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https://play.kahoot.it/#/k/616d7b33-de09-496f-87e6-e49331721d26

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For study, this will deepen my knowledge in this area. It provides a breakdown of the factors that need to be taken into consideration when planning training

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One of the key reasons for planning a training year is to ensure you are planning to avoid overtraining. Overtraining leads to poor performance and leads to injuries, particularly overuse injuries (At this point it may prove useful to review classifications of injuries: overuse injuries, and overuse injuries in children and young athletes in Sports Medicine).

Overtraining is when an athlete does high intensity training, in high volumes. Often this comes in the athlete training too often and not including enough rest between sessions of high intensity. This affects their recovery and prevents physiological adaptations from occurring.

Planning to avoid overtraining will help to improve performance as the athlete is able to recover from training sessions, and avoid injury. Athlete's who suffer from overtraining become fatigued, tired, and lethargic. This feeling becomes to a lack of motivation in the athlete, and can also lead to injury through poor technique and overuse.
Students learn about:
planning to avoid overtraining
Students learn to:
analyse overtraining by considering questions such as:

Past HSC PDHPE exam questions

(b) Justify factors a coach should consider in order to avoid overtraining. 12 Marks

(a) Explain the relationship between planning and the avoidance of overtraining. 8 marks

(b) Evaluate the effectiveness of processes used to identify and manage an overtrained athlete. 12 Marks

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https://www.youtube.com/embed/m47WNx2TVcw?list=PLesvqngPCeVMgJP0HvYTtLrpzbuc5DTPdOne of the key reasons for planning a training year is to ensure you are planning to avoid overtraining. Overtraining leads to poor performance and leads to injuries, particularly overuse injuries (At this point it may prove useful to review classifications of injuries: overuse injuries, and

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This is a very brief summary of the main concepts of over-training

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This includes; definition, signs, effects, injuries and prevention

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In depth notes

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Although overreaching is sometimes a planned phase of youth sports programs, overreaching can become overtraining if intense training is continued for a prolonged period without an adequate taper or time for recovery (13). By definition, overtraining refers to a deleterious condition that occurs after repeated strenuous training sessions without adequate rest to allow for proper recovery. Overtraining syndrome (also called burnout ) is the condition resulting from overtraining and is typically characterized by a decrease in performance, chronic muscle or joint pain, lack of enthusiasm about practice, and personality changes (5). Unlike overreaching, which typically resolves within a few days, overtraining can last for several months and, in some cases, ruin an athletic career. Doing too much too soon or simply participating in the same sport or activity for a prolonged period may result in overtraining and potentially an overuse injury. For example, high school athletes who are members of the cross-country team in the fall, the indoor track team in the winter, and the outdoor track team in the spring are at increased risk of a tibial or fibular stress fracture.

Typically, overtraining arises when mistakes are made in the design and progression of the training program, which may include both sport-specific ( e.g., sport practices and competitions) and non-sport-specific modalities ( e.g., strength and conditioning activities) (17). From a real-world perspective, highly motivated young athletes who are pressured by their parents and coaches to outdo predecessors, outshine contemporaries, and outperform competitors may be considered at risk for overtraining syndrome (5). These young athletes need to be mentored and monitored carefully to avoid overparticipation and overtraining.

OVERUSE INJURIES

Overtraining syndrome can result in an overuse injury, which is defined as microtraumatic damage to bone, muscle, or tendon caused by repetitive stress without adequate time for recovery and reparation (5). Children are more susceptible to this type of injury than adults because of the presence of growth cartilage at the following three sites: the growth plate near the ends of long bones, the cartilage lining joint surfaces, and the point at which major tendons attach to bone (17). Because growth cartilage is "prebone," it is more easily damaged by repetitive microtrauma and, therefore, injury to this tissue may result in potentially serious consequences later in life (17).

"Up to 50% of all injuries seen in pediatric sports medicine clinics may be related to overuse" says Lyle J. Micheli, M.D., FACSM, director of Sports Medicine at Children's Hospital Boston. Professionals who work with young athletes need to identify youth at risk of overuse injuries so that correctable risk factors can be identified and treated. Although intrinsic risk factors ( e.g., previous injury, poor physical conditioning, and muscle imbalances) and extrinsic risk factors ( e.g., improper footwear and training errors) often explain why some young athletes sustain overuse injuries and others remain injury-free throughout the season, a common theme in most overuse injuries is training errors (17). That is to say, highly skilled athletes who suddenly increase the frequency, intensity, or volume of their workouts or unfit athletes who try to play themselves into shape are at an increased risk for injury because their bodies are not prepared for the repetitive stress of sports practice and competition.

A recent analysis of patterns of physical activity among children and adolescents highlighted undesirable trends in measured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in youth aged 9 to 15 years (18). It was reported that at age 9 years, children engaged in approximately 3 hours per day of MVPA, but by age 15 years, adolescents were only engaging in MVPA for 49 minutes per weekday and 35 minutes per weekend day (18). Although some physical activity is better than none, well-rounded conditioning programs that include strength, power, flexibility, and balance training are needed to produce the anatomical and physiological adaptations that help prevent sports-related injuries in young athletes (1). Thus, the supporting structures of some aspiring young athletes may be ill-prepared to handle the demands of weekly sports practice sessions and weekend competitions. This concern may be particularly important for young female athletes who seem to be more susceptible to knee injuries than young male athletes (15). By addressing risk factors such as poor physical conditioning, some sports medicine professionals believe that both acute and overuse injuries can be reduced by 15% to 50% (17).

Nowadays, it seems that the focus of most youth sports programs is on the development of sport-specific skills rather than on the development of fundamental fitness abilities, such as strength, power, endurance, agility, balance, and coordination. Although some parents and coaches argue that sports specialization is the key to athletic success, broad-based participation in a variety of sports and activities is related more to later sports success than early sports specialization (16). Furthermore, young athletes who participate in a variety of sports seem to suffer fewer injuries than those who specialize in one sport (1,3). Indeed, the American Academy of Pediatrics suggests that sport specialization should be discouraged before adolescence (2). Participation in physical activity should not revolve around one sport, but rather evolve out of varied physical activities that include FUNdamental movement skills ( e.g., running, jumping, twisting, hopping, and skipping) and preparatory conditioning that enhance both health- and skill-related components of physical fitness. The physical activity pyramid in Figure 2 illustrates a progression from broad-based participation in lifestyle physical activities to competitive sport.

Because overuse injuries such as tendinitis and stress fractures typically result from too much training or an inappropriate increase in training volume, an important question to consider is "How much training is too much for young athletes?" Although there are no scientific guidelines that answer this question, some sport medicine professionals have suggested limiting one sporting activity to a maximum of 5 days per week with at least 1 day off from any organized activity (5). However, the intensity of each workout as well as subtle changes in the training program also must be considered. For example, high school cross-country runners who switch from running on grass during the summer to running on the road during the fall have increased the stress placed on their developing musculoskeletal system even if the weekly mileage remains the same. Others suggest that careful medical monitoring is needed for young athletes who train more than 18 hours per week (17). Although additional prospective data are needed, it seems reasonable to routinely assess elite young athletes for overuse problems that, when caught early, may be treated nonoperatively with favorable outcomes. It also is desirable for young athletes to take 2 to 3 months off per year from their sport to allow time for physical and psychological recovery from the demands of sports training and competition (5).

SPORTS PREP

Because most physical activity takes places outside of the school setting, qualified fitness professionals are in a unique position to design and implement age-appropriate fitness programs for children and adolescents. In response to the need to better prepare aspiring young athletes for the demands of sports training, several years ago, I developed a program called Sports PREP, which is an acronym for preseason recreation and exercise program. This program is specifically designed to promote motor skill development, enhance physical fitness, and provide an opportunity for each participant to gain confidence in their abilities to be physically active. Unlike other youth programs that isolate health-related components of physical fitness ( e.g., aerobic classes), this program integrates both health- and skill-related components of physical fitness into every class. Although a high degree of skill-related fitness is not a prerequisite for a lifetime of physical activity, competence, and confidence in one's ability to perform skills that require balance, coordination, and muscle power can contribute to a child's health and well-being. Indeed, researchers have reported a strong and significant correlation between motor competence and physical fitness in children (9). Others observed that exercises that train the neuromuscular system to function as a unit may reduce the risk of sports-related injuries and enhance athletic performance in young athletes (8,10).

It is important to keep in mind that children and adolescents should learn how to exercise from qualified fitness professionals who understand the physical and psychological uniqueness of children and adolescents. Young participants should not be treated as miniature adults, and youth fitness programs should be consistent with the needs, interests, and abilities of each child. Fitness professionals who work with youth should appreciate the natural activity pattern of children, which is typically characterized by short bursts of moderate to vigorous physical activity interspersed with brief periods of rest as needed (4). Prescribing a program that is inconsistent with a child's needs or abilities will likely undermine the enjoyment of the training experience. Because enjoyment has been shown to mediate the effects of a youth physical activity program (7), all youths should be encouraged to make friends, embrace self-improvement, and feel good about their achievements. In any case, it is always better to underestimate the physical abilities of a child rather than overestimate them and risk negative consequences such as dropout or injury.

