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This website depicts some of the most iconic toltec gods, temples, and symbols through the Toltec culture.
Teater, Emily. "Toltec Religion: Gods, Temples & Symbols". Study.Com, 2020, https://study.com/academy/lesson/toltec-religion-gods-temples-symbols.html.

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Gods and Goddesses of the Toltecs

Quetzalcoatl: Perhaps the most important god to the Toltecs, and probably one of the most well-known Mesoamerican gods, was Quetzalcoatl, the creator god. Quetzalcoatl was the god of the winds, rain, agriculture, crafts, science, and the inventor of the calendar. He was associated with the planet Venus and was often depicted as a large serpent with feathers and wings. Together with his brother, Tezcatlipoca, they create the world, though how cooperative they were with each other differs depending on the creation myth. Quetzalcoatl was so popular as a deity, his influence spread as far as the Mayan civilization.

Tlaloc: Tlaloc was the god of rain, water, storms, and agriculture. Tlaloc had a bit of a dual nature. On the one hand, he was a benevolent provider of rain to sustain the land. On the other, he was the creator of storms and destructive natural forces. When Quetzalcoatl and his brother created the world, Tlaloc was born when the two creators killed the ancient monster, Cipactli.

Tezcatlipoca: Nicknamed the Smoking Mirror, Tezcatlipoca is the god of the night sky, memory, and time. He was also one of the creator gods, along with his brother, Quetzalcoatl. Before they could begin creation, though, they had to rid the world of the ancient sea monster, Cipactli. To lure him out of the water, Tezcatlipoca cut off his own foot to use as bait. After they killed the monster, he replaced this foot with an obsidian mirror or a snake.

Xochiquetzal: Goddess of youth, love, and beauty, Xochiquetzal was no push-over among the Toltec gods. To show off just what kind of power she wielded, she once turned a priest into a scorpion after first seducing him. She was also the creator of humans and was mother to the first generation of gods. She was the wife of Tlaloc, but was known to have an affair with Tezcatlipoca.

Centeotl: Centeotl was the god of maize, or corn, perhaps the most important crop in Mesoamerican culture. While Quetzalcoatl gave the gift of maize to humankind, Centeotl has overseen its continued growth and fertility as Lord of the Maize. In one story, which makes Centeotl the giver of agricultural gifts to humans, he journeys to the underworld and returns with the secrets to growing several crops, not just corn. He taught humans how to grow and cultivate these things.

Toltec Temples

Most of the temples of Toltec culture that have been discovered and studied are to be found at the ancient city of Tula, which served as the capital of the Toltec civilization. Interestingly, the city shares a similar design and layout to the Mayan city of Chichen Itza. Since the Mayans were influenced by the Toltecs and even borrowed some of their gods, including Quetzalcoatl, this development comes as no surprise.

Tula had several pyramids, which served as temples to these various gods, however exactly which temples served which gods is still up for minor debate.

Pyramid C is the largest of these temples and has only partially been excavated. Unfortunately, many parts of this temple have been looted, making it difficult to know the full story behind this structure. Like many temples of Mesoamerican cultures, it is built with a specific directional orientation, in this case with an east-west orientation to follow the movements of the sun and moon. Given its size and what little archaeologists have found that was not looted, many believe this pyramid was a temple to Quetzalcoatl.

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Toltec Religion: Gods, Temples & Symbols | Study.com

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Quetzalcoatl: Perhaps the most important god to the Toltecs, and probably one of the most well-known Mesoamerican gods, was Quetzalcoatl, the creator god. Quetzalcoatl was the god of the winds, rain, agriculture, crafts, science, and the inventor of the calendar. He was associated with the planet Venus and was often depicted as a large serpent with feathers and wings.

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This article tells that we have evidence of the toltecs sacrificing small children and babies around 300 years ago.
Medel, Monica. "Mexico Finds Bones Suggesting Toltec Child Sacrifice". U.S., 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-toltecs/mexico-finds-bones-suggesting-toltec-child-sacrifice-idUSN1636567520070417. Accessed 7 Feb 2020.

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TULA, Mexico (Reuters) - The grisly find of the buried bones of 24 pre-Hispanic Mexican children may be the first evidence that the ancient Toltec civilization sacrificed children, an archeologist studying the remains said on Monday.

The bones, dating from 950 AD to 1150 AD and dug up at the Toltecs' former capital Tula, north of present day Mexico City, indicated the children had been decapitated in a group.

The way the children, aged between 5 and 15, were placed in the grave, and the fact they were buried with a figurine of Tlaloc, the God of rain, also pointed to a group sacrifice, archeologist Luis Gamboa said.

"To try and explain why there are 24 bodies grouped in the same place, well, the only way is to think that there was a human sacrifice," he said.

"You can see evidence of incisions which make us think they possibly used sharp-edged instruments to decapitate them."

The Toltecs were a war-like pre-Aztec civilization known for sacrificing adult humans - mainly prisoners of war - to the Gods.

Based in the ancient city of Tula, about 50 miles north of Mexico City, they flourished until the late 12th century, influencing much of Mexico from the southwestern United States down to the Gulf of Mexico and Central America.

Tula is best known today for its fearsome 15-foot-high (4.5 meter) stone warrior figures.

The children's bones were discovered by accident at the end of March by construction workers deepening the foundations of an office building in Tula, outside the archeological zone.

"In terms of children, it can be considered one of the first discoveries (in Toltec culture)," Gamboa said, adding that the children were likely brought in from other parts of Mexico.

