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As a future instructional coach, it is my responsibility to collaborate and serve all educators and students on my campus. While students with disabilities receive services through special education, it is the role of the teacher to educate them. As an IC, it is essential to comprehend all the aspects of an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). By understanding the components, we are able to provide support to the teachers to meet the students with disabilities at their level through accommodations set in place by their IEP.

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The interview I conducted was with Elise Merz, the Special Populations Counselor at Grape Creek ISD. Mrs. Merz stated the most important aspect of IEPs is that they allow a student to graduate or move on from a grade to grade without mastering all the standards required by the state.  IEPs create an experience that is more learner-centered to focus on their abilities and provide opportunities for students to excel in areas that they are capable of doing. Issues that arise for IEPs are in consideration with state administered assessments and the laws that change pertaining to accommodations. An ARD committee must be aware of what options are available for each specific student that meet each specific need. Best practices when utilizing IEPs are to actively monitor the student's progress ad check in to collect data that facilitates the implementation of the ARD committee decision, know your students' strengths and weaknesses when creating the IEP, and communicate effectively with everyone that interacts with the student.

Lovett, J. (2019, July 12). Discussion Pertaining to IEPs with Elise Merz [Personal interview].

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Special Populations - District Departments - Grape Creek ISD

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The National Association of Special Education Teachers (NASET) provides multiple resources on their website to cater to a variety of areas. They include a section solely on IEP development concerning long-term goals, as well as short term and behavioral objectives. To me, the best aspect is the description discussing the steps to consider when creating an IEP based curriculum.

National Association of Special Education Teachers. (2008, September 08). NASET.org IEP Development. Retrieved July 17, 2019, from https://www.naset.org/index.php?id=2445

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Using the IEP Goals and Objectives to Help You Develop an Entire Curriculum or an Individual IEP

provides an extensive database of material to develop an entire IEP Goals and Objectives or an individual IEP [Individual Education Program] to all it's members, free of charge. The IEP Goals and Objectives is an excellent tool for creating IEPs and curricula. It consists of the following components:

12 Subject Areas for Long Term or Annual Goals

Short Term Behavioral Objectives listed under the 12 Annual Goal areas

4,830 Short Term Behavioral Objectives spread over the 105 Short Term Objectives

2,719 Suggested Activities for achieving the objectives.

Answers for two critical questions are provided:

1.) What do I teach in the form of Objectives

2.) How do I teach it, in the form of Activities?

The IEP Goals and Objectives presented by NASET is based on a three level program:

Level I - Subject Areas (Long Term Objectives): Here you will find 12 different Subject or Long Term Goal Areas which encompass the majority of subjects encountered by most children with special needs.

Level II - Short Term Objectives: Here you will find numerous specific Short Term Objectives or specific skills listed under each Subject Area. The Short Term Objectives listed constitute the majority of those required in the education of children with special needs.

Level III - Behavioral Objectives: Here you will find over 4,000 specific objectives associated with the specific goals listed in the Subject Area and Short Term Objectives.
When you're ready to develop a curriculum, or IEP, consider this sequence of events:

Step I - Identify the specific Subject Area(s) listed in the IEP Goals and Objectives you will need to use to develop objectives in which the student may need remediation or assistance. There are 12 separate Subject Area categories.

Step II - After choosing a specific Subject Area i.e. Reading you should then go to a list of Short Term Objectives for that Subject Area i.e. reading comprehension. Each Subject Area has numerous Short Term Objectives which cover the most important skills in that particular Subject Area.

Step III - When you have chosen the specific Short Term Objective, review it and then go to a list of Behavioral Objectives that can be used to write IEP's or develop a curriculum for a specific student. Keep in mind that the Behavioral Objectives (listed in terms of skills, abilities, and knowledge) are what a student will need in order to realize his/her major life goals, expressed as exit or transition outcomes. You'll notice that the IEP Goals and Objectives objectives always begin with a present tense verb: Writes... Reads... Spells... Tells ... Etc.

Step IV - You will only need to, if required, include a Mastery Level i.e. 80% accuracy rate or 8 out of 10 correct etc. for each objective.

Members Login to access the Long Term Goals, Short Term Objectives and Behavioral Objectives portion of The IEP Goals and Objectives or the downloadable PDF file version. Table of Contents

Using the IEP Goals and Objectives Suggested Activities to Help You Design Remediation and Curriculum

Now that you have created your IEP goals and objectives or curriculum goals and objectives, you will need to decide on the specific activities that you will use to carry out your educational plan.

There is nothing automatic about the IEP Goals and Objectives Suggested Activities selection process. The IEP Goals and Objectives does not provide the ability to match activities to a specific Behavioral Objective. What it does provide are hundreds of suggested activities for a specific Subject Area i.e. Reading. Therefore, human skill is required to assign the most appropriate objectives and match activities to objectives. A suggested process follows:

Step I - From the hundreds of activities provided under each Subject Area, choose activities that you feel are likely to assist the student in achieving the Behavioral Objectives listed on his/her IEP or curriculum plan.

Step II - Select materials, methods, and other activities that are not listed in the Activities Files. Examples: Textbooks are considered materials, games are activities, and such things as token reinforcement are methods.

Step III - Use the materials, methods, and other activities that you feel are most likely to assist this student in achieve the selected Behavioral Objectives.

NASET Members - Login to access the online version or the downloadable PDF file version of the Suggested Activities part of The IEP Goals and Objectives

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National Association of Special Education Teachers: IEP Development

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Using the IEP Goals and Objectives to Help You Develop an Entire Curriculum or an Individual IEP provides an extensive database of material to develop an entire IEP Goals and Objectives or an individual IEP [Individual Education Program] to all it's members, free of charge.