Encouraging young athletes to participate in several weeks of fitness conditioning that prepares them for the demands of their sport merits consideration. Although this type of preseason conditioning may seem unnecessary to some observers, participation in fitness conditioning before sports participation has been shown to reduce the incidence of sports-related injuries in young athletes (10). Whereas a training frequency of two or three times a week on nonconsecutive days is typically recommended (8), 1 day off between "hard" workouts may be inadequate for youths who represent different sports teams, specialize in one sport year-round, or participate in other extracurricular conditioning activities. Thus, fitness professionals need to consider the total weekly exercise program when designing fitness workouts for younger populations because of individual differences in stress tolerance. Furthermore, fitness professionals may need to educate parents about the importance of program variation. In some cases, parents may not understand the relationship between exercise and recovery and may want their children to train hard every training session.

Because recovery is an integral part of the training cycle, it is important to balance high-intensity and/or high-volume workouts with less intense training or LIT sessions that facilitate recovery, enhance joint stability, improve range of motion, and reinforce learning of specific movement patterns (8,19). These LIT sessions should be valued by young athletes as an important component of a multifaceted approach to enhancing performance and optimizing recovery. Because the greatest adaptations take place when the muscles have recovered from a previous training session, LIT training enables young athletes to train as hard as possible when they are as strong as possible. Young athletes in the sports PREP program typically perform one or two LIT sessions after a hard training session as part of a periodized workout schedule (8). This type of training facilitates recovery and may reduce the risk of injury while providing an excellent opportunity to reinforce key movement skills and training methods. Whereas specific details of the Sports PREP program are beyond the scope of this article, examples of sample programs for young athletes are available elsewhere (6,8).

SUMMARY

Developing fitness and sports programs for young athletes can be a challenging process that involves balancing the demands of training (required for adaptation) with the need for recovery (also required for adaptation). Because overtraining can result in injury, illness, or burnout, fitness professionals have a shared responsibility to provide children and adolescents with fitness experiences that are safe, effective, and enjoyable. Nowadays, qualified fitness professionals have a unique opportunity to design and implement age-appropriate physical activity programs for children and adolescents.

Acknowledgement

The author thanks Krissy Pennisi for creating the figures in this article.

CONDENSED VERSION AND BOTTOM LINE

Millions of boys and girls participate in organized and recreational sports in the United States. However, there seems to be an increasing number of young athletes who specialize in just one sport starting at a young age or compete for multiple teams year-round without adequate time for recovery between sport seasons. This type of intense training and competition can result in injuries, illness, or burnout. Qualified fitness professionals are in a unique position to design and implement age-appropriate training programs that can reduce the risk of sports-related injuries and enhance athletic performance in young athletes.

References

Keywords:
Children; Sport; Overuse; Burnout; Strength Training

© 2009 American College of Sports Medicine

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OVERTRAINING IN YOUNG ATHLETES: How Much Is Too Much? : ACSM's Health & Fitness Journal

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Although overreaching is sometimes a planned phase of youth sports programs, overreaching can become overtraining if intense training is continued for a prolonged period without an adequate taper or time for recovery (13 ). By definition, overtraining refers to a deleterious condition that occurs after repeated strenuous training sessions without adequate rest to allow for proper recovery.

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This graph displays that the more stress one places onto there body, a decrease in their fitness is evident.

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This graph displays that the more stress one places onto there body, a decrease in their fitness is evident.

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Effects on immune system and performance

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Effects on immune system and performance

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Abstract

Overtraining is a process of excessive exercise training in high-performance athletes that may lead to overtraining syndrome. Overtraining syndrome is a neuroendocrine disorder characterized by poor performance in competition, inability to maintain training loads, persistent fatigue, reduced catecholamine excretion, frequent illness, disturbed sleep and alterations in mood state. Although high-performance athletes are generally not clinically immune deficient, there is evidence that several immune parameters are suppressed during prolonged periods of intense exercise training. These include decreases in neutrophil function, serum and salivary immunoglobulin concentrations and natural killer cell number and possibly cytotoxic activity in peripheral blood. Moreover, the incidence of symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection increases during periods of endurance training. However, all of these changes appear to result from prolonged periods of intense exercise training, rather than from the effects of overtraining syndrome itself. At present, there is no single objective marker to identify overtraining syndrome. It is best identified by a combination of markers, such as decreases in urinary norepinephrine output, maximal heart rate and blood lactate levels, impaired sport performance and work output at 110% of individual anaerobic threshold, and daily self-analysis by the athlete (e.g. high fatigue and stress ratings). The mechanisms underlying overtraining syndrome have not been clearly identified, but are likely to involve autonomic dysfunction and possibly increased cytokine production resulting from the physical stress of intense daily training with inadequate recovery.

Introduction

Overtraining is a process of excessive exercise training that may, if left unchecked, lead to a condition termed 'overtraining syndrome'. Overtraining syndrome is characterized by persistent fatigue, poor performance in sport despite continued training, changes in mood state and neuroendocrine factors and frequent illness, such as upper respiratory tract infection (URTI). Overtraining syndrome reflects the body's inability to adapt to cumulative fatigue resulting from daily, intense exercise training that is not balanced with appropriate and sufficient rest.

Recovery from overtraining syndrome may require weeks to months of complete rest or greatly reduced exercise training. The term 'overreaching' describes a qualitatively similar state to overtraining syndrome, but is less severe and resolved within days to weeks. Other terms previously used to describe overtraining syndrome include 'burnout' and 'staleness'. It is only within the past few years that, in the research literature, the process of overtraining has been differentiated from the resultant conditions of overtraining syndrome or overreaching. Overtraining syndrome has several parallels with chronic fatigue syndrome and clinical depression, in particular persistent fatigue, mood state disturbances, and muscle soreness.

Overtraining is of great importance to the high performance athlete. Prolonged periods of persistent fatigue interfere with optimal preparation for major events, such as World Championships or the Olympics. Inconsistent or poor performance at critical times in an athlete's career may influence selection for representative teams, lead to loss of sponsorship or income from government and private sources and possibly cause the athlete to prematurely retire from sport.

Models to study overtraining syndrome in athletes

Two general models are used to study responses to overtraining in athletes. In one model, athletes may be assessed at various times throughout a competitive season, usually lasting 3-8 months. Physiological and psychological responses are then compared for each athlete between periods of high and low training intensity, or between athletes showing symptoms of overtraining syndrome and those considered well-trained (without symptoms). The advantage of this model is that athletes are studied in their 'natural' environment, without manipulating the normal training regimen. The disadvantage is that it is difficult to control for possible confounding variables, such as illness, travel, dietary changes, competition stress and seasonal variability.

In the other model, training is intentionally intensified for up to 4 weeks. For ethical reasons, 4 weeks is considered the maximum time that athletes can withstand intensification of already high training loads. By the definitions given earlier, any resultant condition should be called overreaching rather than overtraining, because, by definition, 4 weeks is too short to induce overtraining. Performance in a sport-specific task (e.g. time to complete a given distance) and physiological and psychological variables are compared from before and after intensified training or, less frequently, between athletes showing symptoms of overreaching and those considered well-trained. This model permits better control of confounding variables listed earlier. However, there is much variability in the responses of the athletes to intensified training; that is, some athletes improve without deleterious effects, while others show signs of overreaching. Moreover, the increases in training load are usually much higher than usual and do not reflect the athletes' normal training regimen. Despite these limitations, both models provide useful information for identifying indicators and understanding mechanisms underlying overtraining syndrome.

Prevalence of overtraining and impact on performance

The prevalence of overtraining syndrome is difficult to estimate, because it requires surveying large groups of athletes from diverse sports over long periods of time. Moreover, the term overtraining elicits a strong reaction from coaches and athletes, who are often reluctant to identify particular athletes as overtrained. Nevertheless, it is a term widely recognized among high-performance athletes across virtually all sports. It is estimated that, at any given time, between 7 and 20% of all athletes may exhibit symptoms of overtraining syndrome. The prevalence varies by sport and is thought to be highest in endurance sports requiring high volume intense training, such as swimming, triathlon, road cycling, rowing and, to a lesser extent, distance running. Except for distance running, high performance athletes in these sports frequently train for 4-6 h each day, 6 days per week for several months without appreciable time off. It is believed that the imbalance between excessively large volumes of training without adequate rest and recovery leads to overtraining syndrome. It is instructive that the sports most likely to cause overtraining, as noted earlier, are body mass-supported; that is, except for distance running, the body is supported by equipment or water. Risk of musculoskeletal injury limits training volume in weight-bearing activities, such as distance running, and, consequently, the incidence of overtraining may be lower than in other endurance sports. It is important to emphasize, however, that there are few empirical data to unequivocally support this claim. Overtraining also occurs in 'power' sports, such as weight lifting and judo.

