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The purpose of the digestive system is to break down food and to turn what we eat, into nutrients for our bodies. Major nutrients would be carbohydrates, fats, and protein, and minor nutrients would be vitamins and minerals. This is essentially how we can survive and sustain energy throughout the day, making and powering cells. The digestive system allows for all the other systems to function efficiently, this is why eating healthy foods that provide important carbohydrates, proteins, and fats results in the better functioning of the body and can lead to a longer life. Foods which are considered healthy are called such because their plentiful nutrients makes it easier for our digestion to grab those vital elements and absorb them into our bloodstream.

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The mouth or oral cavity, is at the very beginning of our anatomical look at the digestive system, it is the first place where we begin the processes of digestion, and one of the few consciously controlled organs in this system. Surrounding the mouth, is the lips. The lips protects our oral cavity and allow us to control what substances enter the mouth. Also surrounding the mouth, our cheeks. The cheeks allow us to hold foods in our mouth and hold liquids.  Within the mouth, we have our uvula which blocks the nasopharynx so we don’t ingest food leading to the nasal cavity. Also within the mouth, our teeth! The teeth break down and tear our food so we can easily swallow and digest. Our tongue aids the work of the teeth just before swallowing and mixes our food with saliva for a smoother trip down the digestive system.

The Pharynx follows from both our nasal and oral cavities previously discussed. The oropharynx is a subdivision of the pharynx and is located at the posterior of the mouth, a portion of the throat and in the oral cavity. The laryngopharynx is a place for the passage of both respiration and food. The nasopharynx is for respiration. The pharynx has within itself, two different kinds of muscles - both longitudinal and circular, this allows during contractions for food to effectively push down the length of the pharynx.

The pharynx, or throat, is really a canal that carries swallowed food to the esophagus. The esophagus works as a transporter for food to go to the ever important stomach. For non digestive processes, the esophagus also can lead air to the trachea. This organ follows down the digestive system for roughly 8-10” before reaching the stomach. In these eight to ten inches the esophagus is composed of a few different tissue layers: the mucosa, the submucosa, the muscularis externa, and the serosa. The esophagus is anterior the spine, and posterior the trachea and heart. Once the esophagus reaches past the diaphragm, it leads directly to the stomach at the esophageal sphincter.

The stomach is vital for the holding of our food. The stomach is an organ where it’s total size depends on what it’s capacity is at, varying up to a whole gallon in size, typically 10 inches at most in length. Like the pharynx, the stomach has longitudinal and circular muscles, but uniquely has another muscle called the oblique layer. This third layer controls more than just carrying food down it’s length, it permits also the mixing and breaking down of foods. This is an important role in the stomach for nutrients breakdowns. The stomach contains acids which would otherwise be harmful to the walls if it were not for the mucosa, which works to keep the walls protected from acids and enzymes. This is very important because it’s these very acids and enzymes which work to fix the consistency and break down the foods for their journey. Post digestion in the stomach, the remainder of food (chyme) travels to the small intestine, meeting it at the pyloric sphincter.

At an incredible length of seven to thirteen feet, the small intestine is the longest organ of the digestive system, and the powerhouse. The small intestine is responsible for a good majority of nutrition intake from food. Fortunately, because the small intestine cannot intake large quantities of food, the pyloric sphincter mediates how much is to enter the small intestine at one time. Once food enters the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum (the constituents of the small intestine) the chemical digestion continues. Lots of enzymes are secreted from the small intestine, but some of the more significant enzymes are those from the pancreas. To aid the process of food absorption and digestion - microvilli, villi, and plicae circulares.

Once at the end of the small intestine, the next reasonable progression would of course be the large intestine. Meeting the small intestine at the ileocecal valve, the large intestine is called such not because of it’s length, but because of it’s diameter. The large intestine is primarily a intestine to produce feces. It does so by absorbing the liquid of the food (or what is left after the journey through the small intestine) and traveling down its subdivisions. The colon transports feces to the anal canal which leads to the anus. The location which feces is excreted from the body. The alkaline mucus produced by the goblet cells permits the feces to travel down these subdivisions.