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Corey Mitchell discusses the reality of general education teachers and their inexperience and unprepared training to support students with disabilities (2019).

· He conducted a survey that identified 30% of general education teachers feel "strongly" about being successful teaching students with disabilities (para. 2).

· One-third of the teachers reported their lack of attendance in professional developments specifying in students with disabilities in the classroom.

· The survey conveys that the teachers feel unprepared to supporting special needs students due to a lack of prep stemming from college degree plans.

· The survey identified that special education and general education teachers view IEPs significantly different. While the special education teacher admires the support and IEP provides, general education teachers view it as paperwork (Mitchell, 2019).

Mitchell, C. (2019, May 29). Most Classroom Teachers Feel Unprepared to Support Students With Disabilities. Retrieved July 19, 2019, from https://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/speced/2019/05/teachers_feel_unprepared_to_teach_students_with_disabilities.html

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Less than 1 in 5 general education teachers feel "very well prepared" to teach students with mild to moderate learning disabilities, including ADHD and dyslexia, according to a new survey from two national advocacy groups.

The survey found that only 30 percent of general education teachers feel "strongly" that they can successfully teach students with learning disabilities-and only 50 percent believe those students can reach grade-level standards.

Overall, the findings depict a teaching corps that considers itself ill-equipped to meet the needs of millions of children with disabilities in the nation's public K-12 schools and clings to misconceptions about student learning and attention issues.

In compiling their report, the two groups-National Center for Learning Disabilities and Understood.org-surveyed a nationally representative sample of 1,350 teachers; convened teacher focus groups in California, Ohio, and North Carolina; researched teacher certification requirements in all 50 states; and distilled the findings from 150 academic articles to learn more about effective teaching methods for students with disabilities.

At least one-third of the respondents reported that they have not participated in professional development on serving the students with disabilities in their classrooms. ( Education Week wrote about how many teachers lack training in how to meet the needs students with disabilities for a special report on blind spots in professional development.)

In one of the more surprising findings, a quarter of the survey respondents indicated that they believe ADD/ADHD diagnoses result from poor parenting, evidence that "some teachers express beliefs suggesting they are unaware of scientific findings showing that learning disabilities and ADHD are based on differences in brain structure and function."

Overall, the survey respondents indicated the problems begin in teacher preparation programs, well before education students lead a classroom: Many teachers reported they were not required to take courses in working with students with disabilities or found that the courses they did take left them unprepared to work with all students. The work also details how states' policies for educator certification have set a "low bar" for preparing general educators to teach students with disabilities. According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities research, fewer than 10 states have specific coursework requirements for teaching students with mild to moderate learning disabilities

"In effect, almost every state has failed to bring their licensure or certification standards in line with our new reality: Every general education teacher will surely have students with these high-incidence disabilities in their classroom," the report finds.

The report's definition of mild to moderate learning disabilities includes: dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, ADD, ADHD, processing disorders, or other language-based learning disabilities. The definition does not include students with autism spectrum disorders, oppositional defiant disorders, or unrelated emotional issues.

In an attempt to address some of the concerns general education teachers have, the report authors outline steps that teachers, school leaders, district leaders, families, and policymakers can take to improve education for students with learning disabilities and a glossary to help readers understand key terms. The recommendations include creating more time for collaboration among teachers and education specialists, focusing on family engagement, advocating for dual certifications in general education and special education, and prioritizing professional development opportunities for teachers and principals. The report also identifies eight key practices, including targeted instruction and universal design for learning, that educators can use in classrooms to boost the achievement of all students.
Differing Opinions on IEPs
The findings square with the conclusions of a survey released by the Council for Exceptional Children earlier this year. That survey found that special education teachers are concerned about the ability of general education teachers and supervisors to work with students who have disabilities.

Of the special education teachers who participated in the Council for Exceptional Children's survey, fewer than 15 percent thought their general education colleagues were highly prepared to work with students with disabilities.

Both sets of teachers felt they weren't given ample time to plan with peers and had questions about their ability to co-teach with colleagues.

The two surveys do highlight a key difference in how special education and general education teachers view IEPs: the special education teachers see the individualized education plans as essential documents that play a large role in determining student and teacher success; their general education colleagues are more likely view IEPs as mere paperwork.

Of the general education teachers who participated in the National Center for Learning Disabilities and Understood survey, just 56 percent of teachers believed IEPs provide value to students, and just 38 percent believe IEPs improve their teaching.

"Focus groups and teachers surveyed both point to the challenges of remembering accommodations for each child and to the perception that IEPs and 504 plans often include accommodations or services that are not necessary," the report found.

That clashes with the findings from the Council for Exceptional Children survey, where respondents indicated that having adequate resources to meet student IEP requirements and the support of administrators during the IEP process were among the top three things that special education teachers need to be successful.

While general education teachers were pessimistic about their ability to work with students with disabilities, many of the survey respondents expressed an interest in learning how to better support them.

"When teachers felt negatively about inclusion, the feelings were driven by concerns and frustrations about their own ability to meet the students' needs," the report concludes.

