Critical Thinking in the Early Elementary Grades | Edutopia

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Promoting Critical Thinking in the Early Elementary Grades | Edutopia

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In the middle of class, a kindergartner spotted an ant and asked the teacher, "Why do ants come into the classroom?" Fairly quickly, educational consultant Cecilia Cabrera Martirena writes, students started sharing their theories: Maybe the ants were cold, or looking for food, or lonely.

Their teacher started a KWL chart to organize what students already knew, what they wanted to know, and, later, what they had learned. "As many of the learners didn't read or write yet, the KWL was created with drawings and one or two words," Cabrera Martirena writes. "Then, as a group, they decided how they could gather information to answer that first question, and some possible research routes were designed."

"An interesting question and the discussion that follows can open up paths of critical thinking for students at any age," Orr says. "With a few thoughtful prompts and a lot of noticing and modeling, we as educators can help young students engage in these types of academic conversations in ways that deepen their learning and develop their critical thinking skills."

While this may not be an "easy process," Orr writes-for the kids or the teacher-the payoff is students who from a young age are able to communicate new ideas and questions; listen and truly hear the thoughts of others; respectfully agree, disagree, or build off of their peers' opinions; and revise their thinking.

4 Strategies for Kick-Starting Powerful Conversations

1. Encourage Friendly Debate: For many elementary-aged children, it doesn't take much provoking for them to share their opinions, especially if they disagree with each other. Working with open-ended prompts that "engage their interest and pique their curiosity" is one key to sparking organic engagement, Orr writes. Look for prompts that allow them to take a stance, arguing for or against something they feel strongly about.

For example, Orr says, you could try telling first graders that a square is a rectangle to start a debate. Early childhood educator Sarah Griffin proposes some great math talk questions that can yield similar results:

How many crayons can fit in a box?

Which takes more snow to build: one igloo or 20 snowballs?

Estimate how many tissues are in a box.

How many books can you fit in your backpack?

Which would take less time: cleaning your room or reading a book?

Which would you rather use to measure a Christmas tree: a roll of ribbon or a candy cane? Why?

Using pictures can inspire interesting math discussions as well, writes K-6 math coach Kristen Acosta. Explore counting, addition, and subtraction by introducing kids to pictures "that have missing pieces or spaces" or "pictures where the objects are scattered." For example, try showing students a photo of a carton of eggs with a few eggs missing. Ask questions like, "what do you notice?" and "what do you wonder?" and see how opinions differ.

2. Put Your Students in the Question: Centering students' viewpoints in a question or discussion prompt can foster deeper thinking, Orr writes. During a unit in which kids learned about ladybugs, she asked her third graders, "What are four living and four nonliving things you would need and want if you were designing your own ecosystem?" This not only required students to analyze the components of an ecosystem but also made the lesson personal by inviting them to dream one up from scratch.

Which is better, giant muscles or incredible speed? Why?

What's the most beautiful person, place, or thing you've ever seen? Share what makes that person, place, or thing so special.

What TV or movie characters do you wish were real? Why?

Describe a routine that you often or always do (in the morning, when you get home, Friday nights, before a game, etc.).

What are examples of things you want versus things you need?

3. Open Several Doors: While some students take to classroom discussions like a duck to water, others may prefer to stay on dry land. Offering low-stakes opportunities for students to dip a toe into the conversation can be a great way to ensure that everyone in the room can be heard. Try introducing hand signals that indicate agreement, disagreement, and more. Since everyone can indicate their opinion silently, this supports students who are reluctant to speak, and can help get the conversation started.

Similarly, elementary school teacher Raquel Linares uses participation cards -a set of different colored index cards, each labeled with a phrase like "I agree," "I disagree," or "I don't know how to respond." "We use them to assess students' understanding, but we also use them to give students a voice," Linares says. "We obviously cannot have 24 scholars speaking at the same time, but we want everyone to feel their ideas matter. Even if I am very shy and I don't feel comfortable, my voice is still heard." Once the students have held up the appropriate card, the discussion gets going.