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(n.d.). Retrieved May 31, 2017, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/overview-of-the-human-digestive-system.html                    

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(n.d.). Retrieved May 31, 2017, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/overview-of-the-human-digestive-system.html                    

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The urinary system maintains purity of internal fluids: it eliminates wastes, toxins, drugs, and any impurities from the body. It manufactures urine: the impure internal fluids are released in a fluid called urine. Urine formation is a process with filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. It Produces Enzymes: renin. It stimulates red blood cell production: produces erythropoietin, a hormone stimulating red blood cells. And it converts vitamin D to active form: role of the kidneys.

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The purpose of the lymphatic system is to keep us healthy! We have these white blood cells that are called lymph, these cells work to protect us from diseases and infectious germs, looking through cells to make sure all of them are good for use. They also put fluids back into our blood from almost every system. Without the vital lymphatic system, we would not be able to remain healthy and protected from diseases and other harmful infections. Thanks to the lymphatic system, when bad bacteria’s are detected, it has the ability to sift them out of the blood stream.

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The purpose to the reproductive system, put simply, is to procreate. The reproductive system ensures we continue human life and keep our species going. What makes the reproductive system special however, is the fact that we don’t need it. At least personally. As a species, yes, but as an individual the reproductive system does not sustain our personal lives. Every other system works to maintain homeostasis in our bodies and to maintain life. Leading up to puberty our reproductive systems don’t even function. The overall goal of the reproductive system is the same, but the male and female have varying individual purpose. The purpose of the male reproductive system is to fertilize and release sperm. The purpose of the female reproductive system is to produce eggs, and hold and sustain an embryo and later, the fetus, the infant.

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The purpose of the endocrine system is not as straightforward as some of the other systems, but nonetheless, very important. Homeostasis is very important for our health, it maintains our good health, and allows our bodies to adapt to changing environments and any to any harm our bodies may encounter. The endocrine system releases hormones into the blood which can decide how much any given system will work. It is responsible for dictating the direction and level of activity within our bodies cells. The endocrine system is commonly thought to regulate the reproductive, metabolic systems, our energy, and controls the nutrients within the blood and our growth and development.

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Adrenal gland -Produces hormones above the kidneys

Urethra - Bottom of urinary system, releases wastes (urine) from the body. Females: 3-4 inches. Men: 8 inches long.

Urinary Bladder - collects and stores urine before removal

Ureter - tube that moves urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

Kidneys - Dispose of wastes and excess ions. Perform all functions listed in the “Purpose” section

Nephron -structural unit of the kidneys

Renal vein - Empties blood into the inferior vena cava

Renal artery - Supplies blood to the kidneys

Hilus - Where the nerves and ureters enter/exit the kidneys

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Tonsils: trap and destroy bacteria entering the throat

Thymus: lymphoid mass active during childhood

Spleen: filters and and cleans the blood and removes bacteria, viruses, and debris.

Peyer’s patches: captures and destroys bacteria in the intestine

Appendix: captures and destroys bacteria

lymphatic vessels: picks up excess tissue fluid, called lymph, and flows back into the heart

lymph nodes: remove bacteria and tumor cells and produce lymphocytes

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Female:

Cervix - cylinder shaped tissue between and connecting the vagina and uterus

Vagina - passageway for baby delivery and the menstrual flow out of the body

Fallopian tube - or uterine tubes, tubes from the ovaries to the uterus that transport the egg, or ova, to the uterus each month.

Ovary - produce hormones and release an egg once a month to the uterus for fertilization

Fimbraie - fringe of tissue that hits the ovaries at time of ovulation

Uterus - where eggs are fertilized and the baby grows

Mons pubis - The fatty area anterior to the labia

Clitoris - provides sexual pleasure

Hymen - a fold of mucosa that covers the end of the vagina. This tissue is usually easily ruptured during sexual intercourse, a sports activity, or with the insertion of a tampon.