Here's a look at the National Center for Learning Disabilities and Understood.org report:

Forward Together NCLD Report by corey_c_mitchell on Scribd
Related Reading Overlooked: How Teacher Training Falls Short for English-Learners and Students With IEPs Special Education a Growing Priority in Teacher Training Circles What it Takes to Make Co-Teaching Work Survey Offers Front-Line View Into Special Education Image Credit: National Center for Learning Disabilities

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Most Classroom Teachers Feel Unprepared to Support Students With Disabilities

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A survey from the National Center for Learning Disabilities and Understood.org finds a teaching corps that lacks confidence in their ability to meet the needs of millions of children with disabilities in the nation's public K-12 schools, but wants the training, support, and guidance to improve.

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Thrive Public Schools are charter campuses located in California. Their student population primarily derives from various socioeconomic backgrounds comprised of multiple racial or ethnic groups, as well as academic levels (Vernon, 2019).

· 20% of their student population has an IEP or 504 plan. Their needs vary from multiple disabilities, such as emotion disturbance to speech to autism.

· As the years have gone by, Thrive students with disabilities have had stable growth academically, with their NWEA MAP growth skills similar to mainstream public schools (para. 6).

· Thrive utilizes a full-inclusion model, along with personalized learning, to support all students in the same learning environment, no matter their disability.

· Many educators share responsibility by teaching and planning together to support their students.

· They implemented project-based learning that involved the students in real-world challenges by initiating skills that are required for success in college or the professional world (Vernon, 2019).

Vernon, S. (2019, February 19). Education Strategies to Support Special Education Students. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from https://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/next_gen_learning/2019/02/thrive_serves_all_students.html

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Education Week - Next Gen Learning in Action

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Thrive Public Schools is located in two of San Diego's most distressed neighborhoods, and our kids come from 45 zip codes. They represent nearly every racial and ethnic subgroup and a wide range of socioeconomic backgrounds. This was intentional.

When we opened our doors in the fall of 2014, we knew that we wanted to be a school of bridge builders and we set out to mirror the diversity found in our state. We wanted to bring together people of diverse backgrounds and cultures to learn and live together. What we didn't know is that in this work, one of the most important bridges we'd be building would be between typical and developmentally diverse thinkers.

That first year, Thrive had two students with IEPs, making up 4 percent of our student body. Now that number is 20 percent: 1 in 5 of our students has an IEP or 504 Plan. Even among these students, there's great diversity of needs across a broad band of unique neurological profiles:

Autism Spectrum Disorder (19%)

Intellectual Disability (4%)

Orthopedic Impairment (2%)

Other Health Impairment (21%)

Specific Learning Disability (35%)

Emotional Disturbance (3%)

Deaf and Hard of Hearing (1%) and

Speech and Language Impairment (15%).

Additionally, 15 percent of these kids have a moderate to severe disability and receive one-on-one behavior support.

In a time when charter schools are being accused of cherry-picking students to inflate their state test scores, Thrive stands out as anomalous. Our special education (SPED)/504 demographic doesn't mirror that of the state. It nearly doubles it. (The state has 11 percent students with disabilities. Our local district, SDUSD, has 13 percent.)

Despite their complex learning needs, Thrive students with disabilities are making steady academic gains. Over the past three years, the number of Thrive students with disabilities meeting NWEA MAP growth targets has increased by 7.6 percent in math and 19.1 percent in reading. Additionally, last year we saw a 12.5 percent increase in the number of students with disabilities on track to read college-level texts. (That is, their Lexile scores fall within the college-ready text bands.)

Our 2018 statewide test results are on par with neighborhood schools serving a similar percentage of students with disabilities. In fact, Thrive outperforms all of these schools in ELA and all but one in math on the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP).

*Thrive currently has no HS CAASPP test-takers, so we are focusing on schools that have comparable state data.
2018 Schoolwide CAASPP Meets/Exceeds Standards
Using a full-inclusion model that emphasizes personalized learning, we are able to teach all of our students-no matter what their needs are-in the same environment. Students with special needs are not separated from their peers for general education, and their supplemental services are tailored to meet their needs. Taking this strategy one step further, several of our special education teachers often co-plan/co-teach alongside general education teachers, sharing responsibility for all students. This year, we've also brought on several in-house service providers, including a school psychologist, a mental-health counselor, an occupational therapist, and two speech pathologists to support our teachers and students in ensuring that all students can truly access the core curriculum. The Center on Reinventing Public Education highlighted all of these practices in its case study on how Thrive uses personalized learning to meet the needs of students with disabilities.

Another key practice that we employ is project-based learning, which allows students to engage in real-world challenges and learn skills like critical thinking and problem-solving-practical skills that are required for success in college and in the professional world. Getting Smart, whose team visited Thrive, conducted a case study on our work and named us one of the nation's 101 top school and charter networks, describing how personalized learning "is igniting enthusiasm starting in kindergarten, where Thrive's youngest students are collaborating on intellectually challenging problems-and they're seeing real-world impact. As students advance, project-based learning naturally builds with greater complexity and autonomy."

Equally important as validation from the education community is knowing that the families we serve are experiencing new successes with their children. Mark, a Thrive parent, says about his son, "I've been so impressed with how everyone has worked so hard to adapt to his unique needs and strengths. Most importantly, I've seen more social-emotional progress in four months than the previous five years in other schools, thanks to Thrive's commitment to grounding learning in inclusion and diversity."

Mark's experience is not unique at Thrive. Daniela, a Thrive mother adds, "The faculty and staff have made such a difference in my child's life. She is more verbal and will actually go up to another child and say hello. It may seem small to others, but this is huge for her. ... We have noticed that she is more patient and able to take direction more easily. This is not only important to her school environment but has spilled over into the home and in the community environment, which makes going out and doing everyday things much easier and less stressful on all of us. I don't think we could have gotten here this fast without Thrive and the school's curriculum, teamwork, and inclusion."