4. Provide Discussion Sentence Starters: Young students often want to add their contribution without connecting it to what their peers have said, writes district-level literacy leader Gwen Blumberg. Keeping an ear out for what students are saying to each other is an important starting point when trying to "lift the level of talk" in your classroom. Are kids "putting thoughts into words and able to keep a conversation going?" she asks.

Introducing sentence starters like "I agree..." or "I feel differently..." can help demonstrate for students how they can connect what their classmate is saying to what they would like to say, which grows the conversation, Blumberg says. Phrases like "I'd like to add..." help students "build a bridge from someone else's idea to their own."

Additionally, "noticing and naming the positive things students are doing, both in their conversation skills and in the thinking they are demonstrating," Orr writes, can shine a light for the class on what success looks like. Celebrating when students use these sentence stems correctly, for example, helps reinforce these behaviors.

"Students' ability to clearly communicate with others in conversation is a critical literacy skill," Blumberg writes, and teachers in grades K-2 can get students started on the path to developing this skill by harnessing their natural curiosity and modeling conversation moves.

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4 Strategies for Sparking Critical Thinking in Young Students

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Fostering investigative conversation in grades K-2 isn't easy, but it can be a great vehicle to promote critical thinking.

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Evaluating Critical Thinking - Rubric and Worksheet

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Evaluating Critical Thinking - Rubric and Worksheet

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Education for Thinking Project - Reflection Worksheet

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Education for Thinking Project - Reflection Worksheet

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Education for Thinking Project - Critical Thinking Info and Tools

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Education for Thinking Project - Critical Thinking Info and Tools

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Education for Thinking | Education For Thinking

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To learn more about the philosophical and psychological foundations of our work, see: Kuhn, D. Education for Thinking. Harvard University Press, 2005.

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Overview

The Benefits of Using the Critical-Thinking Model

Thinking critically is one thing, but being able to teach it can be quite another.

Using questioning techniques, content becomes more relevant for every child in the classroom and for the teacher as well. It pushes your practice. When you have students taking on the onus for their own learning, questioning and thinking and formulating their own arguments, then they're the ones who come up with new ways to learn the material. As a teacher, it's an incredibly enriching experience because you see your content going in directions that you may never have thought of.

There's often the misconception that teaching critical thinking is more work. But if teachers have some questioning tools, and are creating ways for students to formulate arguments in response to essential questions, that is really what can drive the content. So just infusing questioning into lessons and not changing entire lesson plans, not changing entire scope and sequences for the curriculum, that's where the magic happens.

How It's Done

Defining Critical Thinking in the Classroom

It's an approach to teaching that allows students to make sense of the content. They analyze the content, they evaluate the content, and they're able to apply it to their daily lives. Teachers ask specific questions to get the students to do those things.

The first step is to develop the questions that are going to frame your assignments. Framing your units with essential questions helps students make sense of the knowledge they're learning. They can see that the learning in this classroom is going to help them answer this essential question at the end of the unit. Once you frame your questions or frame your prompts, then you can essentially take students through the steps listed above.
What are the right kinds of questions to ask?
In figuring out what questions to ask, it's really helpful to look at Bloom's Taxonomy. Bloom's begins with a knowledge-based question such as, "Who was the first president of the United States?" To answer that question simply requires knowledge.

That's just a first step. Next you want them to be able to evaluate. So I push teachers to look at the levels of Bloom's Taxonomy that involve the analysis and evaluation type of questions. That's when you're pushing kids' thinking. For instance, if you ask, "To what extent was George Washington successful as the first president of the United States?" that's a much higher-level question. It requires a student to evaluate, to create a set of criteria for what makes someone a great president, to possess knowledge about George Washington, and to evaluate his performance against that set of criteria.

I suggest that teachers really think about questions that hit four specific criteria. Questions should:

be open-ended, with no right or wrong answer, which prompts exploration in different directions

require synthesis of information, an understanding of how pieces fit together

be "alive in their disciplines," which means perpetually arguable, with themes that will recur throughout a student's lifetime and always be relevant

be age-appropriate

One of the hardest things for new teachers is that it requires them to step back and let the students do the work. For a teacher who's used to being the agent of knowledge, it can be hard for them to take a backseat to the learning that's happening in the classroom and also to trust that students can do it.