The incidence of overreaching is easier to identify in studies using the short-term intensified training model (discussed earlier). Studies using this model have reported that 30-100% of athletes exhibit symptoms of overreaching after intensified training lasting 10 days to 4 weeks. In these studies, symptoms appear after training volume is increased by 40-100%; generally, the larger and more abrupt the increase in training load, the higher the incidence of symptoms. These studies show that, given a sufficiently rigorous training regimen, most if not all high-performance athletes will exhibit symptoms of overreaching over the short term. As noted earlier, however, such dramatic increases in training volume are not natural for these athletes.

A decrement in performance despite continued training is the most obvious objective indicator of overtraining syndrome. Decrements in competitive performance of 1-20% have been documented. In elite sport, continued performance is expected and any decrement in performance, no matter how small, can be catastrophic to the athlete who has invested years working toward a major competition such as the Olympics. For example, in the 100 m sprint, a performance decrement of 1% (about 0.1 s for men) may mean the difference between finishing in medal contention or not. In swimming, only a 4-5% difference separates times required to qualify to compete in the Olympics from world record times. In addition to performance decrements during competition, overtraining syndrome is frequently associated with an inability to train effectively, that is, to maintain the rigorous daily training regimen required to compete an a international level. Besides overtraining syndrome, there are many possible causes of substandard performance and the inability to train, such as illness, anaemia, dietary insufficiency and poor psychological preparation; poor performance by itself is inadequate as an indicator of overtraining syndrome.

Symptoms of overtraining

There are many purported signs and symptoms of overtraining syndrome, although few have been consistently documented to be reliable and valid indicators of the syndrome. Identifying clear symptoms of overtraining is important for two reasons. First, from a practical viewpoint, athletes and coaches wish to identify as early as possible the athlete moving toward overtraining syndrome so that training may be altered before performance deteriorates. Second, from a scientific viewpoint, clearly identifying the symptoms of overtraining syndrome gives direction to the search for underlying mechanisms (discussed further later).

At present, the only physiological variables consistently documented to occur with overtraining syndrome include:

A variety of other purported physiological indicators of overtraining have not been clearly supported by the research literature. These include elevated early morning heart rate, haematological changes, such as low serum ferritin levels, changes in hormones, such as blood concentrations of testosterone and cortisol, frequent URTI, loss of body mass and reduced maximal oxygen consumption (VO 2max).

Psychological changes also accompany overtraining syndrome, including changes in mood state as indicated on the Profile of Mood States (POMS), apathy and loss of motivation, loss of appetite, irritability or depression and sleep disturbances.

Contributing factors

There are many possible factors that contribute to or cause overtraining syndrome. The observation that overtraining occurs across a wide spectrum of sports involving different exercise modes suggests that there is a commonality of contributing factors. It is generally accepted that the following factors, at minimum, contribute to overtraining syndrome:

1. Sudden increase in training volume and/or intensity.

2. Heavy competition schedule.

3. Lack of periodization or programmed recovery in training schedule.

4. Monotonous training program.

5. High self-reported stress levels, regardless of whether they are directly related to training.

Several experimental models of overreaching show that a sudden increase in training volume induces signs and symptoms such as poor performance, high fatigue levels, sleep disturbances, mood state changes, altered catecholamine output and persistent muscle soreness. In a study on distance runners, doubling training volume elicited signs and symptoms such as 7% performance decrement, fatigue and muscle soreness. In contrast, in the same study, a similar group of runners did not exhibit symptoms after increasing training intensity while maintaining volume. In elite swimmers already training at a high intensity, progressively increasing training volume by 10% each week for 4 weeks induced symptoms, such as high fatigue levels, sleep disturbances and poor performance, in one-third of the athletes. In physically fit special armed forces personnel, after 10 days of twice daily, maximal running all subjects reported symptoms, such as inability to maintain training load, nausea, muscle soreness and irritability. It appears that athletes already training at high intensity cannot tolerate sudden increases in training volume for more than a few days without exhibiting symptoms of overreaching. Because, for ethical reasons, these studies were not extended beyond a few weeks, it can only be speculated that maintaining such training regimes without adequate rest is likely to lead to the more serious overtraining syndrome.

Athletes often maintain daily log books, in which details of training distance/duration, intensity and performance are recorded; the athlete's perception of adaptation to training may also be included. If given space to write their own subjective feelings about their adaptation to training, overtrained athletes frequently write comments such as 'heavy legs', 'can't get going', or 'feeling flat'. Measures of well-being, such as fatigue levels, quality of sleep, perceived stress levels and muscle soreness, may also be quantified on a daily basis. High self-reported stress levels have been shown to be predictive of overtraining and overreaching, even when the sources of stress do not directly relate to the rigours of training. In a study of elite swimmers followed over a 6 month season, in those swimmers later identified as overtrained, high stress levels were observed 4-6 weeks before performance deteriorated and other symptoms appeared. Athletes experience stress relating to finances, time management, study and relationships with family and significant others, all of which can be adversely affected by the rigours of training for 4-6 h per day. These data suggest that high perceived stress levels may contribute to the subsequent development of symptoms of overreaching or overtraining syndrome, although the mechanism by which this may occur is not yet clear.

Changes in physiological and neuroendocrine variables during overtraining

Overtraining syndrome is associated with changes in several physiological variables, in particular physical work capacity, maximal heart rate, blood lactate variables and skeletal muscle glycogen concentration. Decrements in physical work capacity may involve endurance exercise capacity (i.e. ability to perform exercise for prolonged periods) and/or muscular strength, depending on the type of athlete and training. For example, endurance exercise capacity is most affected in endurance athletes, such as swimmers or distance runners, whereas muscular strength declines in power athletes, such as weightlifters and judo athletes. The individual anaerobic threshold (IAT), or the work rate associated with an exponential rise in blood lactate level, is a consistent predictor of endurance exercise performance. The onset of blood lactate accumulation reflects the exponential rise in lactate output from skeletal muscle. High lactate levels in skeletal muscle lower pH, inducing fatigue via inhibition of metabolic pathways, in particular anaerobic glycolysis, limiting the rate of ATP resynthesis. Time to volitional fatigue at a work rate equivalent to 110% of IAT declines by approximately 20-30% in overtrained athletes, suggesting impairment in the capacity to maintain high intensity work, a crucial requirement of virtually all sports.

Athletes and coaches often use early morning heart rate (EMHR) as an indicator of overtraining syndrome, although most of the empirical evidence has failed to find any change in EMHR in overtrained athletes. In contrast, there is good evidence that maximal heart rate (MHR) declines by 5-10 b.p.m. Lower maximal blood lactate concentration also accompanies overtraining syndrome and is thought to reflect a reduction in catecholamine-induced stimulation of glycogenolysis (use of muscle glycogen to produce ATP required by high-intensity exercise) within skeletal muscle. Decreased maximal heart rate and blood lactate concentrations are consistent with the belief that overtraining syndrome is a neuroendocrine disorder (discussed further later). Low muscle glycogen concentration has also been associated with overtraining and would explain reduced maximal blood lactate levels and comments by athletes reporting 'heavy legs'. However, symptoms of overreaching also appear despite maintenance of muscle glycogen levels, suggesting that this is not a consistent outcome of or contributing factor to overtraining syndrome.

Overtraining syndrome has been associated with alterations in neuroendocrine factors, in particular urinary excretion of NEp. For example, Lehmann et al. have observed progressively declining overnight urinary NEp excretion in male distance runners during 4 weeks of intensified training that resulted in clear symptoms of overreaching; NEp excretion was significantly correlated with self-reported symptoms. In another study in which training was intensified over 4 weeks in swimmers, urinary NEp excretion was significantly lower in overreached compared with well-trained swimmers. In the latter study, low NEp excretion appeared before the onset of symptoms, suggesting that neuroendocrine changes may precede, and possibly contribute to, subsequent development of symptoms. Changes in urinary NEp levels during training and tapering (reduced training before major competition) also predict performance during competition. Although the concentrations in the blood of testosterone and cortisol, and their ratio, fluctuate in response to training stress, most evidence does not support a role for these changes in the aetiology of overtraining syndrome.