There is no doubt that serving students with disabilities can be incredibly challenging. I'm the first to admit there is still plenty of opportunity for growth. But I'm proud to be part of a team that embraces, rather than avoids, this challenge. Our students' academic progress reflects that commitment.
Photo: Thrive parent Daniela with her daughter, who is fully included in elementary school at Thrive. (Courtesy of Thrive Public Schools)

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Education Strategies to Support Special Education Students

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Thrive Public Schools is located in two of San Diego's most distressed neighborhoods, and our kids come from 45 zip codes. They represent nearly every racial and ethnic subgroup and a wide range of socioeconomic backgrounds. This was intentional.

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Although the 14th amendment of the U.S. Constitution does not explicitly discuss education; it states that no state is capable of depriving anyone protection of the laws. The opens interpretation that a state cannot deny an education to anyone, no matter their race, gender, or disability. The Texas Education Agency has state regulated laws pertaining to special education that are not required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act or other Federal regulations located in §89 of the Commissioner’s Rules. Some examples pertain to age ranges for student eligibility and transfer of assistive technology devices.

U.S. Const. amend. XIV. (1868).

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Bill of Rights & All Amendments

A highly accessible, easy-to-use online version full-text transcript of the US Constitution including Bill of Rights and 27 Amendments.

This text of the US Constitution follows the engrossed copy signed by Gen. Washington and the deputies from 12 States.

The Preamble to the US Constitution

The preamble to the US Constitution starts off with the famous words "We the People."

Find out exactly why these words We the People were used in the Constitution and what their significance is.

We the People

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Article I (Article 1 - Legislative)
Article 1 of the Constitution Summary and Simplified Explanation
Article 1, Section 1

All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Article 1, Section 2

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.

2. No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

3. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

4. When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

5. The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

NOTE: The part of Article 1 Section 2 Clause 3 relating to the mode of apportionment of representatives among the several States has been affected by 14th Amendment Section 2, and as to taxes on incomes without apportionment by 16th Amendment.

Article 1, Section 3

1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.

3. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

4. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

5. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.

6. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

7. Judgment in Cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

NOTE: Article 1 Section 3 Clause 1 has been affected by 17th Amendment Section 1.

NOTE: Article 1 Section 3 Clause 2 has been affected by 17th Amendment Section 2.

Article 1, Section 4

1. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

NOTE: Article 1 Section 4 Clause 2 has been affected by 20th Amendment.

Article 1, Section 5

1. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

2. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member.

3. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

4. Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Article 1, Section 6

1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

NOTE: Article 1 Section 6 Clause 1 has been affected by 27th Amendment.

Article 1, Section 7

Article 1, Section 8

1. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

2. To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

3. To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

4. To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

5. To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;

6. To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;

7. To establish Post Offices and post Roads;

8. To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

9. To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

10. To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;

11. To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

12. To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

13. To provide and maintain a Navy;

14. To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

15. To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

17. To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;-And

18. To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Article 1, Section 9

1. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

2. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

3. No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

4. No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

5. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

6. No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

7. No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

8. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.

NOTE: Article 1 Section 9 Clause 4 has been affected by 26th Amendment.

Article 1, Section 10

Article II (Article 2 - Executive)
Article 2 of the Constitution Summary and Simplified Explanation
Article 2, Section 1

1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows

2. Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

3. The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.

4. The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.

5. No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

6. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the VicePresident, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

7. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

8. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:-"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

NOTE: Article 2 Section 1 Clause 3 has been superseded by the 12th Amendment.

NOTE: Article 2 Section 1 Clause 6 has been affected by 20th Amendment and 25th Amendment.

Article 2, Section 2

Article 2, Section 3

He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Article 2, Section 4

The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

Article III (Article 3 - Judicial)
Article 3 of the Constitution Summary and Simplified Explanation
Article 3, Section 1

The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Article 3, Section 2

NOTE: Article 3 Section 2 Clause 1 has been affected by the 11th Amendment.

Article 3, Section 3

1. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.

2. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

Article IV (Article 4 - States' Relations)
Article 4 of the Constitution Summary and Simplified Explanation
Article 4, Section 1

Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

Article 4, Section 2

NOTE: Article 4 Section 2 Clause 3 has been affected by 13th Amendment Section 1.

Article 4, Section 3

1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

2. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Article 4, Section 4

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.

Article V (Article 5 - Mode of Amendment)
Article 5 of the Constitution Summary and Simplified Explanation
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

Article VI (Article 6 - Prior Debts, National Supremacy, Oaths of Office)
Article 6 of the Constitution Summary and Simplified Explanation
Article VII (Article 7 - Ratification)
Article 7 of the Constitution Summary and Simplified Explanation
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.

The Word "the", being interlined between the seventh and eight Lines of the first Page, The Word "Thirty" being partly written on an Erazure in the fifteenth Line of the first Page. The Words "is tried" being interlined between the thirty second and thirty third Lines of the first Page and the Word "the" being interlined between the forty third and forty fourth Lines of the second Page.

done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names,

Attest William Jackson Secretary

Go: Washington -Presidt. and deputy from Virginia

Delaware

Geo: Read
Gunning Bedford jun
John Dickinson
Richard Bassett
Jaco: Broom

Virginia

John Blair-
James Madison Jr.