20% English-language learners, 2% Individualized education programs

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Making Socratic Seminars Work | Edutopia

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Thinking critically is one thing, but being able to teach it can be quite another. Using questioning techniques, content becomes more relevant for every child in the classroom and for the teacher as well. It pushes your practice.

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Critical Thinking Definition, Instruction, and Assessment: A Rigorous Approach

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Critical Thinking Definition, Instruction, and Assessment: A Rigorous Approach

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There are many ways to articulate the concept of critical thinking, yet every substantive conception must contain certain core elements. Consider these brief conceptualizations of critical thinking...

"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness..."

"Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fairminded way. People who think critically attempt, with consistent and conscious effort, to live rationally, reasonably, and empathically. They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking when left unchecked. They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies. They use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers - concepts and principles that enable them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in reason. They realize that no matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can always improve their reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality, prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested interest.

They strive to improve the world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational, civilized society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing so. They strive never to think simplistically about complicated issues and always to consider the rights and needs of relevant others. They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long practice toward self-improvement. They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life is not worth living, because they realize that many unexamined lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world."

~ Linda Elder, September, 2007

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There are many ways to articulate the concept of critical thinking, yet every substantive conception must contain certain core elements. Consider these brief conceptualizations of critical thinking... "Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.

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Engaging Students with Challenge Based Learning

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Engaging Students with Challenge Based Learning

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Project-Based Learning (PBL)

High school students can participate in hands-on, relevant projects that provide effective solutions to problems in their community.

Nikola Stojadinovic / iStock

Challenge Based Learning (CBL) is a powerful pedagogical approach to reengaging students in the classroom. CBL promotes active participation, critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and, more important, a sense of purpose among students. By engaging in hands-on, relevant tasks, students develop the necessary skills to thrive in a future where continuous learning is essential.

The Challenge Based Learning Framework can be adapted to any subject or grade level and provides a structure in which students identify a problem, ask questions, and conduct research that leads to a proposed solution. Then, they put that solution into action to create change in their school or community. When students get to identify a problem, they're more invested in the learning process and outcome.

Come Up With the Big Idea and Essential Question

For a CBL project, you need a big idea that captures students' imagination and interest and addresses a real-world issue like the environment or inequity. In my anatomy and physiology classes, our big idea is always health and wellness.

At the beginning of the year, I ask my students, "What are the health and wellness issues that impact our community and world?" Once they've generated plenty of thoughts, they develop a "How can we..." question based on those issues. I have them share their questions in Padlet to promote discussion and use these questions throughout the year to develop challenges within our units of study.

Investigate, Implement, and Act

The investigate stage of CBL encourages students to explore and learn more about the problem. The process supports research skills and promotes a good understanding of the challenge itself. For my classes, the investigation phase usually takes us one full class period for research and planning. Next, I have them put together a quick presentation to pitch their ideas to the class so we can vote on the best option.

Students engage in collaborative discussions, look for unique perspectives, and develop a plan that would address the challenge. It's important for them to be well-informed about the problem in order to suggest a solution.

The implementation phase of CBL is the moment it all comes together. After investigating, discussing, and planning, we finally have a plan of action and are ready to move forward. This phase of dealing with real-world problems involves collaborative teamwork and effective communication and also promotes a sense of accountability, adaptability, and resilience within students.

Process Snapshot

Here's how we go through the CBL process in my class:

Big idea: Health and wellness

1. How do certain mental health conditions alter brain chemistry?

2. How can your environment impact your mental health?

3. What are some healthy ways to reduce stress and anxiety?

4. How does social media play a role in mental health?

Essential question: How can we improve mental health in our community?

Investigate: With a solid question in place, students need more of a background in mental health in order to know how to improve it. I typically give them some research questions to get them started but allow them to follow any path that interests them. Here are some prompts I've given them:

During this phase, we do activities that help students learn more about the topic, such as a sheep brain dissection, reaction-time experimentation, and reflex testing. These activities allow me to cover the content of the class but still connect to the topic.

We discuss how mental health impacts brain structures and how age can alter reaction times and reflexes, and we identify good solutions to maintaining a healthy brain.