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Mexico finds bones suggesting Toltec child sacrifice

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TULA, Mexico (Reuters) - The grisly find of the buried bones of 24 pre-Hispanic Mexican children may be the first evidence that the ancient Toltec civilization sacrificed children, an archeologist studying the remains said on Monday.

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This article gives a brief overview of the toltec history, beliefs, and religion.
"Toltec Religious Beliefs - Toltec Civilization". Sites.Google.Com, 2020, https://www.sites.google.com/site/tolteccivilization/religious-beliefs.

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The Toltec religion surrounded two gods. The first god was Quetzlcoatl, the plumed serpent god. Quetzlcoatl represented many ideas, including, but not limited to, learning, fertility, holiness, gentility, culture, philosophy, as well as good.

The second god in the religion was Tezcatlipoca, the smoked mirror. Texcatlipoca was the opposite of Quetzlcoatl, as he represented war, tyranny, and evil.

In addition to Quetzlcoatl and Tezactlipoca, the Toltecs had many other gods, though little is known of what their names were and what they represented. Their religion thus was polytheistic. It is possible that some of their gods were later adopted by the Aztecs, Maya, and Chitimec peoples though this is only speculation. Their religion focused on human sacrifice to appease the gods. Human sacrifice was a very painful process for the person being sacrificed, as their heart would be cut out of their body while it still was beating. In addition to sacrifice, the religion included a game called tlatchli. It is much like basketball, as the goal is to get the ball through the hole on the wall, but one cannot touch the ball with one's hands.

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Toltec Religious Beliefs - Toltec Civilization

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The Toltec religion surrounded two gods. The first god was Quetzlcoatl, the plumed serpent god. Quetzlcoatl represented many ideas, including, but not limited to, learning, fertility, holiness, gentility, culture, philosophy, as well as good. The second god in the religion was Tezcatlipoca, the smoked mirror.

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This article gives a overview of the toltec artists, buildings, and architecture.

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This article gives a overview of the toltec artists, buildings, and architecture.

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Przybylek, S. (2020). Art of the Toltec Empire: Artists, Sculpture & Architecture. [online] Study.com. Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/art-of-the-toltec-empire-artists-sculpture-architecture.html.

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Where Was The Toltec Empire?

Sometimes, ancient cultures become legendary. The powerful Aztecs of Central America held the Toltecs, an earlier culture, in very high esteem. But who were the Toltecs?

The Toltec Empire was a civilization found in central Mexico beginning around the 10th century. From roughly 900 to around 1100 AD, the Toltecs ruthlessly defeated surrounding cultures and briefly amassed great power, controlling most of present-day Mexico. They might have developed from an earlier group of people who migrated from northwestern deserts into central Mexico, to an area called Culhuacan in the Valley of Mexico. However, even today, many details of their culture are a mystery.

Toltecs worshiped a series of gods who demanded sacrifices, including human sacrifices. Deities included Quetzalcoatl, a god who was sometimes also said to be a Toltec leader. There was a Toltec ruler with that name, but scholars aren't sure if he was a person who became deified, or if he took his name from the god. Quetzalcoatl's symbol was a serpent with quetzal feathers, the quetzal being a bird with bright green wings.

The Toltec capital was a city called Tula, referred to as Tollan by the Aztecs, an imposing urban area with a population of more than 30,000 people. It was located around 50 miles north of present-day Mexico City. At this site, skilled Toltec builders and stone masons created a governmental and ceremonial center for their culture.

Architecture Of The Toltec Empire

Toltec architecture at Tula included pyramids, large palaces, and dense urban housing. The Aztecs wrote of Tula's great beauty and impressive character, but today it's difficult for us to know how it looked. Not much of it remains. Tula was burned by invading cultures in the 12th century, and the Aztecs later took stones and sculptures from the ruins for their own complexes.

Tula was laid out with limestone structures built around a central plaza or square. The largest building was a stone pyramid later given the name Pyramid C. Unfortunately, today it's little more than a ruin. Better preserved is a slightly smaller pyramid given the name Pyramid B.

Pyramid B was a step-pyramid, built of a series of horizontal platforms, each a bit smaller than the one below it. Pyramid B had a great colonnade, or columned hall, leading up to it. Other structures included flat-roofed temples with square-columned halls, additional pyramids, two ceremonial ball courts and many colonnades, all around the central plaza. People lived in rectangular houses, five of them often clustered in a complex.

Art Of The Toltec Empire

Toltec artists were skilled at metalwork, weaving and ceramics. But possibly the most impressive Toltec art was stone sculpture, much of it adorning the architecture at Tula. Impressive relief carvings, where figures stood out slightly from the surface while still being attached to it it, lined the interior colonnades.

Murals included scenes of warfare; images of dangerous animals like jaguars, wolves and rattlesnakes; and images of sacrifice, including eagles eating human hearts. One large carving, called the Wall of Serpents, depicts snakes devouring human skeletons, surrounded by geometric designs. It's not art for the faint of heart! Some of these carvings were once colorfully painted.

Two important kinds of freestanding figural stone sculpture were found at Tula. One form, called a chacmool, was of a life-size reclining stone warrior. The figure lay on its back, with its elbows down, head turned and knees up. The figure held a vessel into which offerings for the gods would be placed. Some scholar think chacmool figures originated with the Toltec, but they were also found at Chichen Itza, a Mayan site to the east.