Changes in immunological variables during overtraining

Athletes and coaches associate overtraining with frequent illness, especially URTI. As discussed in more detail in other papers in this special supplement, endurance athletes experience a high incidence of URTI during intense training and after major competition. Also as discussed in other papers in this supplement, a single bout of acute intense exercise may suppress immune parameters for several hours afterwards. Moreover, there is evidence that high-performance athletes demonstrate mild suppression of a host of immunological parameters. One unanswered question is whether such immune suppression results from overtraining syndrome itself, or rather from the long-term stress of intense daily exercise training, regardless of whether such training leads to symptoms of the syndrome. Table 1 provides a brief summary of the responses of various immune parameters to intense training and overtraining.

Table 1: Summary of selected immune parameters in athletes at rest and after intense exercise training, with or without overtraining

Upper respiratory tract infections and overtraining

There are surprisingly few studies to directly address the issue of incidence of URTI in overtrained athletes, despite the well-accepted belief that overtrained athletes are susceptible to illness. In one study of 24 competitive swimmers, training was intensified over 4 weeks, resulting in eight (33%) of the swimmers showing symptoms of overreaching. Of the 24 swimmers, 10 (42%) exhibited self-reported symptoms of URTI during the 4 weeks. Unexpectedly, the rate of URTI among the overreached swimmers (one of eight, or 12.5%) was significantly lower than that in the well-trained swimmers (nine of 16, or 56%). It has been suggested that increased risk of URTI may not necessarily accompany overtraining/overreaching, but may instead be a consequence of intense training in all athletes. It has later been suggested that the higher rate of URTI among the well-trained swimmers (i.e. those who did not become overreached) may have protected against overreaching. That is, the appearance of mild symptoms of URTI may have caused these swimmers to consciously or subconsciously ease their training loads for a few days, providing sufficient rest to prevent overreaching. In another study, again on elite swimmers, no association was found between incidence of URTI and increasing training volume and intensity over an 8 month season. However, another study of 25 athletes has found that a high proportion of illnesses occur when training exceeds thresholds identified for individual athletes, based on a combination of training volume and monotony.

Thus, the few studies published directly on this issue do not support the concept that overtraining syndrome itself is associated with an increased risk of URTI. There is, however, good evidence showing increased risk of URTI among endurance athletes and a dose-response relationship between training volume and incidence of URTI (discussed by others in this special supplement). Taken together, it appears that, in athletes, both overtraining syndrome and URTI result from a common cause: excessive training with insufficient rest and variety of training. The risk of URTI is elevated in athletes during periods of intense training, regardless of whether such training leads to symptoms of overtraining syndrome.

Effects of overtraining/overreaching on leucocyte number and function

Resting peripheral blood leucocyte number is generally clinically normal in athletes, even during intense training and overtraining. No differences have been reported in leucocyte number between elite swimmers identified as overtrained compared with well-trained swimmers. In contrast, leucocyte number has been shown to progressively decline to clinically low values (from 4.9 to 4.2 × 10 ⁹/L) in a short-term overreaching study in which training volume was doubled over 4 weeks in distance runners. Interestingly, this decline was observed only when training volume (distance) and not intensity (pace) increased. It is currently unknown whether there are any clinical consequences of a decline in peripheral blood leucocyte number and whether it reflects simply a redistribution of cells between peripheral blood and other lymphoid compartments or, alternatively, an increase in cell turnover. There is evidence that acute intense exercise may cause apoptosis in peripheral blood leucocytes, but it is unclear whether this contributes to changes in circulating cell number.

Lymphocyte number and function Resting peripheral blood lymphocyte number also appears to be relatively unaffected by intense training and overtraining. Two studies have noted transient decreases in lymphocyte number during the initial stages (2-4 weeks) of intensified training; in both studies, this was attributed to declines in CD3⁺ CD4⁺ number. However, cell counts had normalized by the end of the intensified training periods (4-8 weeks), suggesting only temporary perturbation of these cell counts that is unlikely to be of biological significance. Peripheral blood lymphocyte counts are clinically normal in athletes showing symptoms of overtraining or overreaching.

In contrast to the relatively stable number of cells in the circulation, lymphocytes may be activated by periods of intense exercise training. For example, expression of CD122 (high-affinity IL-2 receptor) was higher on resting CD8⁺ and CD16/CD56⁺ cells in distance runners compared with matched non-runners. A significant increase in CD25 (low-affinity IL-2 receptor) expression has been observed in cells obtained over 10 days of intense running training that caused overreaching, despite no changes in lymphocyte or CD3⁺ cell number. The ability of lymphocytes to respond to mitogenic challenge in the standard in vitro assay appears to be unchanged or possibly enhanced by intense training. It is unclear if there is any biological significance of this apparent activation of peripheral blood lymphocytes during intense training.

Neutrophil number and function Neutrophils appear to be the type of leucocyte most affected by prolonged periods of intense exercise training, although few studies have measured neutrophil function in athletes specifically classified as overtrained or overreached. Lower resting and post-exercise neutrophil activity has been reported in athletes from a variety of sports compared with non-athletes or within the same athletes across different phases of the training cycle. For example, Smith et al. first noted significantly lower neutrophil activation (opsonized zymosan (OZ)-stimulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production) in neutrophils isolated at rest and up to 6 h after 60 min exercise in trained cyclists compared with matched non-athletes. In elite swimmers, resting neutrophil activity (OZ-stimulated ROS production, expressed per cell) declined progressively during a 12 week intense training period. The lowest values were observed during the phase of highest training intensity, and activity was partially recovered during a subsequent rest phase. In another study, neutrophil phagocytic activity (latex bead ingestion) and activation (ROS production) were shown to be significantly lower at rest and 24 h after a standard maximal exercise test during intense compared with moderate training in distance runners, and compared with matched non-athletes. These data suggest that downregulation of neutrophil function may occur in response to prolonged periods of intense exercise training. The biological significance of such changes is not currently known, although it has been speculated that downregulation of neutrophil function reflects an adaptive response to chronic inflammation resulting from tissue microtrauma elicited by daily intense exercise. In the study on swimmers, declining neutrophil activation was not correlated with the appearance of URTI over 12 weeks of intense training.

Natural killer cell number and function Peripheral blood NK (CD16⁺/56⁺) cell number and percentage are generally normal in athletes, although NK cytotoxic activity (NKCA) may be higher at rest in athletes compared with non- athletes. There are, at present, no studies describing NK cell number and function in athletes classified as overtrained or overreached. Natural killer cell number may decrease during short-term (1-4 weeks) and long-term (7 months) intense training. For example, CD56⁺ cell number declined more than 40% during 10 days of intense running training in physically fit military personnel; values remained low for 5 days recovery training (light exercise). In another study, NK (CD16⁺/56⁺) cell number and percentage declined by 30-40% after 7 months intense swim training and were 20-30% lower than in age-matched non-athletes. Both NK cell number and NKCA declined over 4 weeks intensified training in swimmers that did not lead to symptoms of overreaching. These changes in NK cell number and percentage occurred despite no changes in other cell counts. The reasons for and biological significance of such changes in NK cell number and possibly function are not known at present. Acute intense prolonged exercise causes transient suppression of NKCA, lasting at least 6 and perhaps more than 12 h. Elite athletes often train twice per day and it is possible that NK cell number and function require an extended time to recover from each session of intense exercise.

Immunoglobulins

Most comparisons between athletes and clinical norms show that resting serum Ig levels are normal in athletes. There are, however, recent reports suggesting clinically low serum Ig levels during intense training in some athletes. For example, serum IgA, IgG and IgM concentrations were significantly lower throughout a 7 month training season in elite swimmers compared with age-matched non-athletes. In these swimmers, serum IgA, IgG, IgM, and IgG ₂ levels were in the lowest 10th percentile for their age population. Low values could not be attributed to differences in relative or absolute B or T cell numbers. Despite the low serum Ig levels, the ability to produce antibody in response to antigenic challenge is normal in swimmers and triathletes.

Because of the seemingly high incidence of URTI among athletes, much attention has focused on the mucosal immune system response to intense exercise training, using salivary IgA concentration as a marker. Low resting salivary IgA concentration has been reported in some elite athletes. Salivary IgA levels decline during prolonged periods of intense exercise training and IgA concentration is lower in overtrained compared with well-trained swimmers. Low salivary IgA concentration is predictive of the subsequent appearance of symptoms of URTI over the short and long term. For example, lower IgA ₁ levels early in the training season have been correlated with the number of URTI episodes throughout the season; IgA ₂ levels were also clinically low in these swimmers. To date, salivary IgA concentration is the only immune parameter to be directly associated with the appearance of URTI.