Implementation: After researching and learning more, each group comes up with an idea of how to accomplish our essential question and pitches it to the class. They create a presentation that includes all the details of their idea and implementation plan.

Choose a Project and Reflect

Groups present on a range of topics and ideas such as developing intramural sports teams to give students an outlet to reduce stress, putting on a holiday party at the local senior center, and incorporating mental health days into classes. After each group presents, we vote and decide to move forward with two big projects.

This year, the first project was a holiday party at our local senior center. The group that presented the idea reached out to the senior center for approval and organized the whole event. They designed games and competitions, all the while learning about brain development, age-appropriate activities, and project planning. More than 35 anatomy students volunteered to host the event on their day off from school. Each group ran a station for the seniors to attend. The senior center had more than 75 people show up that day. Watching my kids interact with the elderly community was the best part of my year to that point. None of this event counted toward any grade. They were there because they wanted to be.

The second project we'll implement is a mental health fair. Many students had great ideas of little things to do, so someone suggested that we just host a festival of some sort. We contacted a local nonprofit, The Defensive Line, and will host an event with them this May. Groups will host tables that feature pet adoption, crafts, journaling, pickup sports games, art therapy, and yoga.

At the conclusion of any activity, I ask students to reflect on their learning. A typical reflection is in the form of a survey that asks them, "What did you like? What would you change? How could we improve it for next time?" This always helps me to make improvements for the next one. I look forward to hearing what they have to say this year.

Be Brave-It's Worth It

Change is hard. Doing something out of your comfort zone is hard for most people.

At the beginning of the year, when my students suggested we do a CBL event each month, I was a bit overwhelmed and anxious. However, I knew it would be for the good of everyone involved. Students get opportunities to hold leadership positions and build strong relationships within our classroom and community. We've run six mini CBLs this year and have two more left, with the mental health fair as the finale. My students have stepped up-doing things beyond my expectations to make these events successful and fun.

We want our students to learn how to navigate the evolving landscape of technology, improve their problem-solving skills, and make a positive impact on society. Embracing change in education isn't merely about staying current, it's about instilling a particular mindset within ourselves and modeling the values of lifelong learning, creative thinking, and a willingness to take risks.

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Engaging Students With Challenge Based Learning

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High school students can participate in hands-on, relevant projects that provide effective solutions to problems in their community.

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Gameschooling MATH | 3 UNO games to teach Critical THINKING skills for KIDS

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Gameschooling MATH | 3 UNO games to teach Critical THINKING skills for KIDS

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Gameschooling MATH | 3 UNO games to teach Critical THINKING skills for KIDS

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Critical Thinking Skills for Kids | Ways to Enhance Critical Thinking in Kids

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Critical Thinking Skills for Kids | Ways to Enhance Critical Thinking in Kids

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Critical Thinking Skills for Kids | Ways to Enhance Critical Thinking in Kids

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The 6 Stages of Critical Thinking Charles Leon

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In today’s complex, information-rich world, it is easy not to get lost in irrelevance and lose sight of priorities. Critical thinking is a crucial skill and is the ability to be able to separate what is important and relevant for decision-making.

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9 Rules for Teaching Effective Critical Thinking

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9 Rules for Teaching Effective Critical Thinking

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9 Rules For Teaching Effective Critical Thinking — Open Colleges

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Critical thinking is the study of clear and unclear thinking. A simple definition, maybe, but that's how it should be. The term was popularised long ago-by John Dewey, in the 1930s-but in recent years it has become less of an actionable technique and more of a trendy educational buzzword.

Our definition of "critical thinking" is sliding towards the obscure. Here's the Australian Curriculum website's take:

"Critical thinking is at the core of most intellectual activity that involves students in learning to recognise or develop an argument, use evidence in support of that argument, draw reasoned conclusions, and use information to solve problems. Examples of thinking skills are interpreting, analysing, evaluating, explaining, sequencing, reasoning, comparing, questioning, inferring, hypothesising, appraising, testing and generalising."

Yikes.

From the Common Core Standards website:

"The Common Core asks students to read stories and literature, as well as more complex texts that provide facts and background knowledge in areas such as science and social studies. Students will be challenged and asked questions that push them to refer back to what they've read. This stresses critical-thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills that are required for success in college, career, and life."