Labium - folds of skin that protect the vagina

Male:

Testes - The primary reproductive organ filled

Epididymis - storage site for immature sperm in the testes, coiled tube that is 20 ft long

Ductus deferens - propels live sperm from their storage sites

Seminal vesicle - produce a large amount of the fluid semen

Ejaculatory duct - after the ductus deferens and before the urethra

Prostate - Activates sperm and is anterior to the rectum

Bulbo-urethral gland - produce thick, clear mucus

Urethra - carries sperm and urine out of the body

Prepuce - foreskin, skin covering the end of the penis

Penis - delivers sperm to the female reproductive tract

erectile tissue - causes the penis to erect.

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Hypothalamus - in the brain, produces hormones

Pituitary gland - “master endocrine gland” that releases hormones (oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone, growth hormone, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone)

Thyroid gland - produces hormones (thyroid hormone, calcitonin)

Thymus - produces hormone (thymosin)

Parathyroid gland - secrete hormones (parathyroid hormone)

Adrenal gland - produces steroid hormones (corticosteroids: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, sex hormones)

Pancreas - produces hormones (insulin) to regulate the blood’s glucose

Gonads - testes/ovaries that produce sex cells and steroid hormones (estrogen, progesterone)

Pineal gland - produces hormone (melatonin)

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Urinary tract infection - Commonly referred to as a UTI. The infection is caused by bacteria enters the urinary system including the kidneys, urethra, or bladder. It is found more commonly in women because men have  a longer urethra. Some symptoms include pain while urinating, the persistent feeling of needing to urinate, blood in the urine, vomiting, and/or pain in the back or abdomen.

Adult Polycystic kidney disorder - Polycystic kidney disorder is a degenerative disease of the kidneys found in adults. Cysts of urine form on the kidneys causing the organs to swell. A cure may be kidney transplants, and if not treated in time can lead to renal failure.

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T-Cell Lymphoma - T-Cell is a more rare, aggressive form of the most common blood cancer, Lymphoma. In lymphoma, white blood cells multiply uncontrollably. These white blood cells are called lymphocytes and peripheral t-cell lymphoma affects the subtype of lymphocytes, or t-cells. The cancer can be treated with chemotherapy and if it has not reached the bone marrow, it is common to cure. If the cancer has reached the bone marrow, successful treatment is very difficult and uncommon.

HIV/AIDS: human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV, causes AIDS, or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. HIV/AIDS causes the body to be unable to fight of diseases. It is a chronic disorder spread by sexual contact or blood contact. At first, the symptoms include high fever, sore throat, and fatigue. Once it progresses, symptoms include weight loss, fevers, and infections. There is no cure for the disease, however there are medications that can slow down the disease.

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Prostate Cancer - or cancer of the prostate is a cancer that occurs within men only. This being because only men have a prostate. The prostate secretes and produces fluids that are an important part of semen. While symptoms of prostate cancer are not always incredibly obvious, there are some. Having the consistent need to pee, issues peeing, uncontrollable bladder, blood in the urine or within semen, are all symptoms, plus more. As for treating prostate cancer, chemotherapy and surgery are amongst the most common. Men are encouraged to get check up once or twice a year for this disease.

Cervical Cancer - This cancer is specific to the female body and begins in the lining of the organ. Statistically, roughly 12,000 new people get cervical cancer a year, just in the US. The cause of this cancer is typically from HPV - a sexually transmitted disease. Not all women with HPV will get cervical cancer but it does increase the likelihood. Some symptoms of cervical cancer include bleeding in abnormal times, such as postmenopausal, during sex, etc. Also abnormal pelvic pain may be a symptom, as well as pain while urinating.

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Acromegaly - When hypersecretion of hormones occurring after bone growth has ended results in enlarged facial bones, feet, and hands. A symptom includes the hardening of soft tissues in the face. This may be caused by tumor growth on the affected pituitary gland.

Gigantism - When hypersecretion of hormones occurring in childhood results in an abnormal height of usually 8 or 9 feet. This may be caused by tumors on the affected pituitary gland.

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Cardiovascular - This system controls blood volume and pumps waste from the blood to the kidneys. The blood gets to the kidney from the renal arteries that branch into the nephron. The nephron regulates pH and eliminates water from the blood as well as toxins. The supply of blood to the kidneys via the renal vein is one of the last stops in blood circulation before it is circled back to the inferior vena cava then to the heart.