South Carolina

J. Rutledge
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
Charles Pinckney
Pierce Butler.

New Hampshire

John Langdon
Nicholas Gilman

Connecticut

Wm. Saml. Johnson
Roger Sherman

New Jersey

Wil. Livingston
David Brearley.
Wm. Paterson.
Jona: Dayton

Maryland

James McHenry
Dan of St Thos. Jenifer
Danl Carroll.

North Carolina

Wm Blount
Richd. Dobbs Spaight.
Hu Williamson

Georgia

William Few
Abr Baldwin

Massachusetts

Nathaniel Gorham
Rufus King

New York
Alexander Hamilton
Pennsylvania

B Franklin
Thomas Mifflin
Robt Morris
Geo. Clymer
Thos. FitzSimons
Jared Ingersoll
James Wilson.
Gouv Morris

Letter of Transmittal

In Convention. Monday September 17th 1787.
Present
The States of

New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Mr. Hamilton from New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

Resolved, That the preceeding Constitution be laid before the United States in Congress assembled, and that it is the Opinion of this Convention, that it should afterwards be submitted to a Convention of Delegates, chosen in each State by the People thereof, under the Recommendation of its Legislature, for their Assent and Ratification; and that each Convention assenting to, and ratifying the Same, should give Notice thereof to the United States in Congress assembled. Resolved, That it is the Opinion of this Convention, that as soon as the Conventions of nine States shall have ratified this Constitution, the United States in Congress assembled should fix a Day on which Electors should be appointed by the States which shall have ratified the same, and a Day on which the Electors should assemble to vote for the President, and the Time and Place for commencing Proceedings under this Constitution.

That after such Publication the Electors should be appointed, and the Senators and Representatives elected: That the Electors should meet on the Day fixed for the Election of the President, and should transmit their Votes certified, signed, sealed and directed, as the Constitution requires, to the Secretary of the United States in Congress assembled, that the Senators and Representatives should convene at the Time and Place assigned; that the Senators should appoint a President of the Senate, for the sole Purpose of receiving, opening and counting the Votes for President; and, that after he shall be chosen, the Congress, together with the President, should, without Delay, proceed to execute this Constitution.

By the unanimous Order of the Convention

W. Jackson Secretary.

Go: Washington -Presidt.

Letter of Transmittal to the President of Congress

In Convention. Monday September 17th 1787.

SIR:

We have now the honor to submit to the consideration of the United States in Congress assembled, that Constitution which has appeared to us the most advisable.

The friends of our country have long seen and desired that the power of making war, peace, and treaties, that of levying money, and regulating commerce, and the correspondent executive and judicial authorities, should be fully and effectually vested in the General Government of the Union; but the impropriety of delegating such extensive trust to one body of men is evident: hence results the necessity of a different organization.

It is obviously impracticable in the Federal Government of these States to secure all rights of independent sovereignty to each, and yet provide for the interest and safety of all. Individuals entering into society must give up a share of liberty to preserve the rest. The magnitude of the sacrifice must depend as well on situation and circumstance, as on the object to be obtained. It is at all times difficult to draw with precision the line between those rights which must be surrendered, and those which may be preserved; and, on the present occasion, this difficulty was increased by a difference among the several States as to their situation, extent, habits, and particular interests.

In all our deliberations on this subject, we kept steadily in our view that which appears to us the greatest interest of every true American, the consolidation of our Union, in which is involved our prosperity, felicity, safety-perhaps our national existence. This important consideration, seriously and deeply impressed on our minds, led each State in the Convention to be less rigid on points of inferior magnitude than might have been otherwise expected; and thus, the Constitution which we now present is the result of a spirit of amity, and of that mutual deference and concession, which the peculiarity of our political situation rendered indispensable.

That it will meet the full and entire approbation of every State is not, perhaps, to be expected; but each will, doubtless, consider, that had her interest alone been consulted, the consequences might have been particularly disagreeable or injurious to others; that it is liable to as few exceptions as could reasonably have been expected, we hope and believe; that it may promote the lasting welfare of that Country so dear to us all, and secure her freedom and happiness, is our most ardent wish.

With great respect,
we have the honor to be,
SIR,
your excellency's most obedient and humble servants:
GEORGE WASHINGTON, President.
By the unanimous order of the convention.

His Excellency
the President of Congress.

Congress OF THE United States​

begun and held at the City of New-York, on Wednesday the fourth of March, one thousand seven hundred and eighty nine.
THE Conventions of a number of the States, having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added: And as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government, will best ensure the beneficent ends of its institution.

RESOLVED by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, two thirds of both Houses concurring, that the following Articles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several States, as amendments to the Constitution of the United States, all, or any of which Articles, when ratified by three fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of the said Constitution; viz.

ARTICLES in addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth Article of the original Constitution.

NOTE: The first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States are known as the Bill of Rights

Article the first. .... After the first enumeration required by the first Article of the Constitution, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred, after which, the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall be not less than one hundred Representatives, nor less than one Representative for every forty thousand persons, until the number of Representatives shall amount to two hundred, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall not be less than two hundred Representatives, nor more than one Representative for every fifty thousand persons.

Article the second. .... No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened. see Amendment XXVII

NOTE: The Bill of Rights only had ten of the twelve articles ratified and these were then renumbered. Of the others, only the 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th articles of amendment had numbers assigned to them at the time of ratification.