What exactly is the difference between critical thinking and analysing, problem-solving, questioning, reasoning, etc? By stringing all these terms together we are diluting the power of each. What we need is precision. Teachers need it, and students need it. We all need to think critically about the meaning of critical thinking and come up with something that is actionable and distinct.

But first-it may be instructive to take a step backward and consider what critical thinking looked like before it became "critical thinking."

Where Did the Concept Come From?

The Greeks, of course.

From the beginning, the concept included not only the examination of others but the constant cognitive monitoring of one's own thinking as well. When Socrates said, "The unexamined life is not worth living," he meant it quite literally. So, the very earliest origins of critical thinking lie in self-examination.

But let's take it a step further. It's in the notion of self-correcting that the "critical" part starts to show. Thomas Aquinas was known to constantly test his thinking by systematically anticipating, considering, and answering every criticism of his ideas that he could conceive of. In so doing, he inspired others to appreciate a kind of systematic cross-examination of the self, which helped ensure rational and objective thinking.

Socrates, of course, established Socratic questioning, which we still use today. Rather than anticipating criticisms, it employs them: "I believe one should always be truthful. But what if telling a falsehood would save another person's life? Is truth nobler than life?"

Later, Bacon and Descartes paved the way to the Age of Reason and Boyle and Newton challenged the existing definition of scientific proof. Quantifiable proof truly began to take hold in the 19th and 20th centuries, when the likes of Marx, Darwin, and Freud continued to challenge assumptions.

In 1906, William Graham Sumner published Folkways, which pointed to the dangers of social indoctrination in schools:

"School education, unless it is regulated by the best knowledge and good sense, will produce men and women who are all of one pattern, as if turned in a lathe...The popular opinions always contain broad fallacies, half-truths, and glib generalizations."

Sumner supported critical thinking in life and in education, and believed that effective thinking is dependent on a mental habit and power.

Dewey is widely credited with sparking the contemporary critical thinking movement with his books How We Think (1910) and Democracy and Education (1916). Dewey popularised the words "reflective thinking" and "inquiry," and solidified them as vital parts of critical thinking.

In the 1970s the term " metacognition," literally defined as "thinking about thinking," emerged, and critical thinking became a widely accepted educational virtue.

Still, when we hear the term "critical thinking" today, it reminds us more of Bloom's Taxonomy than of Ancient Greek wisdom.

If we want our students to end up with critical thinking skills, we're going to have to teach them what makes it distinct from other types of thinking. If we lump it in with deep thinking and analysing, we get a dizzying array of standards that are too obscure to meet. I think we'd all agree that today's students, especially, need very concrete objectives in order to succeed in the workforce and beyond.

The problem is, sometimes we don't know where to start to make this happen.

What Does the Term Really Mean?

A few years ago the Center for Critical Thinking was asked to conduct a study for the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing to determine the extent to which teacher preparation programs were preparing prospective teachers to teach for critical thinking. The study showed that although most faculty considered critical thinking to be of primary importance to instruction (89%), only 19% could adequately articulate what critical thinking is.

More than 75% of educators interviewed were unable to reconcile how to teach content while fostering critical thinking.

In addition, more than 75% of those interviewed were unable to reconcile how to teach content while fostering critical thinking.

"The reason teacher preparation programs fail to place critical thinking at the heart of the curriculum is two-fold," says educational psychologist and critical thinking specialist Linda Elder. "First, faculty who control and teach the curriculum simply don't know what critical thinking is. Second, they think they do."

This is a problem, she says, not just with faculty in teacher preparation programs, but with faculty as a rule. Most teachers have never been explicitly taught the intellectual skills inherent in critical thinking. Many of them teach as if learning were equivalent to rote memorisation. Teachers tend to teach as they have been taught. Many confuse schooling with intellectual development.

They believe that, because they are college graduates, they automatically think well. The fact is, teacher preparation programs seldom prepare teachers to foster critical thinking skills and dispositions.

So what is critical thinking? Or-maybe a better place to start-what isn't it?