Another large type of sculpture was called an atlante. Atlantes were found at the top of Pyramid B. They were 15-foot tall free-standing human figures carved from single chunks of a rock called basalt. It's thought that they once supported a roof structure above them.

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Art of the Toltec Empire: Artists, Sculpture & Architecture | Study.com

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Sometimes, ancient cultures become legendary. The powerful Aztecs of Central America held the Toltecs, an earlier culture, in very high esteem. But who were the Toltecs? The Toltec Empire was a civilization found in central Mexico beginning around the 10th century.

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This article talks about the architecture and sculptures from different places around the Toltec empire.
Minster, Christopher. "Toltec Art, Sculpture and Architecture." ThoughtCo, Jan. 29, 2020, thoughtco.com/toltec-art-sculpture-architecture-2136270.

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The Toltec civilization dominated Central Mexico from its capital city of Tula from about 900 to 1150 A.D.. The Toltecs were a warrior culture, who dominated their neighbors militarily and demanded tribute. Their gods included Quetzalcoatl, Tezcatlipoca, and Tlaloc. Toltec artisans were skilled builders, potters, and stonemasons and they left behind an impressive artistic legacy.

Motifs in Toltec Art

The Toltecs were a warrior culture with dark, ruthless gods who demanded conquest and sacrifice. Their art reflected this: there are many depictions of gods, warriors, and priests in Toltec art. A partially destroyed relief at Building 4 depicts a procession leading towards a man dressed as a feathered serpent, most likely a priest of Quetzalcoatl. The most iconic piece of surviving Toltec art, the four massive Atalante statues at Tula, depict fully-armored warriors with traditional weapons and armor, including the atlátl dart-thrower.

The Looting of the Toltec

Unfortunately, much Toltec art has been lost. Comparatively, much art from the Maya and Aztec cultures survives to this day, and even the monumental heads and other sculptures of the ancient Olmec can still be appreciated. Any Toltec written records, similar to the Aztec, Mixtec and Maya codices, have been lost to time or burned by zealous Spanish priests. In about 1150 A.D., the mighty Toltec city of Tula was destroyed by invaders of unknown origin, and many murals and finer pieces of art were destroyed. The Aztecs held the Toltecs in high regard, and periodically raided the ruins of Tula to carry off stone carvings and other pieces to be used elsewhere. Finally, looters from the colonial period to the modern day have stolen priceless works for sale on the black market. In spite of this persistent cultural destruction, enough examples of Toltec art remain to attest to their artistic mastery.

Toltec Architecture

The great culture that immediately preceded the Toltec in Central Mexico was that of the mighty city of Teotihuacán. After the fall of the great city in about 750 A.D., many of the descendants of the Teotihuacanos participated in the founding of Tula and the Toltec civilization. Therefore, it is no surprise that the Toltecs borrowed heavily from Teotihuacan architecturally. The main square is laid out in a similar pattern, and Pyramid C at Tula, the most important one, has the same orientation as the ones at Teotihuacán, which is to say a 17° deviation towards the east. Toltec pyramids and palaces were impressive buildings, with colorfully painted relief sculptures adorning the fringes and mighty statues holding up the roofs.

Toltec Pottery

Thousands of pieces of pottery, some intact but mostly broken, have been found at Tula. Some of these pieces were made in far distant lands and brought there through trade or tribute, but there is evidence that Tula had its own pottery industry. The later Aztecs thought highly of their skills, claiming that Toltec artisans "taught the clay to lie." The Toltecs produced Mazapan-type pottery for internal use and export: other types discovered at Tula, including Plumbate and Papagayo Polychrome, were produced elsewhere and arrived at Tula through trade or tribute. The Toltec potters produced a variety of items, including pieces with remarkable faces.

Toltec Sculpture

Of all of the surviving pieces of Toltec art, the sculptures and stone carvings have best survived the test of time. In spite of repeated looting, Tula is rich in statues and art preserved in stone.

Atalantes: perhaps the best-known surviving piece of Toltec art are the four Atalantes, or stone statues, which grace the top of Pyramid B at Tula. These tall human statues represent high-ranking Toltec warriors.

Chac Mool: Seven complete or partial Chac Mool style statues were found at Tula. These sculptures, depicting a reclining man holding a receptacle, were used for sacrifices, including human sacrifices. Chac Mools are associated with the cult of Tlaloc.

Relief and Friezes: The Toltec were great artists when it came to reliefs and friezes. One excellent surviving example is the Coatepantli, or "Wall of Serpents" of Tula. The elaborate wall, which delineated the sacred precinct of the city, is richly decorated with geometric designs and carved images of snakes devouring human skeletons. Other reliefs and friezes include the partial frieze from building 4 at Tula, which once depicted a procession towards a man dressed as a plumed serpent, probably a priest of Quetzalcoatl.

Charles River Editors. The History and Culture of the Toltec. Lexington: Charles River Editors, 2014.

Cobean, Robert H., Elizabeth Jiménez García and Alba Guadalupe Mastache. Tula. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 2012.

Coe, Michael D and Rex Koontz. 6th Edition. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2008

Davies, Nigel. The Toltecs: Until the Fall of Tula. Norman: the University of Oklahoma Press, 1987.

Gamboa Cabezas, Luis Manuel. "El Palacio Quemado, Tula: Seis Decadas de Investigaciones." Arqueologia Mexicana XV-85 (May-June 2007). 43-47

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What Sort of Art Did the Toltec Culture Produce?