Plasma glutamine

Glutamine, the most abundant amino acid in the body, is required for normal function by lymphocytes and monocytes. Glutamine is released from skeletal muscle during physical stress, such as exercise and other trauma, and is an important substrate for gluconeogenesis in the liver. Low plasma glutamine concentration has been associated with overtraining syndrome. It has been speculated that lymphocyte function may be compromised by low glutamine availability, possibly increasing susceptibility to infection in overtrained athletes. When various biochemical and immunological parameters were measured in overtrained athletes, low plasma and skeletal muscle glutamine concentrations were the only variables to distinguish athletes with symptoms from healthy athletes or clinical norms. However, 26 weeks of glutamine supplementation has had no effect on the incidence of URTI or peripheral blood lymphocyte counts, despite significantly increased plasma and muscle glutamine concentrations over this time. In another study, plasma glutamine concentrations declined progressively over 10 days of intense running training that resulted in symptoms of overreaching. Despite the low plasma glutamine levels, however, all other immune parameters (e.g. cell counts, lymphocyte activation markers) increased or remained unchanged. In a study on swimmers, when training intensity was progressively increased over 4 weeks, plasma glutamine concentration remained unchanged in swimmers diagnosed as overreached; over the 4 weeks values increased in the well-trained athletes and were 20% higher than in overreached swimmers. However, plasma glutamine levels were not significantly different between swimmers who developed symptoms of URTI and those who remained healthy. Thus, although plasma glutamine concentration may decline in some instances of overtraining, there is little evidence to link this decline with immune suppression. It is thought that decreasing plasma glutamine levels may more closely reflect metabolic events, such as glycogen depletion, metabolic acidosis and increased protein degradation in skeletal muscle as a result of intense prolonged exercise on a daily basis.

Mechanisms underlying overtraining syndrome

It is unlikely that the diverse symptoms of overtraining syndrome, which appear in such a variety of athletes, can be explained by a single mechanism. As mentioned earlier, neuroendocrine changes may underlie many of the effects and symptoms of overtraining, such as poor performance, lowering of maximal heart rate and blood lactate levels, mood state changes and decrements in muscular strength. It has been proposed that the physical stress of intense exercise training initially causes elevation of stress hormone levels, such as catecholamines and glucocorticoids. Persistently elevated stress hormone levels may then lead to disturbed sensitivity and/or number of adrenergic receptors, alterations in other hormones, such as insulin and pituitary hormones, and changes in muscle metabolism, which may ultimately lead to autonomic dysfunction. Several studies have provided evidence that alterations in sympathoadrenal activity occur during overtraining, such as reduced urinary output and increased or decreased plasma concentration of catecholamines, altered baroreflex-mediated responses to changes of body position and changes in adrenergic receptor sensitivity

A hypothesis has recently been proposed implicating cytokines as mediators of overtraining syndrome. It has been suggested that repetitive, high volume exercise with inadequate rest causes injury (microtrauma) to joints, muscles and connective tissue. This injury in turn activates monocytes to produce and release inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. These cytokines would then initiate a 'whole-body' response, involving chronic systemic inflammation, 'sickness behaviour', suppressed immune function and mood state changes. It has also been suggested that these responses fit the third stage of Seyle's general adaptation syndrome, that is, related more to recovery and survival from, rather than adaptation to, stress. Because inflammatory cytokines may also activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, it has been further suggested that cytokine release may underlie neuroendocrine changes observed in overtraining syndrome. Inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-6 are released after prolonged exercise, such as running or cycling, but there are, at present, no studies measuring cytokine levels in overtrained athletes. Obviously, further experimental work is needed to provide more evidence supporting or refuting these hypotheses.

Preventing overtraining syndrome

Overtraining syndrome may have potentially devastating effects on an athlete's career and prevention is of utmost importance. Because the best indicators of overtraining syndrome, poor performance and persistent fatigue, occur too late to be of benefit to the athlete, coaches and athletes are interested in early indicators or predictors that may appear before the onset of serious symptoms. Prevention requires a carefully planned training program that includes regular monitoring by coaches and the athletes themselves to assess adaptation to training over both the short and long term.

Measures suggested to prevent overtraining include:

1. Early identification and monitoring of susceptible athletes.

2. Minimizing known effects, such as sudden increases in training loads, inadequate dietary intake and too frequent competition.

3. Individualizing training.

4. Periodizing training.

5. Programming recovery training and rest days into the training cycle.

Tools for monitoring the athlete's response to training must be both valid and convenient to use on a daily basis. As discussed earlier, there are few reliable and valid objective physiological and psychological indicators of the syndrome and certainly none that stand alone to clearly identify the overtrained athlete. For routine monitoring, the best and most cost-effective variables include a combination of measures, such as performance, heart rate after a standardized maximal effort, work accomplished at 110% IAT and some form of self-analysis by the athlete of his/her adaptation to training (e.g. POMS, daily measures of well-being). Although urinary catecholamine output seems to be a valid indicator, it is neither cost-effective nor convenient for routine monitoring. There appears to be individual variability in the threshold of training leading to overtraining syndrome, a factor often considered in developing a long-term training program for individual athletes. Daily monitoring of self-analysis measures, such as the athlete's perception of training adaptation, stress levels, fatigue, quality of sleep and muscle soreness, may be effective in identifying susceptible athletes before the appearance of other symptoms. Moreover, self-analysis measures also correlate with urinary catecholamine excretion, providing an inexpensive and non-invasive method of estimating physiological responses. Immunological parameters do not, at present, appear to be useful in monitoring overtraining, although salivary IgA concentration may be of value in predicting susceptibility to URTI among high-performance athletes.

References

1. 1.
, , . Overtraining and Overreaching in Sport: Physiological, Psychological and Biomechanical Considerations. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics , 1998.

2. 21.
, , Droppelman LF . EDITS manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service , 1971.

3. 30.
Mackinnon LT . Comments on clinical applications in athletes. In: Jonsdottir IH, Gleeson M, Woods JA, Pedersen BK (eds). IV International Symposium Exercise and Immunology; 1999 May 21-23; Rome, Italy. Paderborn, Germany: International Society of Exercise and Immunology , 1999; 37.

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School of Human Movement Studies, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

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Overtraining effects on immunity and performance in athletes

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Overtraining is a process of excessive exercise training in high-performance athletes that may lead to overtraining syndrome. Overtraining syndrome is a neuroendocrine disorder characterized by poor performance in competition, inability to maintain training loads, persistent fatigue, reduced catecholamine excretion, frequent illness, disturbed sleep and alterations in mood state.

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The easiest way to meet any wellness goal is to turn effective behaviors into habits by repeating them every day. However, while it may be perfectly safe to eat the right foods every day or get enough sleep every night, daily workouts can be a whole other story. In fact, working out too frequently may actually deter you from reaching your fitness goals.

Why Your Body Needs a Break One of three biggest workout mistakes is not giving yourself at least one day off a week. "Your ability to move is dictated by your flexibility, alignment, mobility, strength, and your ability to control and coordinate these factors," says Amy Wunsch, MSPT, head physical therapist at Results Fitness in Newhall, California. Working out too frequently can prevent your muscles from functioning at their full potential.

And when your muscles aren't functioning at 100%, your metabolism isn't, either. Because your muscles are largely responsible for burning calories while your body is at rest, tired muscles end up burning fewer calories and less body fat.

Alternating between hard and easy days of training and taking one day off a week is the most effective way to prevent symptoms of overtraining, such as fatigue and fitness plateaus, according to a classic study of endurance athletes that was published in the Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. But based on my experience working with athletes of all fitness levels, I've found that most people really need to take a break from working out even more frequently than one day a week. Because it takes your muscles 24 to 48 hours to repair themselves after an intense workout, I recommend taking a day off after two days of consecutive workouts.

So what should you do every third day if you're motivated enough to want to hit the gym daily? I'm not about to advise you to go home and sit on the couch! There's another solution that will help you maintain your gym-going habit while putting little demand on your body: the rest day tune-up.

This fitness routine features stretches to work out tight muscles or knots and strengthening exercises to rev up your stabilizer muscles, the smaller muscles in your shoulders, back, hips, and knees that are vital for good posture. Tune-ups ultimately help your body recover and set you up for a better performance during your next hard-core workout so you can meet your fitness goals faster-all by taking a "break".

On the day after working out for two consecutive days: start by foam rolling your entire body by sitting on a foam roller and moving it back and forth over each muscle. Then perform two circuits of the following 10 exercises. In addition to the following, you can also get outside for an easy walk.

The Rest-Day Tune-Up

1. Side-Lying Thoracic Rotation (10 reps on each side) To loosen the muscles of your middle and upper back: Lie on your left side on the floor, with your hips and knees bent 90 degrees. Straighten both arms in front of you at shoulder height, palms pressed together. Your arm and shoulder should touch the floor. Keeping your left arm and both legs in position, rotate your right arm up and over your body and rotate your torso to the right, until your right hand and upper back are flat on the floor. Hold for 2 seconds, then bring your right arm back to the starting position.Complete the prescribed number of reps, then turn over and do the same number for your other side.