Here's what we know critical thinkingisn't:

Simply mimicking other thinking

Simply agreeing with other thinking

Being biased towards one way of thinking

Being biased against one way of thinking

Drawing conclusions too quickly

Denying faults in one's own thinking

Placing weight on insignificant details

Here's what we know critical thinkingis:

Questioning other thinking

Embracing other thinking

Emulating other thinking

Willingness to be wrong

Questioning one's own thinking

Putting logic before bias

Recognising contradictions

This is by no means a comprehensive list, but it's at least a start at trying to define critical thinking in concrete terms. The next challenge, once you've defined it, is to teach it. If critical thinking is such an essential academic standard in our society, as the Australian Curriculum and Common Core websites suggest, then we need clear examples of how to help our students meet it.

Critical thinking can occur anywhere, at any time. But it most often shows up in three contexts: essay writing, class discussions, and assessment. Below are nine practical ways to hone your students' critical thinking skills in these areas:

Rules of Thumb for Essays

The best arguments try desperately to prove themselves wrong

1. Discuss the phrasing of prompts.

Do your students know the difference between "analysing" and "assessing" something? Part of critical thinking is being discerning about terms, if only because the language we use affects the way we think. Obviously, this applies to more than just prompts-you could create an entire lesson on word choice and thought in the construction of essays.

2. There's no argument without a counter-argument.

The best arguments try desperately to prove themselves wrong in order to gain their audience's trust and lend greater credence to their own assertion. This is also the way good science works-the hypothesis is correct only when all attempts to prove it wrong have failed. A great lesson in critical thinking.

3. Good essayists admit when they don't know the answer.

Just because a thesis statement should be clear doesn't mean it has to be black or white. If there's a limit or a condition to an argument, say so. The grey area is just as important a part of critical thinking as anything else.

Rules of Thumb for Discussions

1. Hold regular "written" discussions.

In-class discussions are essential, but they appeal to a certain type of learner. Written discussions appeal to another type of learner. With an online discussion forum added to your curriculum, you'll meet the needs of students who think best verbally and students who think best while writing.

2. Highlight the mysterious.

Every outstanding educator I ever had managed to make his or her topic interesting not because of what was known about it but because of what was unknown about it. It's important for students to learn the basics of a concept, but that's what readings and lectures are for. Use discussions to show that your topic is still "alive" and very much up for interpretation.

3. Always refer to other disciplines.

If you're teaching a lesson on the history of Troy, tie in information about The Iliad. If you're discussing 19th century US politics, talk about Uncle Tom's Cabin. Collaborate with other instructors to see what material students will identify with if you bring it up in your class.

Rules of Thumb for Tests

1. Have students write their own test questions.

What better way to test a student's understanding of a concept (and their critical thinking skills) than to have them write their own test questions on a topic? You can either end the exercise here, and have the questions themselves be turned in for grading, or you can have students take each other's tests. Either way, it will be an effective assessment.

2. Include the "how" and "why" in MC questions.

If you're going to administer Multiple Choice exams, don't make them content-knowledge-exclusive. Add questions that test students' knowledge of why events occurred and how concepts work. Short answer questions serve a similar purpose, but MC questions force students to be discerning and recognise the difference between similar concepts.

3. Hold oral exams.

It's pretty astonishing that nearly all of our assessments are written. In the real world, isn't it far more likely that a student will have to explain a concept orally than in writing? But who has time to test every student's oral skills separately, you may ask. You do. If you have the time to grade 25 papers, you have time to meet with 25 students individually.

"There is a direct relationship between teacher practices and student development of critical thinking," says Elder. "To the extent that teachers foster the development of thinking abilities through their practices, students will begin to develop these abilities. To the extent that teachers fail to foster critical thinking, students will fail to develop these abilities. As a rule, people will not develop these abilities on their own. And very few students will learn them at home."

We're still a long way from streamlining or even understanding the way we teach critical thinking. But we know that we have to start closing the distance-because no one else is going to.

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There's a Better Way to Teach Critical Thinking: 9 Rules of Thumb

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Discover the 9 essential rules of thumb for teaching critical thinking effectively. Improve your teaching skills with this insightful guide.