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The Toltec civilization, which dominated Central Mexico from around 900 to 1150 A.D., produced some striking examples of art and architecture.

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This article talks about how the Toltecs built their houses and temples.
Cartwright, M. and Cartwright, M. (2020). Toltec Civilization. [online] Ancient History Encyclopedia. Available at: https://www.ancient.eu/Toltec_Civilization/ [Accessed 10 Feb. 2020].

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The Toltec civilization flourished in ancient central Mexico between the 10th and mid-12th centuries CE. Continuing the Mesoamerican heritage left to them by the earlier Olmec, Teotihuacan, Maya and others, the Toltecs would build an impressive capital at Tollan and, ultimately, pass on that heritage to later civilizations such as the Aztecs, who regarded the Toltecs as a great and prosperous civilization, even claiming descent from this once great civilization.

Most information on the Toltec comes from Aztec and Post-colonial texts documenting earlier oral traditions. However, these are by no means complete, and information can be coloured by the Aztec's particular reverence for all things Toltec and their delight in merging myth with fact to help establish a lineage with these old masters. Nevertheless, a careful comparison with earlier Mayan texts and the surviving archaeological record does allow for at least the main elements of this civilization to be outlined.

Origins & Spread

The Toltecs had roots in the Tolteca-Chichimeca people, who, during the 9th century CE, had migrated from the deserts of the north-west to Culhuacan in the Valley of Mexico. According to the Aztecs, the first Toltec leader was Ce Técpatl Mixcoatl (One Flint Cloud Serpent, i.e. the Milky Way), and his son Ce Acatl Topiltzin (One Reed Sacrificer, born in either 935 or 947 CE) would go on to gain fame as a great ruler and acquire the name of the great god Quetzalcoatl ('Feathered Serpent') amongst his titles.

The first settlement of the Toltecs was at Culhuacan, but they later established a capital at Tollan (Tula).

The first settlement of the Toltecs was at Culhuacan, but they later established a capital at Tollan (or Tula, meaning 'place of reeds', a general Mesoamerican phrase to apply to all large settlements). The city grew to an area of 14 km² and acquired a population of between 30,000 and 40,000. The heart of the city was laid out in a grid pattern and it is remarkably similar to the Mayan city of Chichen Itza. Intriguingly, the Maya also had a version of a cultural hero known as the 'Feathered Serpent', translated as Kukulcan and contemporary with the Toltec Quetzalcóatl; this and architectural similarities, suggest that there was a close cultural link between the two civilizations.

TollAn

The Tollan of Aztec mythology was renowned for its sumptuous palaces and awe-inspiring buildings made from gold, jade, turquoise, and quetzal feathers. The city was also thought to have been flooded with wealth generated by the gifted Toltec craftsmen, highly skilled in metallurgy and pottery - so much so that their potters were said to have 'taught the clay to lie' (Coe, 156) and later Aztec metal-workers and jewellers were even known as tolteca. The Toltecs were also credited with mastering nature and producing huge maize crops and natural coloured cotton of red, yellow, green, and blue. Unsurprisingly, following centuries of looting, no artefacts survive to attest this material wealth except indications that the Toltecs did do a major trade in obsidian (used for blades and arrow heads) which was mined from nearby Pachuca.

The archaeological site of Tollan, sitting on a limestone promontory, although not quite as splendid as the legend, nevertheless, has an impressive number of surviving monuments. These include two large pyramids, a collonaded walkway, a large palace building, and two ball-courts, all surrounded by a dense area of urban housing. The domestic housing is arranged in groups of up to five flat-roofed residences with each group centred on a courtyard with a single altar and the whole surrounded by a wall.

The Toltec were a warlike people, no doubt conquering surrounding tribes & imposing tribute without any concern for integration.

Surviving architectural sculpture on the pyramids includes large columns, each consisting of four drums, carved as warriors standing atop the five tiers of the 10 m high Pyramid B. The warriors would once have held up a roof structure. The warriors are dressed ready for battle with a drum headdress and butterfly pectoral and each holds an atlatl or spear-thrower at their side. In addition, feathered-snake columns survive from the original doorway. The warrior columns are near-identical and suggest sophisticated workshops capable of mass production.

Friezes run around the pyramids and a free-standing 40 m long L-shaped wall (known as a coatepantli and a Toltec innovation). They show scenes with animals such as the jaguar, wolf, and coyote (symbols associated with a warlike people like the Toltecs), and sacrifice (especially rattlesnakes and skeletons intertwined). There are also images of feathered creatures (perhaps jaguars) and eagles with hearts in their mouths.

Tollan also provides the first examples of chacmools, the reclining stone warriors clutching a vessel on their stomach to receive sacrificial offerings for the gods. These would become a common feature of temples in Mesoamerica. At Tollan they are positioned beside bench-thrones atop the pyramid temple.

Decline

What ended the Toltec civilization's regional dominance is not known. A warlike people, no doubt conquering surrounding tribes and imposing tribute without any concern for integration into the Toltec political and religious culture, the ' empire' may well have simply disintegrated when put under the strain of such natural phenomena as a sustained drought. Internal disputes may also have led to the break up of the power structure, and this is hinted at in the legendary stories of battles between the gods Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, intertwined with historical figures. What is more certain is that in the mid-12th century CE, Tollán shows signs of violent destruction; many architectural columns and statues were burnt and purposely buried and the site was systematically looted by the Aztecs. Led by the final Toltec leader Huemac, the remnants of the Toltec people re-settled at Chapultepec on the west banks of Lake Texcoco, an event traditionally dated either 1156 or 1168 CE.