Amendment I (First Amendment - Freedom of expression and religion)

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment II (2nd Amendment - Bearing Arms)

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

Amendment III (3rd Amendment - Quartering Soldiers)

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment IV (4th Amendment - Search and Seizure)

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment V (5th Amendment - Rights of Persons)

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Amendment VI (6th Amendment - Rights of Accused in Criminal Prosecutions)

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

Amendment VII (7th Amendment - Civil Trials)

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Amendment VIII (8th Amendment - Further Guarantees in Criminal Cases)

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment IX (9th Amendment - Unenumerated Rights)

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Amendment X (10th Amendment - Reserved Powers)

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

Attest,
John Beckley, Clerk of the House of Representatives.
Sam. A. Otis Secretary of the Senate.

Frederick Augustus Muhlenberg Speaker of the House of Representatives.
John Adams, Vice-President of the United States, and President of the Senate.

(end of the Bill of Rights)

Amendment XI (11th Amendment - Suits Against States)

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.

Amendment XII (12th Amendment - Election of President)

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;

-The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;

-The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.

NOTE: This sentence of the 12th Amendment has been superseded by 20th Amendment Section 3.

-The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

Amendment XIII (13th Amendment - Slavery and Involuntary Servitude)

Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XIV (14th Amendment - Rights Guaranteed: Privileges and Immunities of Citizenship, Due Process, and Equal Protection)

1: All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

2: Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

3: No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

4: The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

5: The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

Amendment XV (15th Amendment - Rights of Citizens to Vote)

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XVI (16th Amendment - Income Tax)

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

Amendment XVII (17th Amendment - Popular Election of Senators)

1: The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures.

2: When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.

3: This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

Amendment XVIII (18th - Prohibition of Intoxicating Liquors)

1: After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.

2: The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

3: This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

Amendment XIX (19th Amendment - Women's Suffrage Rights)

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XX (20th Amendment - Terms of President, Vice President, Members of Congress: Presidential Vacancy)

1: The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.

2: The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

3: If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.

4: The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

5: Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.

6: This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.

Amendment XXI (21st Amendment - Repeal of 18th Amendment)

1: The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

2: The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

3: This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

Amendment XXII (22nd Amendment - Presidential Tenure)

1: No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.

2: This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states by the Congress.

Amendment XXIII (23rd Amendment- Presidential Electors for the District of Columbia)

1: The District constituting the seat of government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct: A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a state, but in no event more than the least populous state; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the states, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a state; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.

2: The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXIV (24th Amendment - Abolition of the Poll Tax Qualification in Federal Elections)

1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXV (25th Amendment - Presidential Vacancy, Disability, and Inability)

1: In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.

2: Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.

3: Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.

4: Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.

Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.

Amendment XXVI (26th Amendment - Reduction of Voting Age Qualification)

1: The right of citizens of the United States, who are 18 years of age or older, to vote, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of age.

2: The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXVII (27th Amendment - Congressional Pay Limitation)

No law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives shall take effect until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

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View the full United States Constitution, Bill of Rights, and all Amendments online. Additional summaries and explanations.

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Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) was signed into law by President George H.W. Bush. It protects discrimination against people with disabilities, as well as providing opportunities to partake in everyday life, such as employment. ADA defined those to be protected by having a mental or physical disability that hinders theme from at least one major life activity. This supports the topic to support all students with a disability and to verify that their individual needs are being met.

Americans with Disability Act of 1990, Pub. L. 101-336, 101st Cong. (1990).

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This document discusses and explains the requirements of the ADA's integration mandate and the Supreme Court's decision in Olmstead v. L.C. ex rel. Zimring, 527 U.S. 581 (1999), as applied to segregated employment settings and facility-based day programs. In addition, this document provides a link to the Department's Federal Register notice, which provides more information about this guidance.

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Disability rights are civil rights. From voting to parking, the ADA is a law that protects people with disabilities in many areas of public life.

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The updated version of the IDEA (1990) made changes considering the IEP process, due process, and student discipline. Without all the court cases and laws implemented, students would not be provided a FAPE and be included within a general education class. This law supports IEPs by comprehending the necessary actions to making changes to a student’s IEP.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. Pub. L. 108-446, 108th Cong. (2004).

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

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The U.S. Department of Education’s Individuals with Disabilities Education Act website brings together department and grantee IDEA information and resources. The IDEA makes available a free appropriate public education to and ensures special education and related services to eligible children with disabilities.

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A child with autism and ADHD had attended a public school from kindergarten to fourth grade. Endrew’s parents recognized that their son’s IEP goals did not change much between his 4th and 5th grade year and withdrew him from public school to attend a private school that specialized in students with autism. Endrew’s academic and behavior improved tremendously and his parent’s sued Douglas County School District for denying him of FAPE. Judge Roberts that schools must IEPs that give more than de minimis, or minimal, educational assistance. The ruling could have a big effect on school services for kids with learning and attention issues. He wrote that IDEA aims for “grade level advancement for children with disabilities who can be educated in the regular classroom” (para. 3).

Endrew F. v. Douglas County School Dist. RE–1, No. 15-827, 580 U.S. S. Ct. (2017)

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The Supreme Court ruled today that Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) must give kids with disabilities more than a de minimis, or minimal, educational benefit. The ruling could have a big effect on school services for kids with learning and thinking differences.

The case-Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District-involved "Drew," a boy with autism who made almost no progress on his IEP goals. His parents said he was entitled to more under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the nation's special education law. They asked the Court to rule that the boy should have had an "equal opportunity" to achieve success like other kids. The school district, however, argued that the boy only had the right to a de minimis, or minimal, benefit from the IEP. And that's what he received, the school district said.