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Critical thinking is important. Generally speaking, critical thinking refers to the ability to understand the logical connections between ideas. When a person understands these connections, it makes it easier to construct logical arguments based on those ideas. It also becomes easier to evaluate the arguments that other people make to see if those arguments are based on sound reasoning.

Since critical thinking involves connecting important concepts and ideas, critical thinkers often find it easier to solve problems in a systematic fashion. Critical thinkers can also prioritize which ideas are most relevant to their own arguments.

From this general idea of what critical thinking involves, it should be easy to see why critical thinking would be important to students. Students who become critical thinkers are better equipped to deal with a wide range of problems that they encounter in school.

These students are better able to build new concepts upon previous ideas that they've learned. This is a useful skill throughout school. Advanced mathematics are built upon simpler math ideas. Science experiments require basic understanding of various substances used in the lab. Advanced argumentation is rooted in the simple ability to identify information that supports the argument's basic premise.

Despite all the potential advantages that may come with possessing critical skills, these skills are not themselves taught directly in school. Such skills may be inadvertently taught during the course of various lessons and school work but, for the most part, critical thinking skills aren't typically directly addressed.

There are no classes committed to teaching critical thinking skills alone, leading teachers across multiple subjects to have to find ways of integrating critical thinking into their lessons independently.

Critical Thinking by the End of High School

Entering college, students have hopefully learned several advanced critical thinking skills that will support them through their college work. Specifically, there are six critical thinking skills that will support upper high school students and college students. These skills can help students to perform better in a range of subjects.

Identification

Identification is important to critical thinking because it refers to the ability for a student to identify the existing problem and what factors impact that problem. This first critical thinking skill is what gives students the ability to see the scope of the problem and start thinking about how to solve the issue.

In a new situation, learners ask what the problem is, why it might be happening, and what the outcome is. From this initial set of questions, they come to an understanding of the problem's scope and potential solutions.

Research of a problem cannot begin until identification has taken place. Once identification occurs, a learner can start researching that problem. How much research is necessary will depend on the scope of the problem. Mathematical problems, for instance, may rely on researching examples of the problem and reviewing more fundamental formulas.

More complex problems, such as addressing large social issues, still rely on the same process of understanding the scope of the issue and identifying what materials need to be referenced to address the problem. Research is also important when it comes to understanding claims.

Students should be able to hear a statement, question it, and verify that statement using objective evidence discovered through research. This is in contrast to the uncritical response of simply accepting the statement.

Identifying Biases

Identifying bias is one of the more difficult skills for students to grasp. Everyone has bias, including students themselves. A learner needs to be able to identify bias in the materials that they're looking at that might impact what's being written. Authors may write things that favor a certain point of view, which would impact how much a reader could trust the material.

On the other hand, students should also be able to examine their own biases. It's important not to write in favor of one's own view, which becomes increasingly important as a person progresses upward in their studies through higher education. It's important for students to challenge their own perspectives but also to challenge the evidence that they read.

Making Inferences

The ability to make inferences is a critical skill for students to learn as they learn how to analyze data and piece together information. During the course of putting together information, it's always important to learn how to draw conclusions based on that information.

Students need to be able to look at a body of evidence and make a determination of what that data might mean. Not all inferences will be correct, so students also need to be able to reassess their inferences as new data comes up or as existing evidence is reassessed.

Determining Relevance

To make correct inferences and formulate arguments, students need to be able to determine the relevance of the information that they receive. This is not an issue of examining bias so much as being able to identify the information that's appropriate to solving a problem or making an argument.

This is particularly important as students get into more advanced areas of research. For instance, as students start getting asked to write papers, they need to be able to search through primary and secondary documents that can support their argument.

The more skilled that a student becomes at being able to determine the relevance of these documents, the less time students will have to spend sorting through irrelevant documents that don't support their research.

Perhaps counterintuitively, it's also important for people to learn how to curb their curiosity. Curiosity is important in that it drives research and exploration of a topic. However, consistent with the need to determine relevance is the need to identify where to end a line of inquiry.

Curiosity can send people exploring any number of topics during research that only burns time instead of informing a student's research. The more skilled a student becomes at learning how to end certain paths of research the more they can focus on supporting their studies and finding evidence that will work in their research.