Legacy

The Toltec name carried a certain prestige and they were very highly regarded by the Maya and the Aztecs, in particular, who seem to have copied many aspects of Toltec religious practices and art and looked on the Toltec period as a golden era when such wonders as writing, medicine, and metallurgy were invented. These may well have been invented earlier and by others but more certain is the Toltec influence on architecture and sculpture. Images of recognisable deities at Tollan which would later appear in the Aztec pantheon include Centeotl, Xochiquetzal, Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli and the feathered serpent identified with Quetzalcoatl. Stone carvings of cuauhxicalli vessels and chacmools used in sacrifices and also tzompantli (skull racks) all attest to the influence the Toltecs would have on their more famous successors. In any case, whatever the actual legacy of the people of Tollan, for the Aztecs it was the Toltecs and no other that they sought to claim descent from, and the magnitude of their reverence and respect is evidenced in the Aztec expression Toltecayotl or 'to have a Toltec heart' which meant to be worthy and to excel in all things.

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The Toltec civilization flourished in ancient central Mexico between the 10th and mid-12th centuries CE. Continuing the Mesoamerican heritage left to them by the earlier Olmec, Teotihuacan, Maya and others, the Toltecs would build an impressive capital at Tollan and, ultimately, pass on that heritage to later civilizations such as the Aztecs, who regarded the Toltecs as a great and prosperous civilization, even claiming descent from this once great civilization.

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This article talks about how the Toltec tribe affected others.
Minster, Christopher. "The Ancient Toltec Trade and Economy." ThoughtCo, Jan. 29, 2020, thoughtco.com/the-ancient-toltec-trade-and-economy-2136266.

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The Toltec Civilization dominated central Mexico from about 900 - 1150 A.D. from their home city of Tollan (Tula). The Toltecs were mighty warriors who spread the cult of their greatest god, Quetzalcoatl, to the far corners of Mesoamerica. Evidence at Tula suggests that the Toltecs had a trade network and received goods from as far away as the Pacific coast and Central America, either through trade or tribute.

The Toltecs were not the first Mesoamerican civilization to have a trade network. The Maya were dedicated merchants whose trade routes reached far from their Yucatan homeland, and even the ancient Olmec - the mother culture of all of Mesoamerica - traded with their neighbors. The mighty Teotihuacan culture, which was pre-eminent in central Mexico from about 200-750 A.D., had an extensive trade network. By the time the Toltec culture reached prominence, military conquest and subjugation of vassal states were on the rise at the expense of trade, but even wars and conquest stimulated cultural exchanges.

It is difficult to make observations about the ancient Toltec city of Tollan ( Tula) because the city was extensively looted, first by the Mexica (Aztecs) before the arrival of the Europeans, and then by the Spanish. Proof of extensive trade networks may have therefore been carried off long ago. For example, although ​jade was one of the most important trade materials in ancient Mesoamerica, only one jade piece has been found at Tula. Nevertheless, archaeologist Richard Diehl has identified pottery from Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Campeche and Guatemala at Tula, and found potsherds traced to the Veracruz region. Shells from the Atlantic and Pacific have also been excavated at Tula. Surprisingly, the Fine Orange pottery associated with the contemporary Totonac culture has not been found at Tula.

As the major deity of the Toltecs, Quetzalcoatl wore many hats. In his aspect of Quetzalcoatl - Ehécatl, he was the god of wind, and as Quetzalcoatl - Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli he was the bellicose God of the Morning Star. The Aztecs venerated Quetzalcoatl as (among other things) the god of merchants: the post-conquest Ramirez Codex mentions a feast dedicated to the god by traders. The principal Aztec god of trade, Yacatechutli, has been traced to earlier roots as a manifestation of either Tezcatlipoca or Quetzalcoatl, both of whom were worshiped at Tula. Given the Toltecs' fanatical devotion to Quetzalcoatl and that god's later association with the merchant class by the Aztecs (who themselves regarded the Toltecs as the apogee of civilization), it is not unreasonable to surmise that trade played an important role in Toltec society.

The historical record seems to suggest that Tula did not produce much in the way of trade goods. A great deal of utilitarian Mazapan-style pottery has been found there, suggesting that Tula was, or was not far from, a place that produced it. They also produced stoneware bowls, cotton textiles, and items fashioned from obsidian, such as blades. Bernardino de Sahagún, a colonial era chronicler, claimed that the people of Tollan were skilled metalworkers, but no metal not of later Aztec origin has been found at Tula. It is possible that the Toltecs dealt in more perishable items like food, cloth or woven reeds which would have deteriorated with time. The Toltec did have significant agriculture and possibly exported part of their crops. In addition, they had access to a rare green obsidian found near present-day Pachuca. There is the possibility that the warlike Toltecs produced relatively little themselves, instead relying on conquered vassal states to send them goods as tribute.

Toltec scholar Nigel Davies believed that during the Postclassic era trade was dominated by the different cultures of Mexico's Gulf Coast, where mighty civilizations had risen and fallen since the days of the ancient Olmec. During Teotihuacán's age of dominance, shortly before the rise of the Toltecs, the gulf coast cultures had been an important force in Mesoamerican commerce, and Davies believes that the combination of Tula's location in the center of Mexico, their low production of trade goods, and their reliance on tribute over commerce placed the Toltecs at the fringes of Mesoamerican trade at the time (Davies, 284).