In a 16-page decision, Chief Justice John G. Roberts, writing for a unanimous court, rejected the school district's de minimis standard. He wrote that IDEA aims for "grade level advancement for children with disabilities who can be educated in the regular classroom." Therefore, a de minimis standard makes no sense:

When all is said and done, a student offered an educational program providing "merely more than de minimis " progress from year to year can hardly be said to have been offered an education at all. For children with disabilities, receiving instruction that aims so low would be tantamount to "sitting idly ... awaiting the time when they were old enough to 'drop out.'"

But Roberts also didn't accept the "equal opportunity" standard that Drew's parents wanted. Instead, he crafted a more flexible standard:

The IDEA demands more. It requires an educational program reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child's circumstances.

This would apply, Roberts wrote, even to kids like Drew who aren't integrated into general education classrooms:

If that is not a reasonable prospect for a child, his IEP need not aim for grade-level advancement. But his educational program must be appropriately ambitious in light of his circumstances, just as advancement from grade to grade is appropriately ambitious for most children in the regular classroom. The goals may differ, but every child should have the chance to meet challenging objectives.

He acknowledged that this was a "general standard, not a formula." A lot will depend, he wrote, on each child's unique needs:

We will not attempt to elaborate on what "appropriate" progress will look like from case to case. It is in the nature of the [special education law] and the standard we adopt to resist such an effort: The adequacy of a given IEP turns on the unique circumstances of the child for whom it was created.

Importantly, Roberts noted, IDEA requires IEPs to be developed with expertise from schools and input from parents. And schools must give "cogent and responsive explanation[s]" for their decisions on services.

Disability advocates applauded the Endrew F. decision. "This is a good day for children with disabilities," said Mimi Corcoran, President and CEO of Understood founding partner the National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD). "The Court affirmed that the vision and intent of IDEA is that children with disabilities will make meaningful progress in our education system and achieve 'appropriately ambitious' objectives. It soundly rejected the belief that just some small benefit is enough. NCLD applauds this decision and will work with parents and educators to make it a reality."

Legal experts caution that it will take time to understand the full implications of the decision for kids with learning and thinking differences. But for Drew's parents, the decision is a welcome sign that their son deserved more.

About the author

About the author

Andrew M.I. Lee, JD is an editor and attorney who strives to help people understand complex legal, education, and parenting issues.

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Endrew F. Case Decided: Supreme Court Rules on IEP Benefit

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The Supreme Court ruled today that Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) must give kids with disabilities more than a de minimis, or minimal, educational benefit. The ruling could have a big effect on school services for kids with learning and thinking differences. The case-Endrew F. v.

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The San Angelo ISD Student-Parent Handbook (2018) discusses briefly the services they provide for students with disabilities. Eligibility of students are based off of a comprehensive assessment, and IEPs are created by school personnel and parents to support the child's needs (p. 29). This policy confirms that IEPs are created and implemented to aide students from a variety of disabilities.

San Angelo ISD Board of Trustees. (2018, August). San Angelo ISD Student-Parent Handbook. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from https://www.saisd.org/docs/student_services/2018-2019 STUDENT PARENT HANDBOOK.pdf

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T.A.C. §247.2(3)(D) states that no educator shall exclude a student from participation, deny benefits, or provide advantages to students based on a variety of reasons, including disability (1998). Students with disabilities have the same rights as other students and should not be neglected or given extra support not provided through their IEPs.

Tex. Admin. Code §247.2(3)(D) (1998).