Muscular - controls urine elimination from the bladder, or micturition or voiding. The urethra and bladder are muscles that release wastes (urine) from the body. When the muscles relax, the urine is released.

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Urinary: work together by the digestive system first allowing growth, repair, and fuel to the urinary system, this is true for most systems as well. Specifically however, the urinary system has kidneys which work to convert vitamin D to it’s full potential to allow for calcium digestion. The urinary system sorts and rids the body of chemical wastes that are not emptied from the colon. Often times the byproduct of metabolizing proteins and such nutrients leads to unhealthy, toxic remains that only urine can excrete. The kidneys also get rid of nitrogenous wastes, also vital for digestive health.

Nervous: also shares a close relationship with the digestive system, with the digestive system giving crucial nutrients for the development of neurotransmitters. Also, the autonomic nervous system is responsible for a good fraction of digestive functions, including how well the digestive tract is moving and metabolising. Of course the functional uses of the brain work to allow us to eat and swallow food, as well as using those skeletal muscles. The digestive system also can send important messages to the brain - those including things we decide taste well, things that don’t ,when you’re full, or when you are hungry and need to find or make yourself some food.

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Respiratory - aids a lot of functions within the lymphatic system. And also the lymphatic system helps the respiratory. The respiratory system tends to leak contents such as proteins and and other fluids. Thanks to the lymphatic vessels, they can pick these remnants up. And as the lymphatic system protects the whole body from pathogens and disease, it does so for body organs in the respiratory system as well. And the oxygen provided to the body from the lungs helps the lymphatic and immune cells to work.

Integumentary - works pretty efficiently as a shield for our bodies. Our skin is an excellent barrier from dangerous pathogens and diseases, but that doesn't mean it can’t take some help from the lymphatic system. Lymphocytes help better the skin's barrier by working especially hard to defeat and kill any pathogens it encounters. The skin also secretes a pH high in acidity that limits bacteria development.

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Nervous System - The brain is masculinized or feminized by sex hormones that influence sex drive. Reflexes in the brain regulate the sexual response. The timing of puberty is regulated in the brain, specifically the hypothalamus.

Skeletal System - The pelvis provides structure and protection around sexual organs. In females, this is the birth canal and sometimes may be too small for vaginal delivery. Male steroid hormones, androgens, masculinize the skeleton bones while female’s estrogen feminizes the skeleton.

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Reproductive - Hormones direct the reproductive organs and endocrine system to function and develop. Hormones from the pituitary gland, prolactin and oxytocin, aid in breastfeeding and childbirth.

Muscular - Growth hormone in the pituitary gland guide muscular growth and development. Hormones called thyroxine and catecholamines aide in muscle metabolism. The muscular system also helps protect some endocrine organs.

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Appendicitis - Appendicitis occurs because our appendix becomes very inflamed. The image shows what it really looks like to have an appendix grow inflamed, the results of appendicitis can grow very severe. Symptoms include fever, urinary pain, swelling in the abdomen, pain in the more superior region of the abdomen, that progresses to a stronger pain as it travels to the lower distal section of the abdomen. The results of appendicitis not being treated can be fatal. This is because when untreated, the appendix may rupture inside our bodies, spewing toxicities. Appendicitis is seen often because the appendix can tangle and twist very easily. With this interwinding, bacteria can easily accumulate and develop, however appendicitis has several causes. Other causes may include cancer, or blockage of the appendix. The appendix itself is not proven to have any particular function (good or bad) but with appendicitis negative effects are very real. Fortunately the appendix can be completely removed with no medical harm to the body post-surgery.
Gastritis - is a disease resulting in the erosion and swelling of the stomach lining. As discussed earlier, the stomach lining is made up of mucosa and is crucial for the digestive process and to protect the walls of the stomach from being damaged by the acidities located inside the stomach. This is caused from a possible number of things, often causes may be from excessive drinking. Alcohol can be very damaging to internal organs and vomiting is also a common result of drinking too much. The acids in vomit are also detrimental to the linings of the stomach. Also anti-inflammatory drugs can potentially cause gastritis. Some symptoms may include bloating and pain of the stomach, vomiting, the feeling of heartburn, hiccups, and nausea, just to name a few. Besides detecting symptoms, doctors can use something called an endoscope to go into the stomach and look at the walls for damage and inflation. The image here shows where the endoscope goes, as well as what the doctor looks for.