Charles River Editors. The History and Culture of the Toltec. Lexington: Charles River Editors, 2014.

Cobean, Robert H., Elizabeth Jiménez García and Alba Guadalupe Mastache. Tula. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 2012.

Coe, Michael D and Rex Koontz. 6th Edition. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2008

Davies, Nigel. The Toltecs: Until the Fall of Tula. Norman: the University of Oklahoma Press, 1987.

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The Toltec Civilization dominated central Mexico from about 900 - 1150 A.D. from their home city of Tollan (Tula). The Toltecs were mighty warriors who spread the cult of their greatest god, Quetzalcoatl, to the far corners of Mesoamerica.

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This article gives a very brief overview of the Toltec civilization, including their economy.
Resources.saylor.org. (2020). The Toltecs. [online] Available at: https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/HIST101-Subunit-8.2.3-Toltecs-FINAL.pdf

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This article gives a overview of the art and impact of the Toltec tribe.
Muscato, C. (2020). Toltec Civilization: Contributions & Inventions | Study.com. [online] Study.com. Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/toltec-civilization-contributions-inventions.html [Accessed 11 Feb. 2020].

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This article gives a basic overview of the Toltec government.
Davidson, H. (2020). The Toltec Empire: Government & Political Structure. [online] Study.com. Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-toltec-empire-government-political-structure.html [Accessed 11 Feb. 2020].

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Toltec Government and Structure

While you may have heard of the Aztec and Mayan empires, did you know that another empire dominated central Mexico for centuries before the Aztecs? The Toltec Empire reigned over central Mexico from the 10th to 12th-centuries CE from its capital of Tollan, which is located in the modern-day Mexican state of Hidalgo. The Toltecs announced their presence to the world around 900 CE by conquering the city of Teotihuacan, one of the biggest and most influential cities in the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican world. This fiery beginning to the Toltec story foreshadowed their equally destructive demise.

Kings, Priests, and Warriors

When thinking about the Toltecs' government structure, imagine that it consists of two distinct pillars: its military aristocracy and its priesthood. Their centrality to Toltec politics reflected the empire's militaristic nature and the importance of the gods in Mesoamerican society. Much of what we know about Toltec history comes from Aztec documents, so we have to be somewhat critical of what they say. The Aztecs believed that the first Toltec king was Ce Técpatl Mixcóatl. Técpatl is a figure wrapped in intrigue, with the Aztecs treating him more like a mythological figure than human. But it would be his son, Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcóatl, who would go on to become the most well-known Toltec king. Topiltzin formed the Toltec Empire and provided the Toltecs with their permanent political structure.

Exact details about Topiltzin, such as his date of birth or when he reigned, are difficult to uncover, as much of Toltec history became enshrouded in Aztec mythology. What we do know is that he took on the name of the god Quetzalcóatl, or 'feathered serpent', and adopted and modified the already-existing cult of Quetzalcóatl, ending the cult's practice of sacrificing prisoners. The priests of Quetzalcóatl became one of two important castes in Toltec society. The other ruling caste was the Toltec military, which consisted of several military orders named after different animals such as Coyote, Jaguar, and Eagle. We can also see the importance of Toltec warriors in Toltec chacmools, warrior statues that became widespread in Toltec temples; they would spread to other civilizations in Mesoamerica over time.

The king could be the leader of both castes, as was the case with Topiltzin, or he could be solely a warrior-king. Toltec nobles and the Toltec king himself legitimized their rule and status with military conquest. On the one hand, the Toltecs were engaged in a constant defensive struggle with their nomadic neighbors, the Chichimecs. But on the other, they engaged in the conquest of their neighbors, stretching their influence as far as the Mayan civilization. The cult of Quetzalcóatl and the Toltec military orders both showed up in Mayan cities over time. The Toltecs' antagonistic relationship with their neighbors fueled their politics, and brought great riches to their capital, but it would also eventually lead to their downfall.

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the toltec empire: government & political structure | study.com

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The Toltec Empire: Government & Political Structure | Study.com

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While you may have heard of the Aztec and Mayan empires, did you know that another empire dominated central Mexico for centuries before the Aztecs? The Toltec Empire reigned over central Mexico from the 10th to 12th-centuries CE from its capital of Tollan, which is located in the modern-day Mexican state of Hidalgo.

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This article goes in-depth about the kind of government and the
Characteristics of their government.
culture, G. and phrases, O. (2020). What was the Government of the Toltecs like? Main Characteristics. [online] Life Persona. Available at: https://www.lifepersona.com/what-was-the-government-of-the-toltecs-like-main-characteristics [Accessed 11 Feb. 2020].

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The government of the Toltecs was a monarchical, theocratic and militaristic government. The domination of the Toltecs urged the rise of militarism in Mesoamerica.

Consultation with the gods played a fundamental role in decision-making, and political power was in the hands of the Toltec warriors.

The Toltecs, who were located predominantly north of the Mexican highlands, developed a prosperous civilization between the tenth and twelfth centuries after Christ.

Its main urban center was located about 80 kilometers from Mexico City, in the city of Tollan-Xicocotitlan, now known as Tula de Allende, in the state of Hidalgo.

Characteristics of the government of the Toltecs

In its beginnings, the Toltecs were characterized by being a nomadic civilization. It was a warlike town that alternated its permanence between towns, in order to expand its dominions.

At that time, the leader of the city of shift was denominated"knight in charge of the government of the city". There are 7 knights of this kind, namely Zacatl, Chalcatzin, Ehecatzin, Cohualtzin, Tzihuacoatl, Metzotzin and Tlapalmetzotzin.