2. Reach, Roll, and Lift (10 reps on each side) To enhance the mobility of your shoulders and upper back: Kneel down and place your elbows on the floor, allowing your back to round. Your elbows should be bent 90 degrees. Your palms should be flat on the floor. Slide your right hand forward until your arm is straight. Rotate your right palm so that it's facing up. Raise your right arm as high as you can. Do all your reps, then repeat with your left arm. 3. Half-Kneeling Rotational Chop (10 reps on each side) Attach a rope handle to the high pulley of a cable station. Kneel down so that your left side faces the weight stack and your right knee is on the floor but your left knee is bent 90 degrees with your left foot flat on the floor. Keep your core braced and pull the rope past your right hip. Bend your left arm and straighten your right arm as you pull the rope down.

4. Standing Hamstring Stretch (60 seconds on each side) To stretch your hamstrings from both your hip and your knee: Place your right foot on a bench or secure chair. Your right leg should be completely straight; your left leg should be slightly bent. Stand tall with your back naturally arched and place your hands on your hips. Without rounding your lower back, bend at the hips and lower your torso until you feel a comfortable stretch, and hold that position for the prescribed amount of time. Bending your knee more increases the stretch near your hip; keeping it straight increases the stretch at your knee.

5. Sumo Squat to Stand (10 reps) To loosen your quadriceps, hamstrings, glutes, groin, and lower back: Stand tall with your legs straight and your feet shoulder-width apart. Keeping your legs straight, bend over and grab your toes. (If you need to bend your knees you can, but bend them only as much as necessary.) Without letting go of your toes, lower your body into a squat as you raise your chest and shoulders up. Staying in the squat position, raise your right arm up high and wide. Then raise your left arm. Now stand up.

6. Inchworm (5 reps) To loosen your thigh, hip, and oblique muscles: Stand tall with your legs straight and bend over and touch the floor. Keeping your legs straight and your core braced, walk your hands forward. Then take tiny steps to walk your feet back to your hands. That's one repetition. If you can't reach the floor with your legs straight, bend your knees just enough so you can. As your flexibility improves, try to straighten them a little more.

7. Prone Hip Internal Rotation (10 reps) To loosen your deep hip muscles: Lie facedown on the floor with your knees together and bent 90 degrees. Without allowing your hips to rise off the floor, lower your feet straight out to the sides as far as you comfortably can. Hold for 1 or 2 seconds, then return to the starting position.

8. Supine Hip Internal Rotation (10 reps) To loosen the muscles of your inner thighs and hips: Lie faceup on the floor with your knees bent 90 degrees. Your feet should be flat on the floor and about twice shoulder-width apart. Without allowing your feet to move, lower your knees inward as far as you comfortably can. Hold for 1 or 2 seconds, then return to the starting position.

9. Lying Glute Stretch (60 seconds each side) To loosen your glutes and reduce your likelihood of experiencing lower back pain: Lie faceup on the floor with your knees and hips bent. Cross your left leg over your right so that your left ankle sits across your right thigh. Grab your left knee with both hands and pull it toward the middle of your chest until you feel a comfortable stretch in your glutes. 10. Wall Slide (10 reps) To enhance the function of your shoulder blades, which can help improve posture and shoulder health: Lean your head, upper back, and butt against the wall. Place your hands and arms against the wall in the "high-five" position, your elbows bent 90 degrees and your upper arms at shoulder height. Keeping your elbows, wrists, and hands pressed into the wall, slide your elbows down toward your sides as far as you can. Squeeze your shoulder blades together and hold for 1 second. Slide your arms back up the wall as high as you can while keeping your hands in contact with the wall. Lower and repeat.

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The Secret to Exercising Every Day Without Overtraining

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The easiest way to meet any wellness goal is to turn effective behaviors into habits by repeating them every day. However, while it may be perfectly safe to eat the right foods every day or get enough sleep every night, daily workouts can be a whole other story.

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Highlights the extent of over-training and how it effects the body

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Everyone knows that exercise in general makes you happier, stronger and more energetic. We hear it ad nauseam, especially this time of year.

But what if fitness did the very opposite? In other words, if exercise brought on depression, injuries and lack of motivation. If that happens, what's going on?

It's called overtraining syndrome, said Sabrena Jo, a senior exercise scientist for the American Council on Exercise. "The first sign of overtraining is when the performance of the exercise starts decreasing," she says. "Additional symptoms can be things like sleep disturbances, lack of motivation and moodiness."

But don't bag your recently kicked-off 2018 fitness routine just yet. Overtraining syndrome mostly happens to elite athletes, said Joe Park, an orthopedic surgeon with the University of Virginia Health System. But it can also strike dedicated amateur athletes, such as long-distance runners.

Park, who frequently treats Achilles tears and stress fractures of the feet, said we can all benefit from learning the warning signs of overtraining - such as pain.

- - -

"What I tell patients is to observe the trajectory of pain," Park says. "Is it better today than it was last week?"

Sometimes with overtraining injuries related to running, the pain subsides during the run as the soft tissue, like muscles and tendons, loosens up during movement. So instead of examining the pain only during the activity, watch for it after the activity is done, he says.

If pain doesn't subside in 10 to 14 days, something might be amiss and should be assessed by a doctor, he says.

Kendall Black, a Washington physical therapist, said another warning sign is when the pain subsides, but the area in question feels tight. "Take note if there is stiffness and a decrease in range of motion," she says. "That can be a problem."

The next level of warning signs - but please don't feel compelled to wait that long - is when injuries start accumulating, Park said.

"The same person might have a hamstring tear, an Achilles tear and a stress fracture," he says. "It might be time to ask if it's really the right sport for you."

Sleep disturbances, moodiness and lack of motivation may all be due to hormonal changes that can occur with overtraining. But the area is not well understood, Jo says.

"Cortisol - the stress hormone - plays a role, but it is not clear how."

For female athletes, missed menstrual periods can also be a sign of overtraining and should not be taken lightly, Park said.

"That's associated with bone-density loss and should be addressed. It's not a small matter," he said, noting that many female collegiate athletes he sees consider missed periods a relief rather than a problem.

Same with the other hormone-related symptoms. If you experience them while ramping up physical activity, keep an eye on them and seek out medical help if they persist, he says.

- - -

One way to avoid symptoms of overtraining is to ramp up exercises gradually, the experts agree.

There are rules of progression whether the sport is endurance-focused or strength-focused, Jo said. "The rule of progression is to increase no more than 5 to 10 percent every few weeks whether it's distance traveled, weight load or intensity," she said.

If you fall behind on a training schedule by a week or more due to illness, there is no way to make that up, Black said. "You just have to skip it. You can't just double up the next week."

For example, say you're in a run training program in preparation for a race and you didn't do your assigned 10 miles one week. That doesn't mean you should do 20 miles the next week.

Black said overtraining is often due to biomechanical imbalances. In runners, for example, these imbalances can include poor ankle range of motion and tightness or weakness throughout the back of the leg (posterior chain).

To avoid injury, then, make sure to both strengthen and stretch these muscles: gluteus, hamstrings, calves and Achilles.

Rest is also key in preventing overtraining symptoms. Rest includes good sleep (7-9 hours) and not repeating the same activity too often.

"You want give yourself 48 hours of rest between intense activities," Jo said.

To circle back around, fitness should be about health first and foremost, Park said. If there are negative consequences such as moodiness, sleep disturbances, recurring injuries, decreased performance and other overtraining symptoms, you should ask yourself: "What are the health benefits of this?"

Because, he says, there is an ideal fitness routine for you out there - one that gives you the mental and physical rewards you seek without causing mental and physical pain.

"Wear and tear is not necessary. There is a sweet spot."
Boston is a fitness trainer and freelance writer. She can be found at gabriellaboston.com.

Summer's scorching heat ain't got nothing' on these incredible pools. From the world's largest infinity rooftop pool in Singapore to California's Hearst Castle, we've rounded up a few beautiful basins worth diving into.

Hot colors, cool patterns: New wave looks, artful lighting and everything else you need to remake your place. Looking for more inspiration? Check out our full 2018 Home Ideas Guide.

(Lisa Skolnik)

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Overtraining is a real danger, even for elite athletes. Know the signs.

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Everyone knows that exercise in general makes you happier, stronger and more energetic. We hear it ad nauseam, especially this time of year. But what if fitness did the very opposite? In other words, if exercise brought on depression, injuries and lack of motivation. If that happens, what's going on?

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Fawnia Mondey

Many people train to the point where they are actually getting weaker. How can this be true? The answer is simple: overtraining.

The dictionary states, "Overtraining is a common problem in weight training, but it can also be experienced by runners and other athletes. It occurs when the volume and intensity of the exercise exceeds an individual's recovery capacity. They cease making progress, and can even begin to lose strength and fitness."

Case Study

Since New Years, Jennifer has found her fitness groove. She said her good-byes to her late night TV programs and processed food munching, and hello to a new life. In fact, Jennifer has done a complete lifestyle change choosing foods that are in their natural state or in the least amount of packaging possible; in other words, unprocessed.