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Frogs, like humans, have a pair of kidneys that filter urine to the urinary bladder. However, in frogs the urine enters the cloaca, an organ not found in humans, via the ureters (found in humans). The cloaca is connected to the urinary bladder. The blood is filtered to the kidneys from the circulatory system, as in humans.

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To start off the digestive system, humans and frogs alike use their mouths and teeth to eat. Although this is similar, the teeth with humans and frogs vary greatly. Humans rely greatly on their teeth for biting into and breaking down food. For frogs, not so much. They do not require food to be broken down and can instead ingest food whole. The frog relies more so on it’s tongue. As the image illustrates, the frog's tongue reaches incredible lengths to catch it’s prey before digestion. The difference lies in where the tongue attaches. For humans, our tongues attach at the back of our mouths, for frogs, they attach right at the front of their mouths. Also, the frog has an incredibly sticky tongue - this lies in their saliva for catching prey. For the frog, their digestive system is much simpler, although the components are quite similar. As shown in the diagram above, both humans and frogs share the oral cavity, esophagus, pharynx, pancreas, stomach, small and large intestines, as well as the anus. These functions work the same for both humans and frogs and both organisms make use of the kidneys as excretory organs apart from the digestive system for urine production. As far as the overall goal of the digestive system goes, humans and frogs share this as well. However within the small intestine humans use the jejunum for a great deal of nutrition absorption. The frog’s smaller intestines make more use of the ileum for this function.

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The reproductive system of the frog is very similar to the humans, the two organisms share many similar organs like the testes, ovaries, uterus, but experience differences when it comes to some other organs. The frog has a cloaca, where humans do not. The purpose of the cloaca is to allow sperm, eggs, and waste, out of the frog. During the reproductive process, frogs mate differently. The male will actually squeeze the eggs out of the female in a spawn, a process very different from human mating. Another difference, the vocal cords of the frog actually help them reproduce, sort of. The male frog will use their croaks to capture the attention of the female frog, humans rely on more complex factors.

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Pandit, S. (2016, August 06). Digestive System of a Frog Aptly Explained With a Labeled Diagram. Retrieved June 13, 2017, from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/digestive-system-of-a-frog-with-a-labeled-diagram.html

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Pandit, S. (2016, August 06). Digestive System of a Frog Aptly Explained With a Labeled Diagram. Retrieved June 13, 2017, from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/digestive-system-of-a-frog-with-a-labeled-diagram.html

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Endocrine system. (2017, June 08). Retrieved June 13, 2017, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_system

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Endocrine system. (2017, June 08). Retrieved June 13, 2017, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_system

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Harrison, R. J. (n.d.). Human reproductive system. Retrieved June 13, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/science/human-reproductive-system

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Harrison, R. J. (n.d.). Human reproductive system. Retrieved June 13, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/science/human-reproductive-system

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%. (n.d.). Digestive System of a Frog. Retrieved June 13, 2017, from https://www.scribd.com/doc/143474457/Digestive-System-of-a-Frog

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%. (n.d.). Digestive System of a Frog. Retrieved June 13, 2017, from https://www.scribd.com/doc/143474457/Digestive-System-of-a-Frog

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Frogs have a less complicated lymphatic system than humans, however they still have this system to fight off diseases. Like humans, frogs do have a spleen, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels. Their spleen is attached to the large intestine. Frogs have a unique structure called the lymph hearts that humans do not have. The lymph heart is a structure that pumps lymphs back into the circulatory system. This structure is found in other reptiles and amphibians.

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The anatomy of the frog, while very similar to our own, is much simpler. In every system. In the frog they have the thyroid gland, the parathyroid, the thymus, pineal body, pancreatic islets, and so forth. These organs all work individually to control stress, melatonin, and other metabolic functions of the frog. Within the humans endocrine system, it works harder to maintain other functions but the general working of the endocrine system, remains the same for both the frog and the human.