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Enforceable Standards.
(1) Professional Ethical Conduct, Practices and Performance. (A) Standard 1.1. The educator shall not intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly engage in deceptive practices regarding official policies of the school district, educational institution, educator preparation program, the Texas Education Agency, or the State Board for Educator Certification (SBEC) and its certification process. (B) Standard 1.2. The educator shall not intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly misappropriate, divert, or use monies, personnel, property, or equipment committed to his or her charge for personal gain or advantage. (C) Standard 1.3. The educator shall not submit fraudulent requests for reimbursement, expenses, or pay. (D) Standard 1.4. The educator shall not use institutional or professional privileges for personal or partisan advantage. (E) Standard 1.5. The educator shall neither accept nor offer gratuities, gifts, or favors that impair professional judgment or that are used to obtain special advantage. This standard shall not restrict the acceptance of gifts or tokens offered and accepted openly from students, parents of students, or other persons or organizations in recognition or appreciation of service. (F) Standard 1.6. The educator shall not falsify records, or direct or coerce others to do so. (G) Standard 1.7. The educator shall comply with state regulations, written local school board policies, and other state and federal laws. (H) Standard 1.8. The educator shall apply for, accept, offer, or assign a position or a responsibility on the basis of professional qualifications. (I) Standard 1.9. The educator shall not make threats of violence against school district employees, school board members, students, or parents of students. (J) Standard 1.10. The educator shall be of good moral character and be worthy to instruct or supervise the youth of this state. (K) Standard 1.11. The educator shall not intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly misrepresent his or her employment history, criminal history, and/or disciplinary record when applying for subsequent employment. (L) Standard 1.12. The educator shall refrain from the illegal use, abuse, or distribution of controlled substances, prescription drugs, and toxic inhalants. (M) Standard 1.13. The educator shall not be under the influence of alcohol or consume alcoholic beverages on school property or during school activities when students are present. (2) Ethical Conduct Toward Professional Colleagues. (A) Standard 2.1. The educator shall not reveal confidential health or personnel information concerning colleagues unless disclosure serves lawful professional purposes or is required by law. (B) Standard 2.2. The educator shall not harm others by knowingly making false statements about a colleague or the school system. (C) Standard 2.3. The educator shall adhere to written local school board policies and state and federal laws regarding the hiring, evaluation, and dismissal of personnel. (D) Standard 2.4. The educator shall not interfere with a colleague's exercise of political, professional, or citizenship rights and responsibilities. (E) Standard 2.5. The educator shall not discriminate against or coerce a colleague on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, age, gender, disability, family status, or sexual orientation. (F) Standard 2.6. The educator shall not use coercive means or promise of special treatment in order to influence professional decisions or colleagues. (G) Standard 2.7. The educator shall not retaliate against any individual who has filed a complaint with the SBEC or who provides information for a disciplinary investigation or proceeding under this chapter. (H) Standard 2.8. The educator shall not intentionally or knowingly subject a colleague to sexual harassment. (3) Ethical Conduct Toward Students. (A) Standard 3.1. The educator shall not reveal confidential information concerning students unless disclosure serves lawful professional purposes or is required by law. (B) Standard 3.2. The educator shall not intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly treat a student or minor in a manner that adversely affects or endangers the learning, physical health, mental health, or safety of the student or minor. (C) Standard 3.3. The educator shall not intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly misrepresent facts regarding a student. (D) Standard 3.4. The educator shall not exclude a student from participation in a program, deny benefits to a student, or grant an advantage to a student on the basis of race, color, gender, disability, national origin, religion, family status, or sexual orientation. (E) Standard 3.5. The educator shall not intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly engage in physical mistreatment, neglect, or abuse of a student or minor. (F) Standard 3.6. The educator shall not solicit or engage in sexual conduct or a romantic relationship with a student or minor. (G) Standard 3.7. The educator shall not furnish alcohol or illegal/unauthorized drugs to any person under 21 years of age unless the educator is a parent or guardian of that child or knowingly allow any person under 21 years of age unless the educator is a parent or guardian of that child to consume alcohol or illegal/unauthorized drugs in the presence of the educator. (H) Standard 3.8. The educator shall maintain appropriate professional educator-student relationships and boundaries based on a reasonably prudent educator standard. (I) Standard 3.9. The educator shall refrain from inappropriate communication with a student or minor, including, but not limited to, electronic communication such as cell phone, text messaging, email, instant messaging, blogging, or other social network communication. Factors that may be considered in assessing whether the communication is inappropriate include, but are not limited to: (i) the nature, purpose, timing, and amount of the communication; (ii) the subject matter of the communication; (iii) whether the communication was made openly, or the educator attempted to conceal the communication; (iv) whether the communication could be reasonably interpreted as soliciting sexual contact or a romantic relationship; (v) whether the communication was sexually explicit; and (vi) whether the communication involved discussion(s) of the physical or sexual attractiveness or the sexual history, activities, preferences, or fantasies of either the educator or the student.

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The IEP from A to Z (Twachtman-Cullen & Twachtman-Bassett) covers how to effectively create goals and objectives for students with disabilities (2011). An essential aspect is identifying their needs and implementing goals that meaningful for support, as well as measurable to signify growth. This book divides its content into the elements of IEPs and how to implement IEPs into practice.

Twachtman-Cullen, D., & Twachtman-Bassett, J. (2011). The IEP from A to Z: How to create meaningful and measurable goals and objectives. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Publications - Council for Exceptional Children

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With the skyrocketing diagnoses of ADHD, autism spectrum disorders and related conditions in U.S. schools, there is a growing need for information on creating effective IEPs for exceptional students. The IEP from A to Z: How to Create Meaningful and Measurable Goals and Objectives is a step-by-step guide showing teachers and parents how to get the right education plan in place for students with ADHD, Autism/Asperger's, Emotional/Behavioral Disturbance and related conditions. From nationally recognized experts in the special education field, this book guides readers through the process of writing thoughtful, intelligent Individualized Education Programs that deliver high-quality, need-based educational programming to exceptional students.
By Diane Twachtman-Cullen and Jennifer Twachtman-Bassett. 2011. 224 pages. ISBN 978-0-47056-234-5.

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With the skyrocketing diagnoses of ADHD, autism spectrum disorders and related conditions in U.S. schools, there is a growing need for information on creating effective IEPs for exceptional students. The IEP from A to Z: How to Create Meaningful and Measurable Goals and Objectives is a step-by-step guide showing teachers and parents how to get the right education plan in place for students with ADHD, Autism/Asperger's, Emotional/Behavioral Disturbance and related conditions.

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· IEPs are created to support students and their disabilities. IEPs allow students to graduate or move on in a grade level without mastering every standard required by the state.

· IEPs are learner-centered and focus on a student’s ability, as well as provide opportunities for students to succeed academically.

· As an instructional coach, you must be able to comprehend and decipher IEPs to support general education teachers. By understanding an IEP’s design, teaching strategies can be implemented to meet the child at their academic level.

· According to surveys, most general education teachers do not confident in supporting students with disabilities due to unpreparedness from college courses. As an instructional coach, we must provide opportunities for educators to learn through professional development to strengthen their self-assurance.

·  The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 protects the discrimination against people with disabilities. IEPs are created in education to support students who receive a free  appropriate public education (FAPE); students cannot be denied an education due to their disability.

· Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District (2017) requires school districts to provide services that are more than de minimis, or minimal, educational assistance. Education must be equally provided to all students, no matter their circumstances.

· As a teacher, you cannot deny participation or provide compensations to a student under any circumstance. The Texas Administrative Code requires educators to treat students equally.