Subsequently, the government of the Toltecs turned around and became theocratic; that is to say, the Toltec leaders considered that the political authority was designated directly by the gods. Consequently, the figures of power were priests.

This theocratic structure was assumed between the VII and IX centuries after Christ, when the nomadism of the Toltecs ended.

From then on, it was fundamental to verify the position of the gods before any political or military decision before the execution of the same.

The priests had an important influence in the administrative managements of the Toltec government. However, the baton in the political sphere was carried by the figures of war.

The Toltecs were recognized by their militarist and monarchist government. Political representatives, including the king, used to be veterans of war, and were for life and hereditary succession.

They had a warlike political structure, which was deeply related to religious cults to Quetzalcoatl (feathered serpent).

The Toltec used to make human sacrifices by offering prisoners of war as a tribute to the gods of their veneration.

The Monarchy of the Toltecs

The monarchy of the toltecas took place when this civilization settled down in the city of Tollan-Xicocotitlan, at the end of the nomad era.

The monarchs were known by the name of tlahtoques. There are recorded 8 monarchs between the years 667 and 1052 after Christ, although some of their names are unknown. The periods of command are detailed as follows:

- Period: from 667 to 719 d. C.

- Period: from 719 to 771 d. C.

- Period: from 771 to 823 d. C.

- Period: from 823 to 875 d. C.

- Period: from 875 to 927 d. C.

- Period: from 927 to 976 d. C.

- Xiuhtzatzin (Queen). Period: from 979 to 1031 d. C.

- Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl. Period: from 1031 to 1052 d.C.

References

1. Cartwright, M. (2013). Toltec Civilization. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Recovered from: ancient.eu

2. The Toltecs (2019). The Guide 2000. Mexico City, Mexico. Recovered from: laguia2000.com

3. Mason, P. (2017). What was the Political and Social Organization of the Toltecs like? Recovered from: lifepersona.com

4. Ramírez, E. (2017). The 10 Characteristics of the Toltec Most Important Culture. Recovered from: lifepersona.com

5. Toltecs. (1998). London England. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Recovered from: britannica.com

6. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia (2017). Toltec Culture. Retrieved from: en.wikipedia.org

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What was the Government of the Toltecs like? Main Characteristics

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The government of the Toltecs was a monarchical, theocratic and militaristic government. The domination of the Toltecs urged the rise of militarism in Mesoamerica. Consultation with the gods played a fundamental role in decision-making, and political power was in the hands of the Toltec warriors.

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This article gives a basic overview of the Toltec people and how they lived.
Augustyn, A., Bauer, P., Duignan, B., Eldridge, A., Gregersen, E., McKenna, A., Petruzzello, M., Rafferty, J., Ray, M., Rogers, K., Tikkanen, A., Wallenfeldt, J., Zeidan, A. and Zelazko, A. (2020). Toltec | people. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Toltec [Accessed 11 Feb. 2020].

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Toltec, Nahuatl-speaking tribe who held sway over what is now central Mexico from the 10th to the 12th century ce. The name has many meanings: an "urbanite," a "cultured" person, and, literally, the "reed person," derived from their urban centre, Tollan ("Place of the Reeds"), near the modern town of Tula, about 50 miles (80 km) north of Mexico City.

The Toltecs sacked and burned the great city of Teotihuacán about 900 ce. Tradition tells that this occurred under the leadership of Mixcóatl ("Cloud Serpent"). Under his son, Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcóatl, they formed a number of small states of various ethnic origins into an empire later in the 10th century. The ruler Topiltzin introduced the cult of Quetzalcóatl ("Feathered Serpent"), which name he adopted. This cult and others, as well as the Toltec military orders of the Coyote, the Jaguar, and the Eagle, were introduced into important Mayan cities to the south in Yucatán, such as Chichén Itzá and Mayapán, indicating the broad influence of the Toltecs.

The advent of the Toltecs marked the rise of militarism in Mesoamerica. They also were noted as builders and craftsmen and have been credited with the creation of fine metalwork, monumental porticoes, serpent columns, gigantic statues, carved human and animal standard-bearers, and peculiar reclining Chac Mool figures. Beginning in the 12th century, the invasion of the nomadic Chichimec destroyed the Toltec hegemony in central Mexico. Among the invaders were the Aztecs, or Mexica, who destroyed Tollan about the mid-12th century. See also Mesoamerican civilization.

Letricia Dixon.

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Toltec, Nahuatl-speaking tribe who held sway over what is now central Mexico from the 10th to the 12th century ce. The name has many meanings: an "urbanite," a "cultured" person, and, literally, the "reed person," derived from their urban centre, Tollan ("Place of the Reeds"), near the modern town

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This paper talks about the clothes the Toltecs wore and when they wore those clothes.
Anawalt, P. (2020). The Ethnic History of the Toltecs as Reflected in their Clothing. [online] Iai.spk-berlin.de. Available at: https://www.iai.spk-berlin.de/fileadmin/dokumentenbibliothek/Indiana/Indiana_10/IND_10_Anawalt.pdf [Accessed 11 Feb. 2020].

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This article gives a basic overview of the whole Toltec culture.
Medina, W. (2020). Toltec Civilization. [online] prezi.com. Available at: https://prezi.com/qwrevspxoacz/toltec-civilization/ [Accessed 11 Feb. 2020].