Standing 5'5" and weighing 155 lbs, Jennifer has already lost 10 lbs. Her mind is focused on reaching her goal weight of 125 lb. To help her reach her goal, Jennifer is training two days on and one day off, and is in and out of the gym in about an hour. This training split is allowing plenty of time for her body to rest. Jennifer is feeling great!

"Bodybuilders and other dieters who exercise intensely while limiting their food intake often find themselves overtraining."

Fast forward six months; Jennifer is not feeling so hot. We can pat her on the back for attaining her goal weight of 125 lbs, but can she? This past month people have complimented on how fit she is looking but commented that she also appeared tired. "Are you getting enough sleep? You haven't been yourself lately." Her friends are concerned and they have every right to be.

Jennifer's training program has increased to six days a week, with Sundays as her jogging only days. Each morning, she sets her alarm an hour early to make time for her 60-minute run before work. Once her work day is done, she returns to the gym for 60 min of weights and another 60 min of cardio.

Though she is tired and has little interest in spending time with friends, she is making time for her fitness. What fitness means to Jennifer today is much different then three months ago.

The Signs

Jennifer is overtraining. Along with persistent fatigue and a loss of interest in her friends, she may be also experiencing these symptoms of overtraining.

Persistent muscle soreness

Elevated resting heart rate

Increased susceptibility to infections

Increased incidence of injuries

Irritability

Depression

Loss of motivation

Insomnia

Decreased appetite

Weight loss

Experiencing a loss of interest in what you once felt passion for is never fun. So, what causes overtraining?

Rest Is Key

To see improvement in one's strength and fitness they must rest. The rest period following hard training is a magical process which takes at least 36 hours to complete. By skimping on rest, complete regeneration cannot occur.

If the amount of training continues to exceed the rest period, however, the individual's performance will plateau and decline. If Jennifer continues to neglect the rest time her body needs, she will indeed get weaker and may experience injuries.

Other physical and psychological stressors can compound the rate at which a person may experience overtraining, such as:

Bodybuilders and other dieters who exercise intensely while limiting their food intake often find themselves overtraining.

Though you may be focused and feeling that you need to maintain the degree at which you are training, depending on your circumstance I urge you to consider applying one or more of the following solutions. Your gains will flourish, and your family and friends will be relieved and thankful!

Solutions

1. Taking a break

Taking a break from training to allow time for recovery. In knowing that you may be doing more harm than good at the gym, set aside today and tomorrow as a break. Some people allow one week away from fitness to revive their bodies and mind, and then when they return to training, they have more focus and are enjoying themselves again.

2. Reducing the volume

Reducing the volume and/or the intensity of the training. If you always do five sets for each exercise, why not do just two or three, and lower the weight and focus solely on form? Strengthen your mind and muscle connection by tuning into the exercise at hand.

3. Deep-tissue Massage

Deep-tissue or sports massage of the affected muscles. A skillfully applied massage is the most effective therapy for releasing muscle tension and restoring balance to the musculo-skeletal system. Receiving regular massages may help athletes prevent injuries, which might otherwise be caused by overuse. A constant build-up of tension in the muscles from regular activity may lead to stresses on joints, ligaments, tendons, as well as the muscles themselves.

4. Self-massage

Self-massage of the affected muscles. Self-massage, with either with your hands or a system such as the Yamuna™ Body Rolling (BR) system featuring a specially designed 7" ball will help with pain relief, and can be targeted to hamstrings, calves, knees, quads, shoulder and back; any muscle or joint.

People who are stiff and inflexible and have, or are prone to, injury will benefit from BR as it elongates and massages muscles and opens and flexs the joints.

5. Temperature contrast therapy

Temperature contrast therapy. (Ice baths, hot & cold showers, etc). This uses the body's reaction to hot and cold stimuli. The nerves carry impulses felt at the skin deeper into the body, where they can stimulate the immune system, improve circulation and digestion, influence the production of stress hormones, encourage blood flow, and lessening pain sensitivity.

6. Proper Calorie Intake

Ensuring calorie intake matches (or possibly exceeds) caloric expenditure. When overtraining, the body may be depleted in various nutrients. To assist in the process of recovery, it's important to ensure that a diet high in carbohydrates, lean proteins and healthy fats such as omega 3 oils is met. Carbohydrates will provide the brain with fuel, the oils help relieve depression and proteins will rebuild overtrained muscles.

7. Addressing Vitamin Deficiences

Addressing vitamin deficiencies with nutritional supplements. It is essential to get vitamins from food, however when overtraining is a concern supplementation is beneficial. Supplements should be taken in addition to meals and with meals for their essential and proper absorption.

8. Split Training

Splitting the training program so that different sets of muscles are worked on different days. Once you have rested enough for your body to recover from overtraining, be smart and plan your training split ahead of time.

"Allow at least 4 days between training a certain body part again, and always have at least one day of rest from training each week."

This will help to prevent overtraining from occurring again. Allow at least 4 days between training a certain body part again, and always have at least one day of rest from training each week.

Conclusion

Training towards a goal can be very rewarding, and when seeing the results form, it's hard to believe that one may ever go back to their old habits.

Allow yourself to take a break from time to time and listen to your body. It's when we rest that the body has time to recover, rebuild, and come back stronger then before!

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Fawnia Mondey Many people train to the point where they are actually getting weaker. How can this be true? The answer is simple: overtraining. The dictionary states, "Overtraining is a common problem in weight training, but it can also be experienced by runners and other athletes.

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Provides a wider understanding of what's involved when one over-trains and how they should implement recovery

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How many rest days do i need when training? 

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How many rest days do i need when training? 

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How Many Rest Days Do I Need? Rest vs Active Rest - Avoiding Overtraining

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Overtraining Is a Serious Problem

We have all done it at least once and have paid for it. If you engage in excessive high intensity interval training (HIIT) and diminished rest periods you may have feelings of constant tiredness, reduced performance, neural and hormonal changes, moody and frequent poor health.

Neuroendocrine Disorder

Overtraining syndrome frequently occurs in athletes who are training for a specific event or a competition and train beyond the body's ability to recover. It's a neuroendocrine disorder (meaning it affects nerves and hormones). This has sometimes previously been termed 'burnout' and 'staleness'.

Athletes often exercise harder and longer so they can improve. But without adequate rest and recovery, these training regimens can actually decrease performance. Proper conditioning requires a balance between overload and recovery. Too much overload combined with too little recovery may result in both physical and psychology symptoms of overtraining syndrome.

Symptoms of Over-training:

* Fatigue

* Decreased appetite

* Washed-out feeling, tired, drained, lack of energy

* Sudden drop in performance

* Pain in muscles and joints

* Insomnia

* Headaches

* Decreased immunity (increased number of colds, and sore throats)

* Decrease in training capacity / intensity

* Moodiness and irritability

* Depression

* Mild leg soreness, general aches and pains

* Increased incidence of injuries.

* Loss of enthusiasm for the sport

Continued investigations may find the following:

* Hormonal changes

* Hematological changes (blood content)

* Neuroendocrine changes (elevated plasma noradrenalin and decreased excretion)

* Changes in the blood lactate threshold and concentration at a given exercise intensity

Several Ways to Recognize Overtraining Syndrome

Certified personal trainers know there are several ways to recognize overtraining syndrome. One test is by documenting your heart rates over time. Track your aerobic heart rate at a specific exercise intensities and speed throughout your training and write it down. If your pace starts to slow, your resting heart rate increases and you experience other symptoms, you may heading into overtraining syndrome. You can also track your resting heart rate each morning. Any marked increase from the norm may indicate that you aren't fully recovered.

Orthostatic Heart Rate Test

The second option is the orthostatic heart rate test, developed by Heikki Rusko while working with cross country skiers. In obtaining this measurement you need to do the following:

* Lay flat and rest comfortably for 10 minutes the same time each day (morning is best).

* At the end of 10 minutes, record your heart rate in beats per minute.

* Then stand up.

* After 15 seconds, take a second heart rate in beats per minute.

* After 90 seconds, take a third heart rate in beats per minute.

* After 120 seconds, take a fourth heart rate in beats per minute.

Rested athletes will show a consistent heart rate between measurements, but Rusko found that a marked increase (10 beats/minutes or more) in the 120 second-post-standing measurement of athletes on the verge of over-training. Changes like this may indicate that you have not recovered from a previous workout, are fatigued and stressed. Is best to reduce training or rest another day before performing another workout. It's important to listen to your body signals and rest when you feel tired. Making the habit of noting your activity within a training log will help you track downward trends.

Most Accurate Method for Testing

The most accurate method for testing for over-training and sensitive measurements are psychological signs, symptoms and changes in an athlete's mental condition. Decreased positive feelings for sports and increased negative feelings, such as depression, anger, fatigue, and irritability often appears after days of intensive over-training. Studies have found increased ratings of perceived exertion during exercise after 3 days of overload.