Teaching Critical Thinking Skills

Actually teaching critical thinking skills is something that teachers have instincts about and teach inadvertently without actually understanding how their lessons actually impact those skills. In truth, teachers should try to make critical thinking integral to their instructional design.

Almost any instructor can begin teaching critical thinking by simply modeling the behavior for their students. They can assess information, its sources, and its biases. But to get in-depth critical thinking skills, teachers also need to present broad problems and scenarios that students need to explore for themselves.

By presenting a problem or scenario that needs to be addressed and allowing students time to debate the issue, they can be guided to see the value of other arguments while learning how to construct their own arguments.

This is also a process through which students can learn how to identify information that will help them present those arguments. Teachers can also provide feedback on these arguments to help students improve their research and argumentation process in the future.

Another important part of teaching critical thinking skills includes asking questions. The questioning approach helps students to reassess their own perspectives and the evidence of others. When bringing up a topic or problem, instructors should ask some of the following:

What do you think about this issue and why do you think that?

Where did you get your information on this issue and why do you believe it?

What is the implication of what you've learned and what conclusions can be reached?

How do you view the problem and your information, and what other view could you take on it?

The importance in these lines of questions is to make students consider their own perspectives as well as contrary evidence. By asking these questions, students get to reevaluate what they believe and questions whether they actually should believe it. Sometimes people hold certain beliefs without truly understanding why they believe it.

By asking questions about one's own knowledge, it becomes possible to understand one's own knowledge base more deeply and discard information that may be inaccurate or too heavily biased.

There are also writing activities that teachers can use as well. During writing, students can be asked to write freely about any number of topics. The point of this free writing session is to let students arrive at a conclusion about what they believe about a topic. This isn't a critical thinking phase of writing but is instead simply meant to allow student freedom to reach a conclusion about what they believe.

After the student has freely explored the topic, they move onto the critical thinking phase of their writing project. At this stage, the student begins to examine what sort of biases impacted the position they took on the topic and review their conclusions. The student determines whether their inferences were accurate.

This is essentially a reflective period in which students need to refine their writing and attack their own work to make it better while continually asking themselves whether their evidence is sound and whether their biases impacted the final work.

Critical Thinking Barriers

There are often several barriers that keep students from fully developing critical thinking skills. Ironically, one of the biggest problems to critical thinking is the existing curriculum a school is using. Particularly when curriculum is heavily standardized, it makes it difficult for teachers to find opportunities to teach critical thinking.

Too heavy of a focus on teaching standardized tests, including curriculum oriented toward making sure that students hit certain test scores, often means heavily fact based teaching that expects rote memorization. This leads to few chances to actually ask open questions in which students can question their knowledge base and critically assess a given situation.

There are, of course, other barriers to critical thinking. Sometimes, the problem lies with the fact that teachers are simply unused to teaching these skills. Partly as a result of feeling pressured to achieve highly standardized test scores, teachers often focus too much on fact teaching and rarely get into asking the sort of open ended questions that can help to cultivate critical thinking.

However, even when they have the opportunity to do so, teachers sometimes lack the training necessary to encourage critical thinking among students. Teachers may know many activities to teach students with without a concrete idea of how each contributes to the development of such skills. Teachers tend to be trained in how to pass along content rather than encouraging critical thinking.

One of the major problems that teachers face is an issue of time. Teaching content knowledge or teaching to the test involves passing along content that can help teachers teach the information that will help students pass their exams. Passing along vast quantities of information for rote memorization can be done efficiently by simply giving students lots of information to learn.

A significant amount of information can be passed along within a class when teaching an exam, but it's much harder to teach critical thinking skills. Teaching critical thinking, on the other hand, requires instructors to set aside extensive periods of time to question and debate. Considering that teachers already struggle sometimes to fit in all of their activities, it's difficult to ask them to accommodate large periods of time for passing along critical thinking skills.

Creatively finding solutions to this problem requires teachers finding small periods in which to fit in critical thinking discussions, perhaps through the use of smaller question and answer activities during lectures. Or, teachers can try to change the format of their classes completely to make them more hands on, engaging environments in which critical thinking is ongoing.

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