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Quetzalcatl God The Plumed Serpent God Toltec Religion The Toltec theology and mythology were based on polytheism Their religion was centered around the "Feathered Serpent" which later became the central figure to the Aztec pantheon. Since the Toltec interacted with other

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This article gives a overview of the toltec war and armor.
Minster, Christopher. "Toltec Weapons, Armor, and Warfare." ThoughtCo, Jan. 29, 2020, thoughtco.com/toltec-weapons-armor-warfare-2136272.

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From their mighty city of Tollan (Tula), the Toltec civilization dominated Central Mexico from the fall of Teotihuacán to the rise of the Aztec Empire (approximately 900-1150 A.D.). The Toltecs were a warrior culture and fought frequent battles of conquest and subjugation against their neighbors. They warred in order to take victims for sacrifice, expand their empire and spread the cult of Quetzalcoatl, the greatest of their gods.

Although the site has been heavily looted over the centuries, there are enough surviving statues, friezes and stelae at Tula to indicate what sort of weapons and armor the Toltecs favored. Toltec warriors would wear decorative chest plates and elaborate feather headdresses into battle. They wrapped one arm from the shoulder down in padding and favored small shields which could be quickly used in close combat. A beautiful armored tunic made of seashells was found in an offering in the Burned Palace at Tula: this armor may have been used by a high-ranking soldier or king in battle. For ranged combat, they had long darts which could be launched with lethal force and accuracy by their atlatls, or javelin throwers. For close combat, they had swords, maces, knives and a special curved club-like weapon inlaid with blades which could be used to batter or slash.

For the Toltecs, wars and conquest were closely linked to their religion. The large and formidable army was likely composed of religious warrior orders, including but not limited to coyote and jaguar warriors. A small statue of a Tlaloc-warrior was unearthed at Ballcourt One, indicating the presence of a Tlaloc warrior cult at Tula, much like the one that was present at Teotihuacán, the predecessor of the Toltec culture. The columns on top of Pyramid B are four-sided: on them they show gods including Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl in full battle gear, providing further evidence for the presence of warrior-cults at Tula. The Toltecs aggressively spread the worship of Quetzalcoatl and military conquest was one way to do so.

There is ample evidence at Tula and in the historical record that the Toltecs were avid practitioners of human sacrifice. The most obvious indication of human sacrifice is the presence of a tzompantli, or skull rack. Archaeologists have unearthed no fewer than seven Chac Mool statues at Tula (some of which are complete and some of which are only pieces). Chac Mool statues depict a reclining man, belly-up, holding a recipient or bowl on his abdomen. The recipients were used for offerings, including human sacrifices. In ancient legends still told to this day by locals, Ce Atl Quetzalcoatl, the god-king who founded the city, had a dispute with the followers of Tezcatlipoca, mostly about how much human sacrifice was needed to appease the gods: the followers of Tezcatlipoca (who favored more sacrifices) won the conflict and were able to drive Ce Atl Quetzalcoatl out.

It seems that nearly all of the surviving art at the ruined city of Tula has a military or warlike theme to it. The most iconic pieces at Tula are by far the four Atalantes or mighty statues which grace the top of Pyramid B. These statues, which tower over visitors at 17 ft. (4.6 m) high, are of warriors armed and dressed for battle. They bear typical armor, headdresses, and weapons including the curved, bladed club and dart launcher. Nearby, four pillars depict gods and high-ranking soldiers in battle dress. Reliefs carved into benches show processions of chieftains in battle gear. A six-foot stela of a governor dressed as a priest of Tlaloc bears a curved mace and dart launcher.

Although historical data is scarce, it is likely that the Toltecs of Tula conquered several nearby states and held them as vassals, demanding tribute such as food, goods, weapons and even soldiers. Historians are divided concerning the scope of the Toltec Empire. There is some evidence that it may have reached as far as the Gulf Coast, but there is no conclusive proof that it extended more than a hundred kilometers in any direction from Tula. The post-Maya city of Chichen Itza shows clear architectural and thematic influence from Tula, but historians generally agree that this influence came from trade or Tula nobles in exile, not from military conquest.

The Toltecs were mighty warriors who must have been greatly feared and respected in central Mesoamerica during their heyday from about 900-1150 A.D. They used advanced weapons and armor for the time, and were organized into fervent warrior clans serving different ruthless gods.

Charles River Editors. The History and Culture of the Toltec. Lexington: Charles River Editors, 2014.

Cobean, Robert H., Elizabeth Jiménez García and Alba Guadalupe Mastache. Tula. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 2012.

Coe, Michael D and Rex Koontz. 6th Edition. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2008.

Davies, Nigel. The Toltecs: Until the Fall of Tula. Norman: the University of Oklahoma Press, 1987.

Gamboa Cabezas, Luis Manuel. "El Palacio Quemado, Tula: Seis Decadas de Investigaciones." Arqueologia Mexicana XV-85 (May-June 2007). 43-47

Hassig, Ross. War and Society in Ancient Mesoamerica. University of California Press, 1992.

Jimenez Garcia, Esperanza Elizabeth. "Iconografía guerrera en la escultura de Tula, Hidalgo." Arqueologia Mexicana XIV-84 (March-April 2007). 54-59.

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From their mighty city of Tollan (Tula), the Toltec civilization dominated Central Mexico from the fall of Teotihuacán to the rise of the Aztec Empire (approximately 900-1150 A.D.). The Toltecs were a warrior culture and fought frequent battles of conquest and subjugation against their neighbors.