Best Way to Treat Overtraining Syndrome

Research learned the best way in treating over-training syndrome is simple if you do the following:

* Rest and Recover. Try to do low levels or stop exercise and allow yourself a few days of rest.

* Hydrate, Drink plenty of fluids and alter your diet if necessary.

* Get a full tissue massage. This may help relax you mentally and physically.

* Begin Cross Training. This often helps athletes who are overworking certain muscles or suffering from mental fatigue.

It takes several weeks and should include proper nutrition and stress reduction to show complete recovery. It's best to identify warning signs, and objectively measure your training routine and make changes before you wind up sick and injured. Changing up your training frequently and schedule in significant rest time is the best preventative method.

Overtraining Is a Serious Problem

We have all done it at least once and have paid for it. If you engage in excessive high intensity interval training (HIIT) and diminished rest periods you may have feelings of constant tiredness, reduced performance, neural and hormonal changes, moody and frequent poor health.

Neuroendocrine Disorder

Overtraining syndrome frequently occurs in athletes who are training for a specific event or a competition and train beyond the body's ability to recover. It's a neuroendocrine disorder (meaning it affects nerves and hormones). This has sometimes previously been termed 'burnout' and 'staleness'.

Athletes often exercise harder and longer so they can improve. But without adequate rest and recovery, these training regimens can actually decrease performance. Proper conditioning requires a balance between overload and recovery. Too much overload combined with too little recovery may result in both physical and psychology symptoms of overtraining syndrome.

Symptoms of Over-training:

* Fatigue

* Decreased appetite

* Washed-out feeling, tired, drained, lack of energy

* Sudden drop in performance

* Pain in muscles and joints

* Insomnia

* Headaches

* Decreased immunity (increased number of colds, and sore throats)

* Decrease in training capacity / intensity

* Moodiness and irritability

* Depression

* Mild leg soreness, general aches and pains

* Increased incidence of injuries.

* Loss of enthusiasm for the sport

Continued investigations may find the following:

* Hormonal changes

* Hematological changes (blood content)

* Neuroendocrine changes (elevated plasma noradrenalin and decreased excretion)

* Changes in the blood lactate threshold and concentration at a given exercise intensity

Several Ways to Recognize Overtraining Syndrome

Certified personal trainers know there are several ways to recognize overtraining syndrome. One test is by documenting your heart rates over time. Track your aerobic heart rate at a specific exercise intensities and speed throughout your training and write it down. If your pace starts to slow, your resting heart rate increases and you experience other symptoms, you may heading into overtraining syndrome. You can also track your resting heart rate each morning. Any marked increase from the norm may indicate that you aren't fully recovered.

Orthostatic Heart Rate Test

The second option is the orthostatic heart rate test, developed by Heikki Rusko while working with cross country skiers. In obtaining this measurement you need to do the following:

* Lay flat and rest comfortably for 10 minutes the same time each day (morning is best).

* At the end of 10 minutes, record your heart rate in beats per minute.

* Then stand up.

* After 15 seconds, take a second heart rate in beats per minute.

* After 90 seconds, take a third heart rate in beats per minute.

* After 120 seconds, take a fourth heart rate in beats per minute.

Rested athletes will show a consistent heart rate between measurements, but Rusko found that a marked increase (10 beats/minutes or more) in the 120 second-post-standing measurement of athletes on the verge of over-training. Changes like this may indicate that you have not recovered from a previous workout, are fatigued and stressed. Is best to reduce training or rest another day before performing another workout. It's important to listen to your body signals and rest when you feel tired. Making the habit of noting your activity within a training log will help you track downward trends.

Most Accurate Method for Testing

The most accurate method for testing for over-training and sensitive measurements are psychological signs, symptoms and changes in an athlete's mental condition. Decreased positive feelings for sports and increased negative feelings, such as depression, anger, fatigue, and irritability often appears after days of intensive over-training. Studies have found increased ratings of perceived exertion during exercise after 3 days of overload.

Best Way to Treat Overtraining Syndrome

Research learned the best way in treating over-training syndrome is simple if you do the following:

* Rest and Recover. Try to do low levels or stop exercise and allow yourself a few days of rest.

* Hydrate, Drink plenty of fluids and alter your diet if necessary.

* Get a full tissue massage. This may help relax you mentally and physically.

* Begin Cross Training. This often helps athletes who are overworking certain muscles or suffering from mental fatigue.

It takes several weeks and should include proper nutrition and stress reduction to show complete recovery. It's best to identify warning signs, and objectively measure your training routine and make changes before you wind up sick and injured. Changing up your training frequently and schedule in significant rest time is the best preventative method.

Overtraining Is a Serious Problem

We have all done it at least once and have paid for it. If you engage in excessive high intensity interval training (HIIT) and diminished rest periods you may have feelings of constant tiredness, reduced performance, neural and hormonal changes, moody and frequent poor health.

Neuroendocrine Disorder

Overtraining syndrome frequently occurs in athletes who are training for a specific event or a competition and train beyond the body's ability to recover. It's a neuroendocrine disorder (meaning it affects nerves and hormones). This has sometimes previously been termed 'burnout' and 'staleness'.

Athletes often exercise harder and longer so they can improve. But without adequate rest and recovery, these training regimens can actually decrease performance. Proper conditioning requires a balance between overload and recovery. Too much overload combined with too little recovery may result in both physical and psychology symptoms of overtraining syndrome.

Symptoms of Over-training:

* Fatigue

* Decreased appetite

* Washed-out feeling, tired, drained, lack of energy

* Sudden drop in performance

* Pain in muscles and joints

* Insomnia

* Headaches

* Decreased immunity (increased number of colds, and sore throats)

* Decrease in training capacity / intensity

* Moodiness and irritability

* Depression

* Mild leg soreness, general aches and pains

* Increased incidence of injuries.

* Loss of enthusiasm for the sport

Continued investigations may find the following:

* Hormonal changes

* Hematological changes (blood content)

* Neuroendocrine changes (elevated plasma noradrenalin and decreased excretion)

* Changes in the blood lactate threshold and concentration at a given exercise intensity

Several Ways to Recognize Overtraining Syndrome

Certified personal trainers know there are several ways to recognize overtraining syndrome. One test is by documenting your heart rates over time. Track your aerobic heart rate at a specific exercise intensities and speed throughout your training and write it down. If your pace starts to slow, your resting heart rate increases and you experience other symptoms, you may heading into overtraining syndrome. You can also track your resting heart rate each morning. Any marked increase from the norm may indicate that you aren't fully recovered.

Orthostatic Heart Rate Test

The second option is the orthostatic heart rate test, developed by Heikki Rusko while working with cross country skiers. In obtaining this measurement you need to do the following:

* Lay flat and rest comfortably for 10 minutes the same time each day (morning is best).

* At the end of 10 minutes, record your heart rate in beats per minute.

* Then stand up.

* After 15 seconds, take a second heart rate in beats per minute.

* After 90 seconds, take a third heart rate in beats per minute.

* After 120 seconds, take a fourth heart rate in beats per minute.

Rested athletes will show a consistent heart rate between measurements, but Rusko found that a marked increase (10 beats/minutes or more) in the 120 second-post-standing measurement of athletes on the verge of over-training. Changes like this may indicate that you have not recovered from a previous workout, are fatigued and stressed. Is best to reduce training or rest another day before performing another workout. It's important to listen to your body signals and rest when you feel tired. Making the habit of noting your activity within a training log will help you track downward trends.

Most Accurate Method for Testing

The most accurate method for testing for over-training and sensitive measurements are psychological signs, symptoms and changes in an athlete's mental condition. Decreased positive feelings for sports and increased negative feelings, such as depression, anger, fatigue, and irritability often appears after days of intensive over-training. Studies have found increased ratings of perceived exertion during exercise after 3 days of overload.

Best Way to Treat Overtraining Syndrome

Research learned the best way in treating over-training syndrome is simple if you do the following:

* Rest and Recover. Try to do low levels or stop exercise and allow yourself a few days of rest.

* Hydrate, Drink plenty of fluids and alter your diet if necessary.

* Get a full tissue massage. This may help relax you mentally and physically.

* Begin Cross Training. This often helps athletes who are overworking certain muscles or suffering from mental fatigue.

It takes several weeks and should include proper nutrition and stress reduction to show complete recovery. It's best to identify warning signs, and objectively measure your training routine and make changes before you wind up sick and injured. Changing up your training frequently and schedule in significant rest time is the best preventative method.

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We have all done it at least once and have paid for it. If you engage in excessive high intensity interval training (HIIT) and diminished rest periods you may have feelings of constant tiredness, reduced performance, neural and hormonal changes, moody and frequent poor health.